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THE 

UNIVERSAL ASSISTANT, 



AND 



COMPLETE MECHANIC, 



OR 



Fifty Thousand Industrial Facts, 

Processes, Receipts, Rules, Formulae, Legal Forms, Etc., 

witH nearly 500,000 Calculations in every 

Business, from the 

HOUSEHOLD TO THE ^MANUFACTORY, 

BY R MOORE. 




Price in Cloth Binding, $2.50 ; in Leather Binding, $3.50. Free by Mail to any 
Address in the United States, Canada, or Great Britain, by remitting the price to 
R. Moore, No. 20 Cooper Institute, New York, U. S.^ A. Parties will save Ex- 
press charges by ordering single copies sent by Mail, instead of by Express, C. O. D. 
Agents wanted. Send stamp for Contents Pamphlet and terms to Agents. 

Illustrated with 443 Engravings. 

Sitlt\xi ^ox'k : 

R. MOORE, No. 20 COOPER INSTITUTE, 

LOVELL PRINTING AND PUB. COMPANY, MONTREAL, CANADA, 

WM. DUNHAM, EDITOR OF '' THE MILLER," 69 MARK LANE, 

LONDON, ENGLAND. JAMES SPIERS, 

36 BLOOMSBURY street, W.C, LONDON, 

1878. 



COPYRIGHT, 

1878. 






PREFACE 



This work is issued with thevrdesign of supplying very 
important omissions in the author's antecedent writings and 
compilations. Ills most farvid acknowledgments are due 
for the great encouragement accorded to his previous efforts, 
and the favorable opinions expressed regarding them. The 
result has been that, stimulated by the experience of the 
past, he has in the present work, made special exertions to 
present an immense array of rara^and most valuable infor- 
mation relating to Commerce and the Industrial Arts. The 
vital concerns of health, home, domestic felicity, and other 
all-important interests, have also received due attention, 
and to make the information more comprehensive and com- 
plete, he has quoted largely from his previously published 
works, wherever he judged it necessary to do so. These 
extracts include a few items for machinists use, and the 
diagrams for saw-filing, selected from the '* Boston Machin- 
ist " and Halley's work " On Saw-filing, '* by permission of 
the publishers, John Wiley & Son, of New York, together 



6 PREFACE. 

with a few extracts from the '^ Watchmakers' Manual,'' by 
permission of the Publishers, Jesse Haney & Co, New York. 
In addition to the matter above alluded to, many valuable 
tables are now published for the first time, together with 
much new and most important matter specially adapted for 
the use of commercial, manufacturing, and mechanical men 
in both hemispheres. A past experience of many years 
devoted to the welcome task of supplying technical informa- 
tion to business men, mechanics, &c., has qualified the 
author to judge regarding their wants, and to act intelli- 
gently in endeavoring to supply them. His effort has been 
to act as the harbinger of mechanical improvements and 
general progress, and he can say without ostentation, that 
the present work is the result of prolonged and continuous 
labor ; the best authorities have been consulted, and endea- 
vors have been made to make it plain, easily understood, 
and commensurate with the exacting requirements of this 
progressive age. 



GENEEAL INDEX. 



Baking, Cooking and preserving Receipts 9 

Farmers, Stock-owners, Horse-shoers, Liverymen's and Vet- 
erinary Receipts, Bee-keeping, &c 31 

For Lumbermen, Builders, Contractors, Mill-owners, Ship- 
builders, Ship-owners, Navigators, Quarry-men, Stone- 
cutters, Merchants, and Business men 74 

Natural, Mechanical, and Scientific Facts, &c 17 

For Dyers, Bleachers, Hatters, Clothiers, Furriers 34 

Medical Department, Maintenance of Health, &c 147 

Grocers, Confectioners, and Manufacturers' Department 201 

Tanners, Curriers, Boot, Shoe, and Rubber Manufacturers, 

Marble and Ivory Workers, Bookbinders, &c 240 

Painters, Cabinet-makers, Varnishers, Polishers, Piano and 
Organ Manufacturers, Gilders, Bronzers, Architects, Buil- 
ders, Masons, Bricklayers, Plasterers, Kalsominers, Stucco 
Workers, China Decorators, Potters, Glass-makers, Stain- 

ers, &c 253 

Watchmakers, Jewellers, Gilders, Colorers, Refiners, Gold 
and Silversmiths, Burnishers, Diamond cutters, Lapidaries, 

Sweepsmelters, Enamellers, &c 307 

For Engineers, Engine-drivers, Firemen, Engine Builders, 

Locomotive Shops, &c 354 

Power required for various machines, &c 435-441-442 

On Water-wheels, Wheel Gearing, Hydraulics, &c 626-443 

Boring, Drilling, and Mining Machinery, Gold and Silver 

Mining, &c 448-581 

For Blacksmiths, Tool-makers, Cutlers, Locksmiths, Saw, 

Spring, and Safe Manufactuerers, &c 457 

Machinists' Department 446 

For Iron, Brass, Bell, Type, and Stereotype Founders, Iron 

Manufacturers, &c 490 

For Mill-owners, Factories, &c 504-559 

For Plumbers, Gas and Steam Fitters, Bronzing, Lacquering, 

Brass Finishing, Soldering &c 508 

Tinmen's Diagrams, Measurements, Receipts, &c. 522 

Facts for Gas Companies and Consumers, Tables and Illus- 
trations 532 

Gunsmiths, Engravers, Die-sinkers, Photographers, &c 543 

C 545-577 
For Printers and Publishers, Paper Manufacturers, &c. . . < 573.579 

Oil Manufacture, &c 553 



8 GENERAL INDEX. 

Calculations for Contractors, &c 131-303-557 

Warming of Buildings, Valve of Fuel, The Compass 560-561 

Sugar Refining, Corn Starch, Button M'frs, &c 565-566 

Iron and Brass Tube, Lead Pipe, Cutlery and Needle 

Manufacturers 567-568-569-570 

Gold and Steel Pen, and File Manufacture, &c 571-572 

( 414-418 

Portraits and Notices of Eminent Engineers, &c -] 430-440 

I 473-474 

Smelting of Metals, &c 583-584-586 

Useful Items for Daily Remembrance 587 

Interest Table at 6 and 7 per cent 697 

Ready Reckoner for Coa^ Hay, &c., at any rate per ton .... 298-299 
Ready Reckoner for Pounds, Yards, Bushels, &c., at Sight 600-604 

Expectancy of Life, Weight, Stature,, &c., of Man , . . 605 

Weights of Cast Iron Pipe from one to 22 ins. diam 606 

Weights of Brass, Copper, Steel, Lead, Plate Iron, Flat Cast 

Iron, Wrought Iron Pipe, Planting Table, &c 607 

Torsional Strength of Metals, Capacities, Size and Weight of 

Coppers, Weight of Square and Round Cast Iron 608 

Weights of Round, Square, and Flat Cast Iron, Flat Steel, 

Moulders and Pattern Makers Tables 609 

Strength of Iron Columns, Capacities of Cisterns, Weights 

of Cordwood, Arithmetical Signs and their Signification. . 610 

Ready Reckoner Table for Board, Wages, Rent, &c.. Weight 

of Lead Pipe, Different Sizes, Capacities of Cribs, Boxes, 

&c 611 

Diameters, Circumferences, and Areas of Circles 612-615 

Diameter, &c., of Circles, Contents of Vessels in Gallons, 

Area in Feet 616 

Scantling and Timber Measurement Table 617-618 

Lumber Measurement at Sight, 1 inch board measure 619 

Lumber and Log Measurement, Net Proceeds of Logs, &c. . 620 

Cubical Contents of Round Logs, Masts, Spars, &c 621 

Cordwood and Bark Measurement at Sight 622 

Miscellaneous Tables for Mechanics 623-634 

Rules, Tables, &c., for Engineers, and Mill-owners, &c 635-687 

Facts, Calculations, &c., for Agriculturists, &c 688-727 

Geological Facts, wi!h Diagram 728-735 

Age, Origin and Ultimate Duration of the Earth 735-746 

Tables, Estimates, &c., for Printers and Publishers 746-760 

Information Concerning Patents 760-762 

Facts Relating to Human Life, Population of the Globe, 

Highest Mountains, Longest Rivers, &c 762-772 

Measurement of Time, The Circle, Zones, &c 773-775 

On Telegraphy, Photography, &c 776-784 

On Hunting and Trapping 785-791 

Directions, "Tables, &c., for Merchants and Bookeepers 791-803 

Business Forms for Merchants, Mechanics and Farmers 803-819. 





BAKING AND COOKING DEPARTMENT. 



Note. — The observaut tradesman will notice that the following 
formulae may be adapted for smaller quantities, or for household use, 
in any desired instance, by a proportionate subdivision of the ma- 
terials used. 

Hop Yeast. — Boil 9 ozs. of hops with 3 pails of water ; put 9 lbs. 
of good flour in a tub, and strain enough of the hop-water over it to 
make it into a stiff paste ; beat it up thoroughly ; strain in the rest of 
the hop-water into the paste ; let it stand until lukewarm ; then add 
4J qts. stock yeast. It will rise 1 to 3 inches, but do not disturb it 
until it drops. 

Stock or Malt Yeast. — Boil 12 ozs. of good hops with 4 pails of 
water for about 5 minutes; then strain off enough of the liquid 
among 8 lbs. of good sifted flour in a tub, to render it into a stiff 
paste, working it up thoroughly with a clean stick ; then add the rest 
of the liquid to the paste; let it stand till lukewarm, and i)ulverize 
any remaining lumps with your fingers. Now add about 8 lbs. malt 
and 6 qts. stock yeast; allow it to work in a warm place till it rises 
and falls again, which will occupy from 8 to 12 hours ; strain through 
a hair sieve and stand in a cool place. In warm weather 4 gals, cold 
water might be added to the above, previous to stocking it away. 

Compressed Yeast. — ^This yeast, so extensively used in Europe, 
is obtained by straining the common yeast in breweries and distil- 
leries until a moist mass is obtained, which is then placed in hair 
bags, and the rest of the water pressed out until the mass is nearly 
dry. It is then sewed up in strong linen bags for transportation. It 
will keep a long time, and is very highly esteemed by bakers. See 
Vienna Bread. 

Ferment. — Boil 2 pecks of good potatoes, strain, and place them 
in a ferment tub; add 8 or 9 lbs. flour, and, with a masher, intermix 
all thoroughly together and turn in, say, 6 or 8 gals, water, or enough 
to make it milltwarm ; add 2 gals, stock yeast, set it in a warm place, 
allowing it to rise and fall, not letting it stand very long after it falls, 
as it is liable to sour in warm weather; strain, and all is ready. 

Note. — Good yeast for the purpose of renewing your old stock 
may be made by boiling a peck of clean potatoes in 4 pails of water; 
when about done, add 12 ozs. hops, and boil the potatoes until soft; 
put 12 lbs. flour into a clean tub ; make into a stiff paste with part of 
the hop- water; next add the whole, including potatoes and hops, 
rubbmg the potatoes through a coarse sieve, letting it stand till luke- 

9 



10 BAKING AND COOKING RECEIPTS. 

warm; then stock away. This is for renewing your old malt or hop 
yeast when the latter rtins out, and not for general use; or it may be 
substituted by yeast from another shop. 

Setting Sponge. — For a quantity of, say, 3 barrels of flour, put it 
in the trough ; sift it ; add 4^ pails of ferment, and about 4 J of water 
(cold water during warm weather, and warm water during cold); in- 
termix and work it up smooth, allowing it to rise and fall^ when it is 
ready. A delay in the process, for the space of 30 minutes or so, 
may be effected, if desired, by the addition of a handful of salt when 
the sponge is being set. The sponge being ready, 9 lbs. of salt, in- 
cluding the last mentioned, are now weighed, dissolved, and turned 
into the sponge, together with 9 pails of water (of 2 J gals, to each 
pail); mix all thoroughly and knead the dough, letting it get a good 
proof, when it will be ready to mix up into loaves. A good method 
for warm weather to work flour that is new and soft, is to make your 
dough right up, straining in all your ferment, salt and water, with- 
out setting any sponge. When the dough rises well, work it down, 
turning up the sides, and allow it to rise once more previous to 
throwing it out of the trough, adding alum if desired. With flour 
that works soft and clammy, requiring 9 lbs. of salt to the batch, 
omit 4i pounds, and substitute 2^ lbs. alum, 1 lb. of alum being 
equivalent to 2 lbs. salt. Alum assists inferior flour in making white 
bread. The rule here laid down is 8 ozs. salt to each pail of water, 
but a little more might be used occasionally with benefit. 

London White Bread. — The common proportions used by the 
London bakers, are: Flour, 1 sack; common salt, 4^ lbs.; alum, 5 
ozs. ; yeast, 4 pts. ; warm water for the sponge, about 3 gals. The 
alum is used for the purpose of lohitening the bread, but Liebig has 
demonstrated that this purpose may be better subserved by the use 
of clear lime ivater in mixing up the dough. 

It is the commendable ambition in the English bakers to impart 
that peculiar tint so highly prized by connoisseurs, and so success- 
fully produced at Vienna and Paris. At Vienna, it has long been 
known that if the hearth of an oven be cleaned with a moistened 
wisp of straw, the crust of bread baked in it immediately after pre- 
sents a rich yellow tint; the theory is that the aqueous vapor retained 
in the oven has a beneficial effect. 

The proper temperature of the oven is between 200° and 225<^ 
Centigrade, equivalent to 424° and 480° Fahr., and maybe known 
by the emission of sparks from a piece of wood rubbed on the oven. 

The dough loses about l-7th of its weight if baked in batches, but 
fully J if baked in small loaves and placed in the oven separately. 
The best bread contains about ll-16ths of its weight of added water, 
and common bread often much more than J. The proportion of wa- 
ter in the London bread has greatly increased of late years, owing 
to the use of the fraudulent method of making the dough with rice 
jelly or moss jelly, in which Iceland moss, Irish moss, or other moss- 
es are used, by boiling 7 lbs. of moss in 10 gals, of water, and using 
the resultant jelly in making 70 lbs. of flour into dough, which is 
then fermented and baked in the usual way. It is said that flour 
treated in this way will yield fully double its weight of good bread. 
According to Heern, 100 lbs. of wh eaten flour will yield at least 125 
to 126 lbs. of bread— some say 135 lbs. ; 100 lbs. of rye meal, 131 lbs. 
of bread. A J oz. carbonate of magnesia, added to the flour for a 



BAKING AND COOKING RECEIPTS. 11 

l-lb. loaf, materially improves the quality of the bread eveu when 
made from the very worst seconds flour. 

Paris Baker's White Bread.— On 80 lbs. of the dough left 
from the previous day's baking, as much luke-warm water is poured 
as will make 320 lbs. flour into a rather thin dough. As soon as this 
has risen, 80 lbs. are taken out and reserved in a warm place for next 
day's baking. One pound of dry yeast dissolved in loarm icater is 
then added to the remaining portion, and the whole lightly kneaded. 
As soon as it is sufliciently " risen," it is then made into loaves, and 
shortly afterwards baked, the loaves being placed in the oven with- 
out touching each other, so that they may be " crusted" all round. " 

The Secrets of Vienna Bread. — The proportions of Vienna 
bread, confessedly inferior to none in the world, are : Flour 100 lbs. ; 
water and milk, 9 gals. ; salt, 6 lbs. 4 ozs. ; pressed yeast, 18 lbs. 12 
ozs. According to Prof. Horsford, good fresh middlings flour will 
compare favorably with the average Hungarian flour used in Vienna. 
The fresh pressed yeast is obtained by skimming the froth from beer 
mash in active fermentation. This contains the upper yeast, which 
must be repeatedly washed with cold water until only the pure white 
yeast settles clear from the water. This soft, tenacious mass, after 
the water has been drawn off, is gathered into bags and subjected to 
hydraulic pressure, until there remains a semi-solid, somewhat brit- 
tle, dough-like substance, still containing considerable water. This 
is the pressed yeast, which will keep for eighty days in summer, and 
much longer on ice . For use it should be fresh and sweet. 

The mixing is commenced by emptying the flour sacks into a zinc- 
lined trough about 2J feet wide and 8 feet long, half round in form. 
Then with a pail holding about 5 gals., equal parts of milk and wa- 
ter are poured, and left to stand until the mixture attains the temper- 
ature of the room, between 70° and 80° Fahr. It is then poured into 
one end of the trough and mixed with the bare hand with a smaU 
portion of the flour to form a thin emulsion. The pressed yeast is 
next crumbled finely in the hands, and added in the i3roportion of 3J 
ozs. to every 3 qts. of liquid, and then 1 oz, of salt in same propor- 
tion is intermingled through the mass. The trough is now covered 
and left undisturbed for | of an hour, and after this the rest of the 
flour is incorporated with the mass in the above-named proportions. 

The mass of dough, being allowed to rest for 2^ hours, becomes a 
smooth, tenacious, puffed mass of yellowish color, which yields to 
indentation without rupture and is elastic. It is now weighed into 
pound masses, and each lump is cut by machinery into 12 small 
pieces, each | inch in thickness. Of each one of these, the corners 
are brought together in the centre and i^mched to secure them. Then 
the lump is reversed and placed on a long dough board for further 
fermentation, until the whole batch is ready for the oven. Before 
being introduced into the latter, the rolls are again reversed and re- 
stored to their original position, having considerably increased in 
volume, to be still farther enlarged in the oven to at least twice the 
size of the original dough. In the oven they do not touch each other, 
and the baking occupies about 15 minutes. To glaze the surface they 
are touched in the process of baking with a sponge dipped in milk, 
which besides imparting to them a smooth surface, increases the 
brilliancy of the slightly reddish cinnamon color and adds to the 
grateful aroma of the crust. 



12 BAKING AND COOKING RECEIPTS. 

Aerated Bread. — The water used in forming the dough is placed 
in a vessel capable of withstanding a high pressure, and carbonic acid 
gas is forced into it to the extent 10 or 12 atmospheres. The watei 
will absorb and retain it whatever may be its density, in quantities 
equal to its own bulk, so long as it is retained in a close vessel under 
I)ressure. The flour and salt, of which the dough is to be formed, is 
next placed in another powerful vessel of a spheroidal form, con- 
structed with a simple kneading apparatus working from without 
and operating through a closely packed stuffing-box. Into this ves- 
sel is forced a pressure equivalent to that in the aerated water vessel, 
then by means of a pipe connecting the two vessels, the aerated 
water is drawn into the flour and the kneading apparatus is operated 
at the same time, the water acting simply as limpid water among the 
flour, forming a pasty mass of the requisite tenacity. The pressure is 
now withdrawn, and the gas escapes from the water, and in doing so, 
raises the dough in a beautiful and rapid manner, the intermixture being 
thorough and complete. The mixiug vessel may have, say, an inter- 
nal capacity of 10 bushels ; to fill this with the Inflated bread dough 
only 3J bushels of flour are required. In the intermixture of water 
with flour the pasty mass measures rather less than half the bulk of 
the original dry flour, or about 1^ bushels instead of 3|, the expand- 
ed dough represents nearly 5 parts gaseous to one solid. The subse- 
quent baking expands it to a much greater extent, making the 
proportions of gaseous to solid in all about 10 to 1. It must be self- 
evident that this bread is very pure, nothing but flour, water, and 
salt, being used, and reliable experiments have demonstrated that 
118 loaves can be made from the same weight of flour which by fer- 
mentation will make only 105 or 106, the loss in the latter being 
caused by the emission of carbonic acid gas through the dough dur- 
ing the process of fermentation and manufacture. In balding this 
bread, it has been found necessary to have the heat admitted through 
the bottom of the oven, with means of regulating the heat of the top, 
so that the bread is cooked through the bottom, and the heat subse- 
quently admitted above towards the last, in order to perfect the top 
crust. These precautions are taken owing to the low temperature of 
the dough when placed in the oven, caused by the use, of cold water 
in the baking process, and the sudden expansion on rising inducing 
a temperature of 40° Fahr., lower than ordinary fermented dough. 
This in connection with its slow springing until it reaches the boiling 
point, renders it desirable to delay the formation of the top crust 
until the last moment. 

Aj^other Aerated Bread.— 1. Dissolve 1 oz. of sesqui-carbon- 
ate of ammonia m water, sufficient to make 7 lbs. of flour into a dough, 
which must be formed into loaves, and baked immediately. 2. 
Divide 3 lbs. flour into two portions : mix up the first with w^ater, 
holding in solution 2 ozs. bicarbonate of soda ; then mix the second 
portion of flour with water, to which 1 oz, of muriatic acid has been 
added ; Imead each mass of the dough thoroughly. When tiiis is 
done, mix both portions together as rapidly and perfectly as possible, 
•form the mass into loaves and bake immediatel3^ This bread con- 
tains no yeast, and is very wholesome. Note. — Carbonate of mag- 
nesia and muriatic acid chemically combined, form common salt. 

Healthy Mixed Bread.— Boil 3 lbs. of rice to a soft pulp in 
water ; pare and cook by steam 6 lbs. of your best potatoes, mash 
your potatoes and rub them up with rice pulp ; add to the whole C 



BAKING AND COOKING RECEIPTS. 13 

lbs. flour ; make all into a dough with water, ferment with yeast, let 
it stand a proper length of time,- and then place it in the oven to bake. 

Another excellent Bre.O).— Knead 21 lbs. flour with 9 lbs of 
pared and mashed potatoes, from which the water has been well 
steamed off previous to mashmg : mix together while the potatoes are 
warm, adding about 3 or 4 spoonfuls of salt. Then add about 3 
qts. milk-warm water, with 9 large spoonfuls of yeast gradually to 
the potatoes and flour ; knead and work it well into a smooth dough, 
and let it stand 4 hours before putting into the oven. 

French Bread.— Tnke nice rice, J lb. ; tie it up in a thick linen 
bag, giving it enough room for it to swell : boil from three to four 
hours till it becomes a perfect paste ; mix while warm with 7 lbs. 
flour ; adding the usual quantities of yeast, salt, and water. Allow 
the dough to work a proper time near the fire, then divide into loaves, 
dust them in, and Imead vigorously. 

Dyspepsia Bread. — The following receipt for making bread has 
proved highly salutary to persons afflicted with dyspepsia, viz. : — 3 
quarts unbolted wheat meal ; 1 quart soft water, warm but not hot ; 
1 gill of fresh ye'dst ; 1 gill molasses, or not, as may suit the taste ; 1 
teaspoonf ul of saleratus. 

For the sake of the mdustrious house-wife, and not for bakers, as 
they are supposed to know already, it may be well to state that 30 
mii^ites' baking Avill suffice for 1 lb. loaves and cakes ; and 15 minutes 
additional for every lb. after the first for larger ones. Thus a 1 lb. 
loaf requires J hour, a 2 lb. loaf | hour, and a 4 lb. loaf IJ hour. 

Superior Bread from Buckwheat Meal.— To 2 qts. of sifted 
buckwheat meal, add hot water enough to wet the same, when suf- 
ficiently cooled, add 1 teaspoonf ul or more of salt, half a pint of 
yeast, and half a teaspoonful of molasses ; then add wheat flour 
enough to make it into loaves (it should be kneaded well) ; and when 
risen light, bake or steam it three or more hours. If this should get 
sour while rising, add a teaspoonful of sugar and a little saleratus, 
dissolved in water. For bread from Indian meal proceed in the same 
way, usmg it instead of buckwheat meal. 

Corn-Meal Bread, No. 1. — Take 2 qts. of corn meal, with about 
a pint of (thin) bread sponge, and water enough to wet it ; mix in 
about a half a pint of wheat flour, and a tablespoonf ul of salt ; let it 
rise and then knead well the second time ; bake IJ hours. 

Corn-Meal Bread No. 2. — Mix 2 qts. of new corn-meal with 
three pints of warm ■ water ; add 1 tablespoonf ul of salt, 2 table- 
' spoonfuls of sugar and one large tablespoonf ul of hop yeast : let it 
stand in a warm place five hours to rise ; then add IJ teacupfuls of 
wheat flour, and a half pint of warm water. Let it rise again IJ 
hours, then pour iuto a pan well greased with sweet lard, and let it 
rise a few minutes. Then bake in a moderately hot oven, IJ hours. 

Corn-Meal Bread, No 3. — ^Take 2 qts. of white corn-meal, 1 
tablespoonful of lard, 1 pint of hot water ; mix the lard in water , 
stir it well that it may get heated thoroughly, and add one-half pint 
of cold water. When the mixture is cool enough, add two well- 
beaten eggs, and two tablespoonfuls of home-made yeast. Bake 
1 hour in a moderately heated oven. If for breakfast make over 
night. 

Best Boston Brown Bread.— Take 100 lbs. of Indian meal ; 50 
lbs. rye meal ; and 10 lbs. flour ; sift and intermix together in the 
trough ; strain in four gals, molasses ; 2 gals, ferment or yeast ; dissolve 1 



14 BAKING AND COOKING RECEIPTS. 

lb. soda and 4 lbs. salt iii water and add that. Now add water 
enough to mix all rather stiff, mixing well and breaking all lumps. 
JSow mix in water enough to form a batter sufficiently thin to remain 
even on top : allow it to stand 2 or 3 hours after mixing, before put- 
ting it into the pans and oven, then bake from 6 to 10 hours in a 
slow oven. 

BosTOx, OR Soft Ckackers. — First sift in 4 barrels of flour into 
the trough, add 2 pails of stock-yeast, and about 9 pails of water ; 
mix all into a sponge and allow it to stand until it rises and falls 
twice. The sponge will require about 6 or 8 hours to become readj^, 
if it sours a little, so much the better. Usually it is set about noon 
for the work next day, and if set warm, for using stock yeast instead 
of ferment, it Avill come less rapidly. The sponge being ready, add 
to it from 8 to 10 pails more water ; mix and break the sponge up 
well, making a stiff dough, and let it stand until next morning. It is 
requisite that the dough should be sour, to ensure good crackers. 
When ready, remove a sample of it sufficient for one ovenful of 
crackers ; take it to another part of the trough, and add to it from 5 
to 6 lbs. of butter or lard, the proportion to be added to be estimated 
by the dimensions of the piece so separated ; soda in solution is now 
to be added, made by dissolving soda, 1 lb. in cold water, 1 qt, and 
the detached piece of dough may be intermixed with 1 pt. of the 
liquid, representing 8 ozs. of soda, but the exact quantity required 
must be ascertained by the acidity or age of the dough, and the judg- 
ment of an experienced practitioner. Mix the soda and butter 
thoroughly into the dough, and put it through the rollers repeatedly 
or until smooth. Place a sample of this dough in the oven to deter- 
mine whether or not it contains the proper quantity of soda. When 
baked, too much soda will induce a yellow appearance, and more 
dough without soda must be added ; a deficiency of soda will be in- 
dicated by a sour smell, and in that case more soda must be added. 
When all is right, the dough is put through the machine, and the 
succeeding batch of crackers is commenced by selecting another 
piece of dough and proceeding as above, adding the butter and soda 
in the required proportion, each batch requiring more soda on ac- 
count of the increasing acidity acquired by long exposure to the air. 
Another way. — Set the sponge on the previous night, and the 
next day instead of making dough of it, select a portion of the sponge, 
addiijg it to the butter and soda as above directed, working them well 
into it, and adding flour enough to make a stiff dough, and it is ready* 
for the break. When you detach part of the sponge to make the 
batch, add water enough to the sponge, and stir it up with more 
flour, thus continuing to renew the sponge as fast as it is used. 

Soda Crackers are made by the same process, of the same dough ; 
after using the scraps, add a little more butter, rolling them thinn er 
and cutting them square. 

Oyster Crackers are made of the same dough, using the scraps 
also. Butter, Sugar, and other crackers are made the same way, 
adding respectively butter and sugar. 

Cream Crackers.— Rub together 14 lbs. flour and 1 lb. butter ; 
then add 1 lb. pounded sugar, 48 eggs, and flavor ; mix thoroughly, 
and work it quite stiff and smooth ; roll out quite thin ; cut them with a 
cutter in the form of a oak leaf ; put them into boiling water and 
boil till they float ; remove with a skimmer and dry them on cloths, 
and bake on clean pans without being buttered, in a warm oven 



BAKING AND COOKING RECEIPTS. 15 

Cheap Lady Cake. — Break up 2 lbs. butter, mix in 3 lbs. sugar, 
rubbing well together for 5 or 10 minutes, add 2 pts. whites of eggs, 
a third at a time, beat all up light, then add 4 lbs. fionr, and 1 oz. soda, 
dissolved in 2 pts. milk, and 2 ozs. cream tartar ; intermix all well to- 
gether, bake in pans about IJ ins. deep, in loaves that will weigh from 
2 to 3 lbs., w^hen baked, take out of the pans and frost on the under 
side. Mark in slices J of an inch thick. 

Frost Cakes. — Beat 2 lbs. butter and 3 lbs. sugar together until 
quite light, add 30 eggs, 10 at a time, beating after each addition, then 
a little ext. lemon, add 3 lbs. flour, stir just enough to mix ; put in flat, 
square i3ans, greased, and bake in a slow oven, when done, frost on 
the under side and mark in squares. 

Citron Frost Cake is made similar to the above, with the addi- 
tion of sliced citron when the flour is added, or preferably put the 
citron on the batter after it is in the pans. Bake as the last. 

Shrewsbury Cake. — Rub 2 lbs. butter, and 2 lbs. of sugar to- 
gether, add 24 eggs, 6 at a time, beating them in, dissolve and add 
twice as much soda as will lie on a dime in a little water, mix in 4 lbs. 
flour, roll and cut out with any plain or fancy shaped cutter, put on 
buttered tins, and bake in a moderate oven. 

LEMOJf Cake. — Rub together 6 lbs. of light brown sugar, and 
2 lbs. of lard or butter, add 16 eggs, 12 qts. of milk with 2 ozs. of soda 
dissolved therein, 2 ozs. ammonia, a few drops extract of lemon for 
flavor, and flour siiflicient to make a stiff batter; drop them either 
with the hand or with a spoon, into scalloped pans, and sprinkle a few 
currants on the top of each, and bake in a moderate oven. 

Rock Cake. — Rub together 4 lbs. sugar, and 8 lbs. of flour, make a 
hollow in the middle, and add 6 eggs, IJ pts. milk, 1 lb. 8 oz. of but- 
ter, and 2 oz. ammonia, mix aU together, roll out and cut out with a 
plain cutter, rather thick, x^ut on pans, and with a fork scratch the top 
of each until it is quite rough. Bake in a moderate oven. 

Cup Cake. — Break up 2 lbs. butter, add 3 lbs. sugar, and 16 eggs, 
a third at a time, beat up light, add 5 lbs. flour, 2 pts. milk, and 
ammonia 2 ozs., make all smooth by thorough mixing. Bake in 
small pans in a moderate oven. 

Wedding Cake. — Rub 4 lbs. butter and 4 lbs. light bro^Ti sugar 
well together, adding 40 eggs, one quarter at a time, beating well, then 
add 2 pts. molasses, 2 pts. good brandy, 1 oz. each of mace, nutmeg, 
cassia, and cloves, all well blended in and mixed with the mass, then 
add 5 lbs. flour, 8 lbs. currants, 9 lbs. stoned raisins, and 3 lbs. citron, 
intermix all thoroughly, put it in pans, spread smooth on top, and it is 
ready for the oven. These materials will make 4 loaves of 9 lbs. each, 
and will require careful baking for from 4 to 6 hours in a cool oven, 
otherwise it will be burnt on the outside. To frost this amount of 
cake beat up the whites of 10 eggs in a bowl, with sufficient pulverized 
sugar to render the mixture stiff enough to spread on the cake, 
using a wooden spoon (probably 2J lbs. will be required), beat all to- 
gether for 15 or 20 minutes ; spread it on the cake, after the latter 
becomes cool, and set it away until the* next day, when another coat 
of the frosting composition must be applied, and the cake set away 
until the day following to await the final ornamenting. This is ef- 
fected with the assistance of ornamenting tubes, &c., together with a 
frosting composition of a much stiffer consistence than that previously 
used. Note. — One-half, or even one-quarter of the above quantity of 
cake will be found amply sufficient for most occasions. 



16 BAKING AND COOKING RECEIPTS. 

Another Wedding Cake. — Use 2 lbs. sugar, 3 lbs. flour, 8 nut- 
megs, 18 eggs, 1 oz. allspice, 1 oz. cloves, 3 lbs. currants, 2 lbs. citron, 
3 lbs. sultana raisins, a little ammonia, and 1 gill brandy. Proceed 
with the mixture as directed in the foregoing, and bake in a slow oven. 

CocoANUT Cakes. — To each lb. of grated cocoanute add 1 lb. of 
powdered sugar and the whites of 4 eggs, put all in a kettle 
and cook on the fire for about 30 minutes, stirrmg well all the 
time, and avoid burning, cook to a soft and mushy consistence, turn 
it out and add to each lb. of cocoanut as previously weighed 2 ozs. of 
flour, working it well into the mixture. Now put it in well greased 
pans, selecting a small piece in yoar hands, rolling it round and lay- 
ing it on the pans, putting them about 1 inch apart, to aUow for spread- 
ing, and bake in a cool oven. 

Queen Cake. — ^Rub together 2 lbs. sugar and 2 lbs. butter, next 
add 16 eggs, 1 pt. milk, 1 oz. of ammonia, stir all well together, then 
add the flour ; bake m square pans with a few currants on top. 

Drop Cake. — Rub together 3 lbs. sugar and IJ lbs. of butter, add 
13 eggs, in 3 different lots, 3 pts. of sour milk, IJ ozs. soda, 1 J ozs. of 
ammonia, flavor with ext. lemon, stir all well together, add flour suffi- 
cient to make a stiff batter, drop on buttered pans, bake in a quick oven. 

Molasses Pound Cake. —Mix together 1 gal. molasses, 3 lbs. but- 
ter, 8 eggs, 2 qts. water, 8 ozs. of soda, and add sifted flour sufficient 
to make a stiff batter. Bake in small scalloped pans, in a cool oven. 

Cross Buns. — Work 24 lbs. dough, 2 lbs. sugar, 2 lbs. butter, 12 
eggs and a little cimiamon into the dough, and set away to rise; then 
pinch them off in about 2 oz. pieces ; mould them up ; pin out ; put 
on pans, and mark them across with a knife, or cross them with 
strips of dough. 

Gold Cake. — Rub together 2 lbs. butter, and 2 J lbs. brown sugar ; 
add the yolks of 30 eggs, a few at a time, beating all well up ; add 
1 qt. milk with 1 oz. soda dissolved in it, stir well up ; and add 4 lbs. 
flour ; 1 oz. cream tartar ; a little lemon extract ; mix all up lightly, 
and bake in small pans in a warm oven. 

New York Sponge Cake. — Beat 16 eggs and 2 lbs. sugar together 
abou.t 5 minutes ; next add 2 ozs. ammonia, 1 pt. milk, and flavor ; mix 
all ; add the flour, stirring carefully, but sufficient to mix. Bake in 
little round pans, in a warm oven. 

Lady Cake. — Rub 2 lbs. butter and 4 lbs. sugar together mitil it is 
quite light; then add the whites of 60 eggs, one-fourth at a time, 
beating well; next flavor with a little oil of almonds; stir slightly; 
then add 2 lbs. flour and 1 lb. corn starch, and stir up lightly. Bake 
in a slow oven and turn over and frost on the under side. 

Ground-rice Cakes.— Rub together 2 lbs. butter and 4 lbs. sugar; 
add 16 eggs ; beat up thoroughly ; add 2 pts. milk, 4 ozs. ammonia, 
and flavor with lemon ; stir all up ; add 4 lbs. of rice flour, and mix 
thoroughly; drop on buttered pans about the size of an egg, and bake. 

Cream Cakes. — Take 1 qt. water, and 1 lb. dark coarse-grained 
lard ; boil together in a kettle, and then stir in 17 ozs. of best quality 
flour; boil all 4 or 5 minutes, or until it is quite smooth; then turn it 
out on a board, and scrape the kettle with a knife; nowputj^our 
paste in the kettle again, with 10 eggs ; stir well together until all is 
smooth ; then add 18 or 20 more eggs, or until the batter is of the 
right thickness ; next dissolve ^ oz. soda in a little water, and mix in 
thoroughly; drop on pans slightly greased; wash them on top with 



BAKING AND COOKING RECEIPTS. 17 

egg, and bake in a quick oven. They will require 16 to 18 minutes 
to bake with a proper heat. When baked, remove from the fire ; split 
them through the centre and fill them with the following cream: 
Place on the fire 1 qt. milk in a kettle, mix 4 oz. flour, 8 . oz. white 
sugar, 4 eggs, and a little salt in another vessel ; when the milk boils, 
turn in the mixture, stirring briskly ; when it boils, remove from the 
fire, and flavor with lemon or vanilla as desired. 

Rock Cakes. — Rub well together 6 lbs. flour, and 2 lbs, butter, 
making a cavity in the middle ; put in 2 lbs. sugar, 2 lbs. currants, 8 
eggs, dissolved soda, 1 oz., and a little ess. lemon, with milk sufficient 
to mix up stiff; now take a four-pronged fork and work of pieces of 
dough the size of walnuts ; place on pans, and bake in a cool oven. 

Snow Cakes.— Rub 2 lbs. butter and 2 lbs. sugar well together; 
then add the whites of 24 eggs, 3 at a time ; beat up well ; add 12 ozs. 
flour, 2J lbs. of arrowroot; add the flavor and mix lightly. Make 6 
loaves of this quantity, either round or square; put lemon peel on 
top, and bake in a cool oven. 

Moss Cake. — Rub 6 lbs. of flour and 3 lbs. of butter well together ; 
then add 2 lbs. sugar, 8 eggs, and flavor with ess. of lemon ; mix well 
together until smooth and stiff. Now take a piece the size of an egg^ 
push it through a sieve, and form it in bunches to resemble moss ; 
put on buttered pans, and bake very carefully in a moderate oven to 
a delicate brown color. 

New York Lunch Cake. — ^Rub together 14 lbs. flour, 2 lbs. but- 
ter; then add 3 qts. milk, 1 oz. soda, 1 oz. tartaric acid, and 8 ozs. ar- 
rowroot; mix all quite stiff, break it well, and snap them off about as 
big as walnuts; pin them out; dock them full of holes, and bake on 
clean pans in a warm oven. 

Tea Cake. — Rub 12 lbs. of flour and 6 lbs. of butter together ; add 
6 lbs. sugar, 24 eggs, 2 ozs. of soda, 4 ozs. cream tartar ; flavor and 
add milk sufficient to make a nice, soft dough; mix up lightly, roll 
out, and cut with any fancy-shaped cutters, bake in a warm oven. 

Fancy Cake. — Rub together 4 lbs. sugar and 3 lbs. butter; add 
40 eggs in 4 different lots; add 1 oz. soda dissolved in a little milk; 
mix well; then stir in 4 lbs. of flour; 1 oz. cream tatar; a little ex- 
tract of lemon; mixing all well together, bake in a moderate oven. 

Raisin Cake. — Rub together 1 lb. butter and IJ lbs. powdered 
sugar ; add 18 eggs, one third at a time, beating well in ; add | oz. 
dissolved soda, stirring well in; add a little ext. lemon; 2 lbs. 2 ozs. of 
flour; 1 lb. 1 oz. sultana raisins; and mix all well together. Bake in 
a slow oven in pans about IJ inches deep. 

Pound Cake. — Break up and well mix 1 lb. of fresh butter, 
with 1 lb. of powdered sugar; add 10 eggs, a few at a time, beating 
up lightly ; add 1 lb. of flour ; a very little soda ; mix all so as to make 
the floursmooth ; bake in a slow oven. 

Selver Cake. — Rub together 2 lbs. butter and 4 lbs. powdered 
sugar; add the whites of 30 eggs, in 3 lots at a time; beat up well; 
add 2 pts. milk with 1 oz. soda; 6 lbs. flour, 1 oz. cream tartar; with 
a little vanilla flavor ; mix up lightly and bake as the last. 

Ginger Snaps.— Put 2 qts. molasses; IJ lbs. of lard; 3 ozs. of 
ground ginger; 2 ozs. of soda, and 1 pt. water, into a bowl. Mix all 
together ; add flour enough to make a stiff dough : then work in 2 
lbs. I^ugar; roll thin; cut in long strips in rolls on the table; cut them 
off with a knife or cutter the desired size; put on buttered tins; 
flatten them down a little with the hand, and hake in a slow oven. 



18 BAKING AND COOKING II:ECEIPTS. 

Ginger Cake. — Put 12 eggs and 2 pts. cream on the fire in a cop- 
per or tin dish; stir until warm; then add 2 lbs. butter; 2 lbs. sugar; 
10 ozs. ginger; allow it to stay on a slow fire and continue stirring till 
the butter is melted; then set off; when cold add 8 lbs. flour; mix up 
smooth; roll out thin, and cut with a circular cutter; place on paper, 
and bake in a hot oven. 

Cinnamon Cakes.— Put 12 eggs and 6 dessert spoonfuls of rose 
water into a bowl ; whisk together, and add 2 lbs. fine sugar, and 1 
oz. of ground cinnamon and flour sufficient to make a nice stiff paste ; 
roll them out; cut into any desired shape, and bake them on pai:)er, 
in a slow oven. 

Seed Cakes. — ^Rub together 1 lb. butter and 2 lbs. flour; then into 
a hollow in the centre; put 4 lbs. sugar; 2 qts. milk; 4 ozs. caraway 
seeds, and a little ammonia ; mix up, but do not work it much; roll 
out; cut with a small cutter, and bake in a warm oven. 

Spice Cake. — Mix together 3 lbs. sugar and IJ lbs. butter; add IJ 
pts. milk; 15 eggs, a few at a time; | oz. ammonia; one nutmeg 
and a half; Jib. currants; 5 lbs. flour. Mix up well and bake in 
deep, square pans in a slow oven. 

New York Fancy Cake. — Rub together 2 lbs. sugar and 1 lb. 
butter; add 12 eggs a few at a time, beat all up well; add | qt. of 
sour milk; 3 J lbs. flour; § oz. soda; § oz. cream tartar, and extract 
of lemon for flavor. Mix up smooth and bake in scalloped pans. 

Machine Jumbles. — Rub together 3 lbs. sugar and 2 lb. 4 ozs. 
butter; add 12 eggs a few at a time, beat all up well; | oz. of ammo- 
nia; I5 pts. milk; a little ext. lemon, and 5 lbs. 4 ozs. of flour; and 
stir sufficiently to mix. 

Champagne Biscuits.— Work up 2 lbs. butter in a basin to a 
thick cream; add 2 lbs. of sugar; 2 lbs. flour; 36 yolks of eggs; 1 oz. 
caraway seeds; a little salt; whisk up the whites of the 36 eggs and 
add them ; get a sheet of strong paper ; fold it in reversed plaits like a 
fan, to form trenches about 1 inch deep ; fill a biscuit forcer with part 
of the batter; force out some finger-like biscuits into the trenches 
about 3 inches long; sifting sugar over them, and bake them of a 
light-fawn color in a moderate oven. 

Cream Tartar Biscuit.— Work in 3 lbs. sifted flour with 2 ozs. 
butter; add 2 ozs. cream tartar; dish the middle and pour in 1 pt. 
milk and 1 pt. water, previously adding 1 oz. soda to the milk ; mix 
all up briskly, but don't make it too stiff. Flatten it out; cut with a 
biscuit cutter; place them on buttered tins close together and bake in 
a quick oven. 

Washington Cake.— Rub together 4 lbs. sugar and 2 lbs. 8 ozs. 
of butter; 16 eggs; 2 pts. water and 2 ozs. of ammonia; with flour 
sufficient to make a suitable dough to roll; cut out with a scalloped 
cutter, and bake in a warm oven. 

Brandy Snaps.— Mix up IJ pounds flour, J lb. butter, J lb. sugar, 
^ oz. Qloves, and h pint molasses. Mix all together and bake. 

Washington Pie.— Rub together 1 lb. butter, and IJ lbs. powder- 
ed sugar, add 1 pt. of eggs, a little at a time, beat up well, add h oz. 
soda dissolved in J pt. milk ; flavor with ext. lemon, stir up, and'^add 
2 lbs. flour and 1 oz. cream tartar ; mix together, put on pans one- 
eighth of an inch thick and bake in a quick oven. 

Another.— Rub together 2 lbs. lard, 3 lbs. powdered sugar, 'and 
add 1 qt. eggs, a little at a time, 1 oz. soda dissolved in 1 qt. milk, 2 



BAKING AND COOKING RECEIPTS. 19 

ozs. cream-tartar, a little lemon extract and 4J lbs . flour ; mix aU 
together and bake as above. 

Filling for the above Pies. — Add to stewed and strained dried 
apples, I lb. of sugar to each lb. of apples, boil all together for | hour 
stirring well ; fill with this, or use cranberry jelly or currant jeUy or 
raspberry jam, or the latter intermixed with stewed dried apples, or 
apple filling alone is very good. A c/ood filling for sliced apple pies is 
made by slicing sour apples, bottom your plates add the sliced apples 
with enough powdered sugar to sweeten, adduig cinnamon, salt and 
a little butter, with water until the plate is two-thirds full, then cover 
with puff-paste, and trim it round in proper style with a knife. 

Lemon Pies. — Rub together 1 lb. butter and IJ lbs. flour with cold 
water suflicient to make a good stiff dough to bottom your plates with, 
rimming them around with puff-paste, and fill with the following 
mixture : put into a bowl the juice of 3 lemons, the s^rated rind of 1 
with IJ lbs. of finely i^owdered sugar and 9 eggs. Mix thoroughly, 
and fill your plates with the mixture ; bake in a moderate oven . 

Another filling . — 3 lemons, 6 eggs, | lb. sugar, J pt. milk, with salt 
and nutmeg. Mix as the last. 

Another without lemons. — 1 lb. sugar, \ lb. flour, 10 eggs,ipt. milk, 
J oz. tartaric acid, a little lemon essence and salt. 

Frosting for Lemon Pies. — 4 ozs. pulverized sugar, whites of 6 eggs 
beaten to a stiff froth and the sugar gradually added to it, intermix 
thoroughly, cover the pies, top them off with this frostiug, run them 
into a moderate oven and bake them to a nice brown. 

Short Puff Paste for Pies. — Mix together 4 lbs. flour, IJ lbs. 
butter, add 4 eggs, a little salt and 1 pt. water or a little more, work 
all to a smooth paste, spread out with the hand, put IJ lbs . more 
butter in the middle, fold the dough over the butter, so as to cover it, 
let it stand 5 minutes, sift flour over the paste and on the slab, roll 
out to the length of 7 feet and 3 feet wide (for half this quantity one 
half of these dimensioDS will be required). Fold it over and turn so 
that the sides will face you, repeating the rolling twice, when the. 
paste will be fit for use. 

Cojveviox Paste for Pies. — Rub together 4 lbs. flour, and 4 lbs. of 
lard with salt suflicient ; add just water enough to mix the dough ; it 
may be better to put flour on the bench, make a set of it, adding the 
salt, lard, water, and stirring together. 

Paste to colter Pies. — Mix togother IJ lbs. of lard or butter 
with 2 lbs. flour with sufficient salt and water to mix. Cranberry 
pies should have strips of puff paste across the top, the edges wet, and 
a strip of puff paste placed around the rim, keeping this strip J inch 
outside of the edge of the plate, as it will contract while baking. 

Custard for Pies. — Put 12 eggs, J lb. sugar, J oz. salt, and a little 
ext. lemon into a bowl, beat well together, add 2 qts. milk and strain. 

Filling for Squash Pies. — Thoroughly clean 5 lbs. of squash, slice 
it up iand stew it ; when thoroughly cooked drain off the water, rub 
to a mush through a strainer, then add I5 lbs. sugar, 6 eggs, 2 qts. 
milk, I oz. ginger, a little ext. lemon, and salt sufficient. 

Filling for Mince Pies. — Boil 3 lbs. of chopped meat, clear of 
bones and tough pieces, chop fine; peel, core and chop 9 lbs. of good 
apples, add 4J lbs. brown sugar, 3J qts. molasses, 3 ozs. each of nut- 
meg, cassia, cloves and allspice, 3 lbs. raisins, IJ lbs. currants, IJ pts. 
brandy, 1 gill cider, | lb. salt. Mix all the ingredients together in a 
vessel, omitting the apples and brandy, intermix well together; then 



20 BAKING AND COOKING RECEIPTS. 

add them and reduce to the proper consistency with water. Cover 
with a cloth, tying it down tightly to prevent evaporation and set away 
in a cool place for use. 

Ice Cream Manufactube.— Beat the required quantity of ice very 
fine m a stout bag or by any other means, and add fine salt in ratio 
of one part of salt to four parts of ice, mixing thoroughly with a stick. 
Pack the compound neatly in the freezer around the cylinder to the 
top, then put in the cream (which should be cool) you wish to freeze, 
and, after covering, proceed to turn the crank back and forth alter- 
nately 10 or 12 times each way until the cream is sufiiciently thick to 
beat, which will be known by the opposition to the beater, then turn 
forward quite briskly for a short space in order to impart an even and 
good appearance to the cream ; make thorough work of the beating, 
then remove the beater, fill the pail with ice and salt, and set away to 
harden. It will not do to introduce additional ice or salt, or allow it 
to grow stiff while beating, or beat it too much, or to retard the freez- 
ing process by pouring off water from the melted ice. The right time 
to beat it is when it is dense enough to rise, or about the thickness 
of light batter, if beaten when rigid the product will not be so 
satisfactory. As the cream expands in freezing, the cylinder should 
be filled | full and no more. 

Strawberry and Maspberry Cream Ice. — 1. Pass 3 lbs. of picked 
strawberries or raspberries through a coarse hair-sieve, add Ij qts. 
double cream, 2J lbs. sifted sugar, mix well together, freeze as above, 
and mould it. If a deep red is desired, it may be imparted by a few 
drops of cochineal. 

2. Ice cream, Best Quality.— Beat well together 9 eggs with 1 J 
lbs. sugar ; boil 3 qts. good cream, set it off for a short space to cook, 
then add the sugar and eggs, flavor with vanilla, etc., to suit the taste. 
Let it cool, place in the freezer and proceed as above. 

3. Substitute for cream. — Boil 1 qt. of good milk with IJ ozs. of 
arrowroot, having first brought the milk to the boiling point and 
mixed the arrowroot smooth with a little cold milk, remove from the 
fire; add 2 fresh eggs, 8 ozs. of powdered sugar, stir well, allow it to 
cool and flavor previous to putting in the freezer. 

4. Chocolate Cream Ice. — Grate | lb. of the best French choco- 
late into 14 qts. of boiling milk, allow it to boil till thick, adding | lb. 
sugar ; add when cool, IJ qts. cream, stirring well, and empty mto 
the freezer. The addition of 8 eggs and lemon flavor to the above 
will greatly improve it. 

5. Ginger Ice Cream. — ^Boil together 1 qt. milk, 1 lb. sugar, 8 ozs. 
pulverized ginger, and 4 yolks of eggs, until it commences to thicken. 

6. Orange Cream Ice. — Mix together in a stew-pan, 1 qt. milk or 
cream, 1 lb. sugar, the juice of 8 oranges, the rinds of 4 oranges rub- 
bed on the sugar, and 4 yolks of eggs, until the compound begins to 
thicken ; stir briskly, and strain, freezing when cool, as above. 

7. Fine Apple Cream Ice. — Put on the fire in a copper or tin vessel 

1 lb. of strained pine apple pulp, 12 ozs. sugar, IJ pts. milk or cream, 
and 3 yolks of eggs ; beat sufiiciently to thicken, not to boil the 
cream, strain the mixture into a vessel and set aside to cool previous 
to freezing. See other formulae for ice cream under the Grocers' Dejot. 

Crea:\i Tartar Biscuit.— Use 2 qts. flour, 2 teaspoonf uls of soda, 

2 ditto cream tartar, 2 pts. milk. Mix, and follow the ditrectons for 
cream-tartar biscuit given above, and bake in a warm oven. 



BULKING AND COOKING RECEIPTS. 21 

Cqcoanut Dkops.— 1 lb. grated cocoanut, J lb. white sugar, the 
whites of 6 eggs, cut to a stiff froth. You must have enough whites 
of egg to wet the whole mixture. Droi) on buttered plates, in pieces 
the size of an egg. 

French Rolls.— 1 ounce of butter, 1 lb. of flour, 1 gill of home- 
made yeast, 1 egg, milk enough to make a dough. Rub the butter 
through the flour, beat the egg and stir in, then add the yeast, milk, 
and a little salt. Knead the dough ; when it is light, mould it out 
into large biscuits, and bake them on tins. 

Muffins, — A quart of milk, 2 eggs, 2 spoonfuls of yeast, 2 lbs. of 
flour, a lump of butter size of an egg — which is to be melted in tlie 
milk — and a little salt ; the milk is to be warmed, and the ingredients 
added. Let it rise, and then turn the mixture into buttered pans, 
and bake to a light brown. 

Bath Cakes. — Mix well together, 1 lb. flour, J lb. butter, 5 eggs 
and a cupful of yeast, set the whole before the fire to rise ; after it 
rises, add J lb. white sugar, and 1 oimce caraway seeds well mixed 
in, and roll the paste into little cakes, bake them on tins. 

No. 1 Oil ACKERS. — Butter, 1 cup ; salt, 1 teaspoon ; flour, 2 qts. 
Rub thorouglily together with the hand, and wet up with water ; 
beat well, and beat in flour to make quite brittle and hard ; then 
pinch off pieces and roll out each cracker by itself. 

Sugar Crackers.— Flour, 4 lbs. ; loaf sugar and butter, of each 
J lb. ; water, IJ pts. ; make as above. 

Naples Biscuit. — Wliite sugar, eggs, and flour, of each 4 lbs. 

Lemon Biscuit. — Take SJ lbs. white sugar, 4 lbs. flour, J 
ounce saleratus, J lb. suet, a little milk to wet the dough, cut 
them out about tlie size of marbles, put them on pans a little greased, 
and bake them in a hot oven and flavor tliem with essence of lemon. 

Aeernethy Biscuit.— Take 8 lbs. of flour, IJ lb. of butter, 1 quart 
of sweet milk, 12 ounces of sugar, 1 ounce of caraway seeds, G eggs ; 
mix dough of the above, break them in pieces of about two ounces, 
mould them off, roll them out, prick them and bake them in a 
moderate oven. 

Savoy Biscuit. — ^Take of sugar the weight of 14 eggs, of flour 
the weight of 6 eggs, beat the yolks and whites of 12 eggii, separate, 
grate in the rind of a lemon ; after being in the oven a few minutes 
grate on some sugar. You may add peach- water, or lemon juice, 
or any flavoring extract. 

Ginger Snai'S. — Take 7 lbs. of flour, 1 qt. of molasses, 1 lb. of 
broAvn sugar, 1 lb. butter, 2 oimces ground ginger, and then 
take 1 gill of water, J of an ounce of saleratus ; mix them all into 
dough, and cut them out something larger than marbles, and bake 
them in a moderate oven. 

York Biscuit. — 3 lbs. flour, J lb. butter, | lbs. sugar; wet up, and 
raise with sour milk and saleratus. 

Traveller's Biscuit. — 2 lbs. of flour, | of a pound of sugar, J lb. 
butter, 1 teaspoonful of dissolved saleratus, milk sufficient to fonn 
a dough. Cut up the butter in the flour, add the sugar, and put 
in the saleratus and milk together, so as to form dough. Knead 
it till it becomes perfectly smooth and light. Roll it in sheets about 
J of an inch thick, cut the cakes with a cutter or the top of a 
tumbler. Bake in a moderate oven. 



22 BAKING AND COCKINa RECEIPTS. 

Baking Powder for Biscuit. — Bicarbonate of soda 4 lbs., cream 
of tirtar 8 lbs. These ingredients should be thoroughly dried and 
well mixed, and put up proof against dampness. Use about 3 tea- 
spoonfuls to each quart of flour, mix up with cold water or milk, 
and put it into the oven at once. 

Brown Bread for Biscuits. — Com meal 4 qts., rye flour 3 qts., 
wheat flour 1 qt., molasses 2 tablespoonfuls, yeast 6 tables]X)on- 
f uls, soda 2 teaspoon! uls. Mix during the evening for breakfast. 

Mince Pies — Meat 1 lb., suet 3^ lbs., currants, raisins and plums 
2 lbs., one glass brandy or wine, allspice, cmnamon and cloves to 
your taste, sugar sufficient to sweeten. Baked in a short crust. 

Fruit Pies. — For all kuids of fruit pies have your fruit sweet- 
cued to your taste, and then put in a short crust. Bake in a hot 
oven. 

PU3IPKIN Pie. — Stew the pumpkin dry, and make it like squash 
pie, only season rather higher. In the country, where' this real 
Yankee pie is prepared in perfection, guiger is almost always used, 
with other spices. There, too, part cream, instead of milk, is mixed 
with the pumpkin, which gives a richer flavor. 

Lemon Pie. — 1 lemon grated, 2 eggs, J cup of sugar, 1 cup of mo- 
lasses, 1 of water, and 3 tablespoonfuls of flour. This makes 3 pies. 

Lemon Pie with three crusts. — A layer of crust, a layer of le- 
mon, sUced fine, a little sugar, layer of crust agaui, and sugar and 
lemon again, then the upper crust. 

Another IVai/. — 1 cup of sugar, 1 cup sweet millc, 1 egg, IJ 
lemon the grated peel and juice, 1 tablespoonful of flour; then 
after baldng, tlie white of an egg beaten, sweetened, and put on 
the top ; then set in the oven and browned. 

Crumij Pie. — Mince any cold meat very finely, season it to taste, 
and put it into a pie-dish ; have some finely-grated bread crumbs, 
with a little salt, pep])er, and nutmeg, and pour into the dish any 
nice gravy that may be at hand ; then cover it over with a thi<;k 
layer of the bread crumbs, and put small pieces of butter over the 
top. Place it in the oven tiU quite hot. 

Washington Pie. — 1 cup of sugar, third of a cup of butter, half 
a cup of sweet milk, 1 and a third cup of flour, 1 egg, half a tea- 
spoonful of soda, 1 of cream of tartar, lemon flavor.. Grease 2 
round tins, and put in the above. Bake until done. Then put it 
on a dinner i:)late, spread with nice apple-sauce, or sauce of any 
kind ; then another layer of cake on top. It is nice without sauce, 
but sauce improves it. 

Fruit Pie. — 1 cup of sugar, 1 of water, tablespoonful of flour, tea- 
spoonful of lemon essence (or lemon grated), 1 teaspoonful of cream 
of tartar, half a teaspoonful of soda, half a cup of dried currants : 
mix and boil, stirring to prevent the flour from settling. 

Chicken Pie. — Take one pair of good young chickens, cut in small 
pieces, season with i)epper and salt and small strips of salt pork, put 
in saucepan with water to cover it, boil for half an hour, add flour 
and butter to thicken the gravy, have ready a large dish, served 
with paste, put all in the dish covered with a good rich paste. Bake 
for half an hour. 

Veal Pot Pie.— Take 2 pounds of best veal, cut in small 
pieces, half .pound of salt pork, sliced tliin, four quarts of cold 



BAKING AND COOKING XlECEirXS. 23 

water ; pepper and salt all, put on the fire ; after boiling for 1 
hour liave 3 pounds of light bread dough, pick small pieces, say 
one ounce pieces, put in saucepan, with the veal and porlc, and let 
it boil for twenty minutes. Servo as soon as taken, from the 
fire. 

Plum Pudding. — Pound 6 crackers, and soak them oven night in 
milk enough to cover .them, then add 3 pints of milk, 4 or 5 eggs, 
raisins i lb., spice with nutmeg and sweeten witii sugar and 
molasses. Bake about 2 hours. 

Tapioca Pudding. — Pick and mash a coffee cup full of tapioca, 
and i)Our upon it 1 pint boiling milk ; after standing J an hour, add 
another pint of cold millc, with sugar and raisins if you desire. 

Baked Pudding. — 5 tablespoonluls of com starch" to 1 quart of 
milk, dissolve the starch in a part of the milk, heat the remainder 
of the milk to nearly boiling, having salted it a little, then add 
the dissolved starch to the milk, boil 3 minutes, stirring it briskly ; 
allow it to cool, and then thoroughly mix with it 3 eggs, well bent- 
en, with 3 tablespoonfuls of sugar; flavor to taste and bako 
it 4 ail hour. This pudding ranks second to none. 

Orange Pudding. — Take 1 lb. of butter, 1 lb. of sugar, 10 eggii, 
the juice of 2 onmges, boil the peel, then pound it fine and mix it 
with the juice. Add the juice of 1 lemon, a wineglassful of 
brandy, wine and rose-water. K you do not have the fruit add 
the extracts. 

CocoANUT Pudding. To a large grated cocoanut add the whites 
of 6 eggs, J lb of sugar, 6 ounces of butter, ^ a wineglassful of 
rose-water, and baked in or out of paste. 

Rice Pudding.— Take 1 lb. of rice, boiled well with rich milk, 
stirring well until it is soft, and then add J lb. butter, 12 eggSj well 
beaten, and spice to your taste, and bake it. 

Hard Tevies Pudding.— ^ pint of molasses or syrup, J pint water, 
2 teaspoonfuls of soda, l" tcaspoonf ul of salt, flour enough to 
make a batter ; boil in a bag 3 hours. Eat it with sauce. 

Baked Apple Pudding. — Pare and quarter four large apples, boil 
them tender with the rind of a lemon in so little water that when 
done no water may remain, beat them quite fine in a mortar, add 
the crumb of a small roll, J lb. butter melted, the yolks of 5 and 
whites of 3 eggs, juice of J lemon, sugar to your taste, beat all 
well together, all in paste. 

Groujo) Rice, or Sago Pudding.— Boil a large spoonful of it, 
heai^ed, in 1 pint milk with lemon peel and cinnamon; when cold, 
add sugar, and nutmegs, and 4 eggs well beaten. 

Custard Pudding.— Take 1 pint milk, 4 spoonfuls flour, G eggs, 
spice to your taste and bake. 

Winter Pudding.— Take the crust of baker's loaf of bread, and 
fill it with plums, boil it in milk and water. 

Baked Potato Pudding. — Baked potatoes skimmed and mashed, 
12 oz., suet 1 oz., cheese, grated fine, 1 oz., milk 1 gill. Mix the 
potatoes, suet, milk, cheese and all together, if not of a proper 
consistence, add a little water. Bake in an earthen pot. 

College Pudding.—} lb. of stale bread, grated ; the same quan- 
tity of beef suet, chopped very fine ; 1 lb. of currants, J nutmeg, a 
few cloves, a glass of brandy, 2 or 3 eggs, 2 spoonfuls of cream or 



24 BAKIKG AND COOKING RECEIPTS. 

milk; mix these well together, and make into a paste in the shape 
of eggs. Fry them gently over a clear fire, in J lb. of butter ; let 
them be of nice brown color all over. You may add blanched 
almonds and sweetmeats. Serve them up with wine. 

Faivhly Pudding. — 1 quart of sweet millc, 1 pint of bread crumbs 
soaked in the milk, 3 eggs weU beaten, 1 teacupful of sugar, little 
mace, 6 good tart apples, pared, cores dug out, and stand then\ 
in the pudding, and steam until the apples are well done. An hour 
will suffice. 

Cottage Puddixg.~1 egg, 1 cup of sugar, 1 of sweet millc, 
1 teaspoonful of soda, 2 of cream of tartar, 1 pint of flour, and a 
little salt. To be eaten with millc and sugar. 

Green Goosebeiirtes make a nice pudding by stirring a pint of 
them into a pint of batter, and either baking or boiling. 

Lemon Pudding. — Melt G oz. of butter, pour it over the samo 
quantity of powdered loaf sugar, stirring it well tiU cold, tlien 
grate the rind of a large lemon, and add it with 8 eggs weU beaten 
and the juice of 2 lemons ; stir the whole till it is completely 
mixed together, and bake the jDudding with a paste round the 
dish. 

Sauces and Ckeams for Puddings. — ^1. Take equal quantities 
of sugar and molasses, boil tliem together, and stir in a little 
flour. 2. Take the juice of an orange, a cup of sugar and the same 
of good cream. 3. Good sour cream made very sweet witli sugar, 
with or witliout seasoning, malces a good sauce. 4. Beat 2 ^gg'A 
well, then add a cup of stewed apples and a cup of sugar. 

Beef Steak with Onions. — Prepare a rump steak by pounding 
it till quite tender, season vntli salt, i^epper and fresh butter, put 
in the steak and fry it, when brown on one side turn over, do not 
let it scorch, when nicely done take it up, put a little flour over 
the steak, then add gradually a cup of hot water, seasoned with 
more salt and pepper, if necessary ; then put the water over the 
fire and boil again, and pour over the steak. 

Peel 2 dozen onions, put them on to boil with about 2 quarts 
of water an hour before the steak is put on to fry. When the steak 
is done, cut them up, put them in the frying x)an, season well with 
salt, pepper, and butter, sprinkle with flour, stir all well together, 
place over the fire, stir often to prevent scorching ; when they are 
a little brown and soft, turn them over the steak. 

Seasoning for Stuffing.— 1 lb. of salt, dried and sifted ; half 
an ounce of ground white pepper ; two ounces* of dried thyme ; 
1 oz. of dried marjoram ; and one oz. of nutmeg. When this 
seasoning is used, parsley only is required to be chopped in sufli- 
cient quantity to make the stuffing green. The proportions are— 
\ pound of bread crumbs ; 3 eggs ; J lb. of suet ; J oz. of sea- 
soning ; and the peel of half a lemon, grated. 

Economicaij Soup. — Put into a saucepan one-pound pieces of 
stale bread, three large onions sliced, a small cabbage cut fine, 
a carrot and turnip, and a small head of celery (or the remains of 
any cold vegetables ), a tablespoonf ul of salt, a tablespoonful of 
l)ei)per, a bunch of parsley, a sprig of marjoram and thyme. 
Put these into two quarts of any weak stock, (the liquor in 
which mutton has been boiled will do,) and let tiiem boil for 



BAKING AND COOKING RECEIPTS. 25 

two hours ; rub through a fine hair-sieve, add a pint of new 
milk, boil up, and serve at once. 

Vegetable Soup. — Take a shin of a beef, 3 large carrots, 3 large 
yellow onions, G turnips, J lb. of rice or barley; parsley, leeks, 
summer savory ; put all into a soup-kettle, and let it boil four 
hours ; add pepper and salt to taste ; serve altogether. It makes 
a ffood family soup. 

Pea Sour.— Beef 5 lbs., water 5 qts., 6 large carrots, C good 
turnips, 3 large onions, salt sufficient, put it on a good slow 
fire, let it boil 3 hours, tlien strain all the broth from meat and 
vegetables, and then add 3 lbs. of split peas to the broth; set it on 
a slow fire for 2 hours, stirring often, so that all the i)eas Avill dis- 
solve ; take 1 lb. fresh sausage meat, fried to a crisp and fried bread 
crumbs ; put altogether, add a few fine herbs, and serve hot. 

FiiiCASSEE Chickens. — ^Take 2 large young chickens, cut in small 
pieces, put in cold water for 1 hour to take all the blood out, then 
put in saucepan to parboil for half an hour, then take from sauce- 
pan drained weU, have ready 1 qt. good fresh cream, 2 oz. good 
butter, 1 oz. of flour, all well mixed togetlier ; put in saucepan 
with the chickens ; put on the fire to boil tender ; season with 
pepper and salt ; served with toast bread in the bottom of the 
dish. 

BaivED Totviatoes. — ^Wash the tomatoes, take out the seed, make 
a dressing of crumbs of bread and onions chopped fine ; add 
salt, butter and pepper. Bake and serve hot. 

Stewed Tomatoes. — Scald the tomatoes with hot water, take 
off the skins, put them in an earthen vessel, straia off the Avater, 
and add butter, salt and pepper to taste. 

Mashed Turnips. — ^Wash turnips, boil well, take them up in the 
colander, press out all the water, mash very fine ; season with salt, 
butter and sugar. Serve hot with trimmings. 

Hashed Meat.— Take 2 lbs. of fat corned beef, well boiled and 
cold ; 1 lb. of well boiled ]X)tatoes, cold ; 1 large wliite onion ; 
put in chopping tray, mince it fine, put all in saucepan together, 
add 2 ozs. butter ; pepper and salt to taste ; add boiling water to 
make it soft ; set it on a slow fire, stirring it often. ^Yhen well stewed, 
serve hot. It makes a fine relish for breakfast. 

Lobster Saxad. — ^Take inside of large lobster, mince fine, take 
yolk of 2 eggs boiled hard and mashed fine, with four tablespoon- 
fnls of sweet oil; pepper, salt, vinegar, and mustard to taste; mix 
well; add celery or lettuce to taste; then when serving, garnish 
^vith hard-boiled eggs. 

Succotash. — ^Take 1 doz. ears of com, cut the grains from the 
cob, add 1 qt. of Lima beans, and mix with the com ; put it on to 
boil in 3 qts. of water with 1 lb. of pork cut ; add black pepper and 
salt to taste. When the water has boiled away to h the original 
quantity, serve in a tureen as soup. 

Maccakoni Soup. — 4 lbs. of lean beef, 4 qts. of water, carrot, 
turnip, onions ; set it for 4 hours till all mix together ; strain it all 
through a sieve ; have 2 lbs. of maccaroni broken into pieces of one 
inch long ; put all into a saucepan together, and let it boil for 10 
minutes, aud serve it hot. 

Bolled Custard, ok Mock Cream. — ^Tako 2 tableepoonfuls com 



26 BAKING AND COOKING RECEirTS. 

starch, 1 qt. of milk, 2 or 3 eggs, i a teaspoonf al of salt and a small 
piece of butter ; heat the millt tiiriiearly hoiliug and add the starch, 
previously dissolved in 1 qt. of millv, then add the eggs, well beaten, 
with 4 tablespoonfuls of powdered sugar ; let it boil up once or 
twice, stirring it briskly, and it is done. Flavor with lemou or 
vanilla, or raspberry, or to suit your taste. 

Lemon Ckeam.— Take a pint of thick cream and put to it tho 
yolks of two eggs, well beaten, 4 oz. of fine sugar and the thin 
rind of a lemon , boil it up, then stir till almost cold ; put the juice 
of a lemon in a dish or bowl and pour the cream upon it, stirring 
till quite cold. 

FiiuiT Ckeaivis. — Take J oz. of isinglass dissolved in a little 
water, then put 1 pt. of good cream, sweetened to the taste ; boil 
it. "When nearly cold lay some apricot or raspberry jam on tho 
bottom of a glass dish and pour it over. This is most excellent. 

Raspberry Cream. — Put 6 ozs. of raspberry jam to 1 qt. of 
cream, pulp it through a lawn sieve, add to it the juice of a lemon 
and a little sugar, and whisk it till thick. Serve it in a dish or 
glasses. 

To roast fowls the fire must be quick and clear. If smoky it 
will spoil both their taste and looks. Baste frequently, and keep 
a white paper pinned on the breast till it is near done. 

Turkey. — A good sized turkey should be roasted 2J hours or 
3 hours — ^very slowly at first If you wish to make plain stuflSng, 
pound a cracker or crumble some bread very fine, chop some 
raw salt pork very fine, sift some sage, (and summer savory, or 
sweet marjoram, if you have them in the house, and fancy 
them,) and mould them all together, seasoned with a little pex^x^er. 
An egg worked in makes the stuffing cut better. 

Boiled Tctrkey. — Clean the turkey, fill the crop with stuffing, 
and sew it up. Put it over the fire m water enough to cover it, 
let it boil slowly — take off all the scum. When this is done, it 
should only simmer till it is done. Put a little salt into the water, 
and dredge the turkey in flour before boiling. 

Roast "Ducks a>t) GEESE.-r-Take sage, wash and pick it, and an 
onion ; chop them fine, with pepper and salt, and put them in the 
belly ; let the goose be clean picked, and wiped dry with a cloth, 
inside and out ; put it down to the fire, and roast it brown. Duck 
are dressed in the sanie way. For wild ducks, teal, pigeons, and 
other wild fowls, use only pepper and salt, with gravy' in the dish. 

Roast Chicken.— Chickens should be managed in roasting the 
same as turkeys, only that they require less time. From an' hour 
to an hour and a haK is long enough. 

Boiled Chicken. — A chicken should be boiled the same as a 
turkey, only it will tiike less time — about 35 minutes is suffl- 
vicnt. Use the same stuffing, if any, and serve it up with parsley, 
or egg-sauce. >, 

Broiled Chicken. — Slit them down the back and season with 
]^epper and salt ; lay them on a clear fire of coals, the inside next 
the fire till half done, then turn and broil to a fine brown color. 
Broil about 35 minutes. 

Boiled Pigeons. — Boil them about 15 minutes by themselves ; then 
boil a piece of bacon ; serve with slices of bacon and melted butter. 



BAKING AND COOKING RECEIPTS. 27 

Fish Chowder. — Fry a few slices of salt pork, dress and cut tho 
fish in small pieces, pare and slice the potatoes and onions, then 
place them in the kettle, a layer of fish, then of tlie fried porlc, 
potatoes, onions, &c., seasoning each layer with salt and pepper. 
Stew over a slow fire 30 minutes. 

Roast Beef. — The sirloin is considered the best for roasting. 
Spit the meat, pepper the top, and baste it weU while roasting 
with its own dripping, and tlirow on a handful of salt. When tho 
smoke draws to the fire, it is near enough ; keep tlie fire bright 
and clear. From 15 to 20 minutes to the lb. is the rule for roast- 
hig. 

Beef BoiLEB.—Tlie round is the best boiling piece. Put tho 
meat in the ]x)t, with water enough to cover it ; let it boil very 
slow at first — this is the great secret of maldng it tender — take oif 
the scum as it rises. From 2 to 3 hours, according to size, is tho 
Tule for boning. 

Beef Steak. — ^The inside of the sirloin makes the best steak ; 
cut about J of an inch thick — have the gridiron hot, put on the meat 
and set it over a good fire of coals— turn them often. From 8 to 10 
minutes is the rule for broiling. 

Roast Pork. — Take a leg of pork and wash it clean — cut tho 
skin in squares — make a stuffing of grated bread, sage, onion, 
pepper and salt, moistened with the yolk of an egg. Put this 
under the skin of the knuckle, and sprinkle a little powdered sago 
into the rind where it is cut ; rub the whole surface of the skin 
over with a feather dipped in sweet oU. 8 lbs. will require about 
three hours to roast it. 

1^^ The Shoulder, Loin, or Chine, and SrARE-RiB arc roasted 
in the same manner. 

Roast Veal. — Pursue about the same course as in roasting pork. 
Roast before a brisk fire till it comes to a brown color ; then you lay 
it down, baste it well with good butter, and when near done, %vith a 
little flour. 

Roast Mutton. — The loin, haunch, and saddle of mutton and 
lamb must be done the same as beef. All other parts must be roast- 
ed with a quick, clear fire ; baste it when you put it down, and 
dredge it with a little flour, just before you take it up. A leg of mut- 
ton (3 six pounds will require 1 hour to roast before a quick fire. 

To Boil Eggs. — In 3 minutes an egg will boil soft, in 4 the whito 
part is completely cooked, in 10, it is fit for a salad. Try their fresh- 
ness in cold water, those that sink the soonest are the freshest. 

Sausage Meat. — ^Take 2 lbs. lean meat, 1 lb. fat pork, chop fine, 
and mix with 2 tablespoonfuls black pepper, 1 of cloves, 7 of powder- 
ed sage, and 5 of salt. 

Apple Custard. — Take apples, pared, cored, and slightly stewed, 
sufficient to cover the dish, 8 eggs, 1 qt. of milk ; spice to your taste ; 
bake it J of an hour. 

New-England Apple-sauce or Butter.— BoU 2 brls. of new 
cider down to J a bii. Pare, core, and slice up 3 bushels of apples 
(sweet apples are preferable), and put them into the cider thus re- 
duced, and still kept boiling briskly. Stir the whole mass constantly, to 
prevent burning, till of the consistence of soft butter. A small quan- 
tity of pulverized allspice, added during the boiling, is an improve- 



28 BAKING AND COOKING RECEIPTS. 

nicnt. Boil in a brass kettle, and, when done, put it into a wooden 
firkin, or a small cask, and it will keep for years. 

Apple Butter {Pennsylvania Method). — Boil new cider down to J. 
Pare, cut, and core equal quantities of sweet and sour apples. Put 
tlie sweet apples in a large Icettle to soften a little first, as they are 
the hardest. Add enough boiled cider to cook them. After boiling ^ 
Jill hour, stirring often, put in the sour apples, and add more boiled 
cider, with molasses enougli to sweeten moderately. Boil until ten- 
der, stirring to prevent burning. Pack in firkins or stone pots for 
whiter use. 

Iiiisii Stew. — Take 4 lbs. good breast of fat mutton, cut m small 
pieces ; 2 large white onions ; 10 large potatoes, well peeled and 
sliced ; put all m saucepan together, with fine herbs, pepi3er and 
salt to suit ; a little salt porlc is a good addition ; J lb. of flour ; 
i lb. good fresh butter, well rubbed together, and let it boil for one 
liour, and have it well cooked. 

Apple Duivipl-ings. — 6 eggs, IJ lbs. of flour, some butter to your 
taste, and tablespoonful of yeast, and suflicient milk to make a 
dough to roll out ; when raised, cut m small pieces, put in the apples, 
and cook for | of an hour ; serve with wliite sugar or wme sauce. 

Boiled Poultry. — Take large chickens, well cleaned with cold 
water, put iu saucepan with water to cover, boil 1 hour ; served 
with sauce. 

Hashed Turkey.— Take meat from boiled fowls, chop fine, put in 
saucepan, with seasonings to suit taste. Served on toast 

Boiled Maccaronl— Take 2 lbs., break in small pieces, put in 
warm water to steep 1 hour, drain off, put in saucepan with 2 qts. 
fresh cream, with grated cheese ; seasoned with red pepper. 

Strasburg Potted MEAT.—Take IJ lbs. of the rump of beef, cut 
into dice, put it in an earthen jar, with J lb. of butter, tie the jar 
close up with paper, and set over a pot to boU ; when nearly done, 
add cloves, mace, allspice, nutmeg, salt, and cayenne pepper to 
taste, then boil till tender, and let it get cold, pound the meat, 
with 4 anchovies mashed and boned, add J lb. of oiled butter, 
work it well together Avith the gravy, warm a little, and add 
cochineal to, color then press into snail pots, and pour melted 
mutton suet over the top of each. 

Bologna Sausages. — ^Take equal quantities of bacon fat and lean 
beef, veal, pork and beef suet ; chop them small, season with pep- 
per, salt, &c., with sweet herbs and sage rubbed fine. Have weU 
washed intestines, fill, and prick them ; boil gently for an hour, 
and lay on straw to dry. 

Rich Sausages.— Take 30 lbs. of chopped meat, 8 oz. fine salt, 
2i oz. pepper, 2 teacups of sage, and IJ cups of sweet marjoram, 
passed through a fine sieve, or, if preferred, thyme and summer 
savory can be substituted for the latter. 

How TO SAVE YOUR ICE BiLL. — Get a quantity of empty barrels or 
boxes during the coldest time in the winter, and put a few inches 
of water in each; the evening when the cold is most intense is the 
best time to do this. After the water is frozen solid, fill up again, 
repeat the process until the barrels are full of sohd ice, then roll 
them mto your cellar, cover them up with plenty of sawdust 
or straw, and your ice crop is safely harvested. 



BAKING AND COOKING KEOEIPTS. 29 

Chahlotte Russe. — Take 1 pt. milk, dissolve mtli heat, 3 oz. 
isinglass and 1 lb. sugar; add, after it is cool, 1 qt. beaten cream 
and flour, suit your taste and line out some mould with sponge 
cake, and put the cream in it and cool. 

Wine Jelly. — Take 1 pt. water and 3 oz. isinglass, IJ lb. sugar, 
the juice of 2 lemons, and dissolve that and let it come to a boil, 
then add wine, brandy and spice to your taste, and strain it through 
a cotton or flannel cloth and put it in moulds to cool. 

To Maice Apple Molasses. — Take new sweet cider just from the 
press, made from sweet apples, and boil it doAvu as thick as West 
India molasses. It should be boiled in brass, and not burned, 
as that would injure the flavor. It will keep in the cellar, and is 
said to be as good, and for many puri)oses better, than West India 
molasses. 

^^Acid fruits should be cooked in bright tin, brass, or bell 
metal, and poured out as soon as they are done. Brown earthen 
vessels should never be used, as they are glazed with white lead, 
a poison which very readily unites with an acid. 

Jellies. — Lemon Jelly. — ^Isinglass, 2 oz. ; water, 1 qt. ; boil ; add 
sugar, 1 lb. ; clarify ; and, when nearly cold, add the juice of 5 
lemons, and the grated yellow rinds of 2 oranges and 2 lemons ; 
mix weU, stram off the peel, and put it into glasses or bottles ; 
Hartshorn Jelly. — Hartshorn, 1 lb. ; water 1 gal. ; peel off 2 lemons ; 
boil over a gentle fire till sufficiently thick ; strain and add loaf 
sugar, J lb. ; whites of 10 eggs beaten to a froth ; juice of 6 lemons ; 
mix well together, then bottle. Isinglass Jelly. — Put 4 oz. isinglass 
and 2 oz. cloves into 1 gal. water ; boil it down to half a gal. ; strain it 
upon 4 lbs. of loaf sugar ; add, while cooling a little wine ; then bot- 
tle. Apply Jelly from Cider. — Take of apple juice, strained, 4 lbs. ; 
sugar, 2 lbs. ; boil to a jelly, and bottle. Gooseben^y Jelly. — Sugar, 
4 lbs. ; water, 2 lbs. ; boil together ; it will be nearly solid when cold ; 
to this syrup, add an equal weight of gooseberry juice ; give it a short 
boil, cool, then pot it. Currant Jelly. — Take the juice of red cur- 
rants, and loaf sugar, equal quantities ; boil and stir gently for three 
hours ; put it into glasses ; and in three days it will concentrate into 
a firm jelly. Tapioca Jelly. — ^Wash 8 oz. of tapioca well ; then soak 
it in 1 gal. fresh water, 5 or 6 hours ; add the peels of 8 lemons, and 
set aU on to heat ; simmer till clear ; add the juice of the 8 lemons 
with wine and sugar to taste ; then bottle. 

Blackberry Jelly. — ^This preparation of the blackberry is more 
agreeable than the jam, as the seeds, though very wholesome, are 
not agreeable to all. It is made in the same way as currant jelly ; 
but the fruit is so sweet that it only requires half the weight of the 
juice in sugar. 

Pear Marmalade. — To 6 lbs. of small pears, take 4 lbs. of sugar ; 
put the pears into a saucepan, with a little cold water ; cover it, 
and set it over the fire until the fruit is soft, then put them into 
cold water ; pare, quarter, and core them ; put to them three tea- 
cups of water, set them over the fire ; roll the sugar fine, mash the 
fruit fine and smooth, put the sugar to it, stir it well together until 
it is thick, like jelly, then put it in tumblers, or jars, and, when cold, 
Becure it as jeUy. 

Preserved Citron. — Pare and cut open the citron ; clean all out 



30 



BAKING AND COOKING RECEIPTS. 



except the rind ; boil till soft. To 1 lb. of citron acid 1 lb. of sugar, 
and a lemon to each lb. ; put the sugar and lemon together, and 
boil it till it becomes a syrup, skimming it well ; then put the syrup 
and citron together, and boil it an hour. 

Scotch Marmalade.— Take of the juice of Seville oranges 2 
X)ts., yellow honey, 2 lbs. Boil to a proper consistence. 

Kaspbekry Jam.— Allow a pound of sugar to a pound of fruit, 
mash the raspberries and put them, with the sugar, into your 
preserving kettle. Boil it slowly for an hour, skimming it well. 
Tie it up with brandy paper. All jams are made in the game 
manner. 

French Honey.— White sugar, 1 lb. ; 6 eggs, leaving out the 
whites of 2 ; the juice of 3 or 4 lemons, and the grated rind of 2, 
and i lb. of butter ; stir over a slow fire imtil it is of the consis- 
tency of honey. 

Almokd Blanc Mange. — Take four ounce of almonds, six oz. 
sugar, boil together with a quart of water, melt in this two 
ounces of pure isinglass, strain in a small tin mould to stiffen it. 
When wanted, dip the mould in hot water and turn it out. 

Lemon Blanc Mange. — Pour a pint of hot water upon half an 
ounce of isinglass ; when it is dissolved, add the juice of three lemons, 
the peel of two lemons grated, six yolks of eggs beaten, add about a 
good wine-glass of Madeira wine to it ; sAveeten to your taste ; let it 
boil ; then strain it and put it in your moulds. 

Molasses Preserves. — Boil 1 qt. of molasses about ten or fifteen 
minutes to a thickish consistency, then add 6 eggs well beaten, and a 
Bpoonful of flour. Boil a few minutes longer, stirring constantly, 
then set off the fire, and flavor with lemon or allspice as desired. 

Fruit Extracts, &c. — Good alcohol, 1 qt. , oil of lemon, 2 oz. Break 
and bruise the peel of 4 lemons, and add to them alcohol for a few 
days, then filter. For currants, peaches, raspberries, pine apples, 
strawberries, blackberries, &c., take alcohol and water half and half 
and pour over the fruit, entirely covering it, and let it stand for a few 
days. For essence of cinnamon, nutmeg, mace, vanilla, &c., i^ulver- 
ize either article thoroughly, and put about 2 oz. of the resulting pow- 
der to each pint of reduced alcohol, agitate the mixture frequently 
for 2 weeks, then filter and color as desired. 

Measures for Housekeepers. 



Wlieat flour 1 lb is 1 quart. 

Indian meal 1 " 2 oz '• 1 quart. 

Butter when soft. . 1 "...." 1 " 
Loaf sugar, broken 1 "....*' 1 " 
White sugar, po wd 1 ' * 1 oz. ' * 1 " 



Best brown 

sugar 1 lb. 2 oz. is 1 qt. 

Effgs 10 eggs are 1 lb. 

Flour 8 qts. " 1 peck. 

Flour 4pks. "Ibusli. 



Liquids. 



16 large tablespoonfuls are l^ pint. 
8 large tablespoonfuls are 1 gill. 
4 large tablespoonfuls aro ^4 giU* 

2 gills are 14 pint. 

2 pints are 1 qt. 



4 qts. are 1 gallon. 

A common sized tumbler holds ^ a 

pint. 
A common sized wine-glass " 14 a 

gill. 
25 diops are equal to 1 teaspoonful 



FARMERS' RECEIPTS. 



31 




FAEMERS AND STOCK OWNERS' DEPART- 

MENT. 



Rarey's Directions for BREAKmG and Training of Horses. 
— In training horses you must remember tliat there are certain natural 
laws that govern them. For iUvStance, it is natural for him to kick 
whenever he gets badly frightened ; it is natural for him to escape 
from whatever he thinks will do him harm. His faculties of seeing, 
hearing, and smelling, have been given him to examine everything 
new that he is brought in contact with. And so long as you present 
him with nothing that offends his eyes, nose, or ears, you can then 
handle him at will, notwithstanding^ he may be frightened at first, so 
that in a short time he w^ill not be afraid of anything he is brought in 
contact with. All of the whipping and spurring of horses for shying, 
stumbling, &c. , is useless and cruel. If he shys, and you whip him 
for it, it only adds terror, and makes the object larger than it would 
otherwise be ; give him time to examine it without punishing him. 
He should never be hit with the whip, under any circumstances, or 
for anything that he does. As to smelling oil, there is nothing that 
assists the trainer to tame his horse better. It is better to approach a 
colt with the scent of honey or cinnamon upon your hand, than the 
scent of hogs, for horses naturally fear the scent of hogs, and will 
attempt to escape from it, while they like the scent of honey, cin- 
namon, or salt. To affect a horse with drugs you must give him some 
preparation of opium, and while he is under the influence of it, you 
cannot teach him anything more than ^ man when he is intoxicated 



82 



farmers' receipts. 



with liquor. Anotlier thing, you must remember to treat him kindly, 
for there you require obedience from any subject, it is better to have 
it rendered from a sense of love than fear. You should be careful 
not to chafe the lips of your colt or hurt his mouth in any way ; if 
you do he will dislike to have the bridle on. After he is taught to 
follow you, then put on the harness, putting your lines through the 
shaft straps along the side, and teach him to yield to the reins, turn 
short to the right and left, teach him to stand still before he is ever 
hitched up ; you then have control over him. If he gets frightened, 
the lines should be used as a telegraph, to let him know what you 
Avant him to do. Ko horse is naturally vicious, but always obeys* his 
trainer as soon as he comprehends what he would have him do ; 
you must be firm with him at the same time, and give him to under- 
stand that you are the trainer, and that he is the horse. The best bits 
to be used to hold a horse, to keep his mouth from getting sore, is a 
straight bar-bit, 44 inches long between the rings ; this operates on 
both sides of the jaw. while the ordinary snaffle forms a clamp and 
presses the side of the jaw. The curb or bridoon hurts his under jaw go 
that he will stop before he will give to the rein. To throw a horse, put 
a rope 12 feet long around his body in a running noose, pass it down 
to the right fore foot through a ring in a spancil, then buckle up the 
left or near fore foot, take a firm hold of youx rope, lead him around 




FARMERS* RECEIPTS. 33 

until he is tired, give liim a shove with your shoulder, at the same 
time drawing up the right foot which brino^s him on his Icnees, hold 
him steady, and in a few moments he will ne down. Never attempt 
to hold him stUl, for the more he scuffles the better. 

Take your colt into a tight room or pen, and with a long whip com- 
mence snapping at the colt's hind leg, taking care not to hit above the 
hocks, stopping immediately when the colt turns his head towards 
you; while his head is towards you, approach him with the left hand 
extended toward him, holding your whip in the right, ready to snap 
him as soon as he turns his head from you. In this way you can soon 
get your hands upon him. As soon as you have done this, be careful 
to caress him for his obedience, and snap him for his disobedience. 
In this way he wiU soon learn that he is safest in your presence with 
his head towards you, and in a very short time you cannot keep him 
away from you. Speak kindly and firmly to him, all the time caress- 
ing him, calling by name, and saying, *' Ho, boy/' or " Ho, Dina," or 
some familiar word that he wiU soon learn. 

If a colt is awkward and careless at first, you must bear with him, 
remembering that we, too, were awkward when young ; allowing 
him his own way, until by degrees he will come in. If he is wilful, 
you must then change your course of treatment, by confining him in 
such a way that he is powerless for harm until he submits. If ho is 
disposed to run, use my pole check on him ; if to kick, fasten a rope 
around his under jaw, pass it through the collar and attach it to his 
hind feet. In this way one kick will cure him, as the force of the blow 
falls on his jaw. If he should be stubborn, lay him down and confine 
him until you subdue him, without punishing him with the whip. 

Colts should be broke without blind-bridles ; after they are weU 
broke, then you may put on blinds. Bridles without blinds are the 
best unless you want to speed your horse, then it will be necessary to 
keep him from seeing the whip. Colts should be well handled and 
taught to give readily to the rein before they are hitched up. If you 
liitch them up the first thing and they become frightened, then you 
have no control over them ; but if you teach them to start, stop, and 
stand at the word before they are hitched, then you can govQm them. 

Cruelty to Horses — Besides the cruel punishment inflicted upon 
horses, by the careless and heartless driver, he is subjected to se- 
vere punishment in the winter season, by being compelled to take 
frozen bits into his mouth in cold weather, tearing the skin from the 
tongue and the roof of his mouth, producing a heavy inflammation in 
the mouth and throat ; he gets poor, hidebound, and the sympathetic 
nerves of the head take up the mflammation, carry it to the head and 
eyes, frequently producing blindness, and a hundred other diseases. 
The whip should be used as an instrument of pleasure instead of tor- 
ture ; and your bits should be wound with flannel or leather ; so that 
no frozen iron will come in contact with his mouth, lips or tongue. 

Rarey's Lintment. — Sulphuric etlier, 4 ozs. ; hartshorn, 4 ozs., 
oU of origanum, 4 ozs. ; alcohol, 4 ozs. ; sweet oil, 4 ozs. Shake 
well before using. For sprains on horses, &c. , apply by rubbing and 
cover with a tight flannel bandage. For headache, rub a httle on the 
temples and apply a bandage wet with the hniment to the forehead. 

R.\rey's Wiz.uiD Oll.— Oil of origanum, G ozs. ; alcohol, 6 ozs. ; 
epirits turpentine, 1 oz. ; camphor, 1 oz. Shako wcH before using. 

3 



34 farmers' receiptSc 




Raeey's Directions for Shoeing Horses.— " There are very 
few blacksmiths that ever once think what a complicated piece of 
machmery the foot of a horse is, and by one careless blow they 
frequently stop the working of this machme. The majority of smiths, 
as soon as they pick np a horse's foot, go to work paring the heel, 
from the fact that it is the most convenient part of the foot, and there- 
by destroy the heel and braces of the foot, causing, in many instances, 
contracted heels. The heels of a horse should be well kept up and the 
toe down. By lowering the heels you throw the entire weight of your 
horse upon the back tendon of the legs, and thereby produce lameness 
from overtaxing a very important set of tendons. By keeping up the 
heel yoa throw the weight upon the wall of the foot. In this position 
you prevent stumbling, clicking, &c. Next the sheer commences to 
pare away the sole, thins it dow^n until he can feel it spring with his 
thumb. Ask him why he does this, and he gives you no reason, 
except from custom ; next comes the bars or braces of the foot, they 
are smoothed down ; next in his ruinous course, comes the frogs of 
the feet, they are subjected to the same cutting and smoothing pro- 
cess. AH the cutting, paring, and smoothing of the soles, bars, or 
frogs is a decided injury to the horse as well as to the owner. All the 
corns in the land are produced by this process of paring. The frogs 
have been i)laced in the foot by nature to expand the wall of the foot, 
and as soon as you commence to cut it, the oily substance commences 
to leak out, it drys up, becomes hard, losing its oily substance, ma,kes 
the wall hard and dry, inducing it to crack. The nerves of the feet 
are very sensitive, and smiths should be very careful not to prick the 
foot, as it requires quite a time to relieve them. The foot is a very 
complicated piece of machinery, and if jou keep a horse well shod 
and his foot in good condition, you can then generally manage the 
balance. The feet suffer from being kept too dry. Horses that stand 
on board floors should have their feet wet every day, or there should 
be a vat five inches deep, five feet long, and three wide, filled with 
water and clay, in which each horse can stand for one hour per w^eek, 
unless his feet are feverish, then he should be kept in it an hour per 
day, or until the fever subsides. Another source of injury to horses' 
feet, is the habit of patronizing cheax3 blacksmiths. If a man can 



FARMERS RECEIPTS. OO 

drive a nail, he then sets up a sign as a farrier or a vetermary surgeon, 
when in fact he knows nothing of the anatomy of the horse's foot; 
not having spent any time or money in acqnirmg the necessary mfor- 
mation, he can afford to shoe a few shillings cheaper than a well-in- 
formed man, but the patrons of such cheap shoeing are generally the 
sufferers. All horse-shoers should be well skilled veterinary surgeons, 
or there should be a skilful surgeon attached to every shoj). Another 
source of poor shoeing and injury is the loss of elasticity of the frog, 
refusing to perform its proper functions ; the heel contracts, the foot 
rolls, and you have a sore horse for ten or twelve months, for it re- 
quires this long to relieve a horse's suffering from being badly shod. 

Under the circumstances, the first thing that touches the road or 
tlie floor of the stall, should be the frog, and the wall of the foot 
should be kept cut so as not to prevent it from touching at every step ; 
and no man that owns a horse should ever allow a blacksmith to cut 
the soles, bars, or frogs of his horse's feet. Nature has adapted the 
frogs to all description of roads, climates, and weather, without being 
pared. So many horses have been ruined by this process of paring, 
that there are now several establishments in this country that 
manufacture India rubber pads, thinking thereby to supply the wasted 
frog and the elasticity of the natural foot. The frog is insensible to 
pressure, and you may place the whole weight of your horse on the 
frog and he will suffer no inconvenience, as may be seen from shoeuig 
with one of my com shoes ; besides, this is the only reliable way to 
cure contracted feet; by throwing the weight upon the frog, you force 
them up between the walls ; it acts as a wedge, and soon relieves the 
contracted feet. Smiths should never have their shoes hot when 
fitting them, as the application of hot iron extracts the oily substance 
from the hoof. The amount of cruel punishment inflicted on 
horses by cross-grain blacksmiths, is another source of poor shoeing. 
As soon as the horse does not stand the smith gets angiy, and com- 
mences whipping and jerldng the animal, which only adds terror to 
it, so that he soon refuses to go to the shop if he can avoid it ; it is 
natural for horses to dislike to be shod, because the hammering shocks 
the nervous system, until they are accustomed to it. He should be 
taught to stand, and his feet well handled at home, before he is ever 
brought to the shop by the owner. You then save the horse pounding, 
,and the smith an immense amount of labor that he never gets any pay 
for, for no man ever thinlis of paymg anything extra for shoeing a 
bad horse. The wall of the foot should never be rasped above the 
nail holes, and as little below the clenches as possible ; all the rasping 
and filing but tends to thin and weaken the wall by cutting the fibers 
of. the foot. The nails should be counter sunk into the shoe, so that 
there will be no chance for the clenches to rise. No horse interferes 
with the heel or toe ; it is always the side of the foot. The habit of 
turning the inside of the shoe under causes a number of horses to m- 
terfere, that would not if they were shod straight in the mside. 
Spread the heels as wide as possible ; set the outside a little under ; 
keep the toes full. For clicking horses, raise the heels high, cut the toes 
short. For speedy cuts, place your toe corks a quarter of an inch to 
the inside of the centre of your shoe ; keep the heels wide apart. For 
corns, put on a shoe with a prong, for the main rim, so as to cover the en- 
tire frog, pare the wall lower than the frog, so as his entire weight wiU be 



36 farmers' receipts. 

thrown on the frog. Have the inner cork not quite so sharp as the 
outer one, so that if he steps upon the other foot it will not cut it ; 
make the shoes as light as possible consistent with good service, as 
they are ordinarily made just about J too heavy." 

To Prevent Hokses Kicking in the STALii. — ^Fasten a short 
trace-chain about 2 feet long, by a strap to each hind foot. A better 
way is to have the stalls made wide enough so that the horse can turn 
in them easily. Close them with a door or bars, and turn the animal 
loose. After a while he will forget the habit, and stand tied without 
further trouble. 

To Cuke Bkoken LEGS.—Instead of summarily shooting the 
horse, in the greater number of fractures it is only necessary to par- 
tially sling the horse by means of a broad piece of sail, or other 
strong cloth placed under the animal's belly, furnished with2 breech- 
ingsand2 breast girths, and by means of ropes and pulleys attached 
to a cross beam above, he is elevated, or lowered, as may be required. 
By the adoption of this plan every facility is allowed for the satisfac- 
tory treatment of fractures. 

Laivipas. — This consists in a swelling of the first bar of the upper 
palate. It is cured by rubbing the swelling 2 or 3 times a day with J 
oz. of alum and the same quantity of double refined sugar mixed with 
a little honey. 

Gravel. — Steep ^ lb. of hops in a quart of water and give it as hot 
as the horse can stand it. 

Halter Pttlling. A new way to prevent horses pulling at the 
halter, is to put a very small rope under the horse's tail bringing the 
ends forward, crossing them on the back, and tyin^ them on the 
breast. Put the halter strap through the ring, and tie the rope in 
front of the horse. When the horse pulls, he will, of course, find him- 
self in rather an uncomfortable position, and discontinue the effort to 
free himself. 

Hide Bound.— To recruit a hide bound horse, give nitrate potassa 
(or saltpetre) 4 oz., crude antimony 1 oz., sulphur 3 oz. Nitrate of 
potassa and antimony should be finely pulverized, then add the 
sulphur, and mix the whole well together. Dose, a tablespoonful of 
this mixture in a bran mash daily. 

To Prevent Horses from Jumping.— Pass a good stout surcingle 
around his body ; put on his halter, and have the halter strap long 
enough to go from his head, between his fore legs, then through the 
surcingle, and back to one of his hind legs. Procure a thill strap, 
and buckle around the leg between the foot and joint, fasten the 
halter strap in this — shorter or longer, as the obstinacy of the case may 
require. It is also useful to keep colts from running where there is 
likely to be danger from the result ; if the thill strap should cause any 
soreness on the leg, it may be wound with a woollen cloth, and it would 
be well to change it from one leg to another occasionally. 

Big Leg.— To cure, use the "Blistering Liniment" with regularity 
every third hour until it blisters. In 3 days wash the leg with linseed 
oil. In 6 days wash it clean with soap and water. Repeat every 6 
days until the swelling goes down. If there should bo any callous 
left, apply spavin ointment. 

Sore Breasts.— This generally occurs in the spring, at the com- 
mencement of plowing. At times the fault is in having poor old 



farmers' receipts. 37 

collars, and not having the collar well fitted to the horse's breast; and 
often, the hames are either too tight or too loose. There is a great 
difference in horses about getting chafed or galled, and at times it has 
seemed to be impossible to keep their breasts from getting sore ; but 
a thorough application of strong alum water or white oak bark to the 
breasts of the animal, 3 days before going to work, toughen them so 
that they Avill not get sore. Another excellent plan ic, when you let 
your team rest for a few moments during work, to raise the collar and 
pull it a little forward, and rub the breast thoroughly Y/ith your 
naked hand. 




The Check Rein o:n- Horses.— We desire to register an earnest 
protest against this barbarous appendage to horses' harness. It re- 
tards the horse's progress in every position both while he is at worl?:, 
and while travelling on a journey. It is both useless and cruel in 
every sense of the word, without any compensating qualities to recom- 
mend it. Mr. Angell, of the "Boston Society for the Prevention of 
Cruelty to Animals," who has travelled over a great part of Europe 
in the interests of humanity to our dumb servants, says, that the use 
of the check rein is confined to America alone, being deservedly dis- 
carded every where both in England and on the Continent. The 
reason why it is so discarded, was very graphically explained by an 
extensive horse owner in Glasgow, as he remarked, in conversation 
v^ith Mr. Angell, that " We canna get the wark cot o* the horse wf 
the check rein." To check rein a horse, is equivalent to trussing a 
man's head backward towards his back or heels, and compelling him, 
while bound in this position, to do duty with a loaded wheelbarrow. 

Feedi^tg Horses on the Road.— Many persons, in travelling, 
feed their horses too much, and too often, continually stuffing them, 
and not allowing them to rest and digest their food ; of course they 
suffer from over-fulness, and carrymg unnecessary weight. Horses 
should be well fed in the evening, and must not be stuffed too full in 
the morning, and the travelling should be moderate on starting when 
the horse has a full stomach. If a horse starts in good condition, he 
can go 20 or 25 miles without feeding. The provender required by 
horses while travelling or engaged in ordinary farm work, per day, 
may be stated thus : Hay 20 lbs., oats 3 gals., water 4 gals. Muddy 
water is the best for horses. Beeves require 20 lbs, of hay and 6 



38 farmers' receipts. 

gals, of water per day. Quantity will vary in every case according to 
the size, condition, breed, &c., together with the kind of work in 
which they are employed. 

Itch. — To cure a horse affected with itch, first reduce Ms daily 
allowance of food, putting him on low diet and then give him a tea- 
spoonful of a mixture of equal parts of sulphur and antimony, and at 
the end of a week or 10 days the sores will have disappeared and the 
horse wiU he covered with a fine coat of new hair. 

Stoppage of Urine. — Symptoms : Freqnent attempts to urinate, 
looking round at his sides, lying down, rolling and stretching. To 
cure, take ^ lb. of hops, 3 drs. oil of camphor; grind and mix. Make 
this into 3 piUs. Give 1 every day, with a drench made of a small spoon- 
ful of saltpetre and 2 oz. of water. This will cure as a general thing. 

To Cure Balky Horses. — One method to cure a ballsy horse 
is to take him from the carriage, whirl him rapidly around till he is 
giddy. It requires two men to accomi3lish tliis, — one at the horse's 
t-ail. Don't let him step out. Hold liim to the smallest possible circle. 
1 dose wiU often cure him, 2 doses are final with the worst horse that 
ever refused to stir. Another plan is to fill his mouth with the dirt or 
gravel from the road, and he will at once go, the philosophy of this 
being that it gives him something else to think about. 

Dr. Cole's King of Oils. — 1 oz. green copperas ; 2 oz. white 
vitriol ; 2 oz. common salt ; 2 oz. linseed oil ; 8 oz. molasses. Boil 
over a slow, fire fifteen minutes in a; iDint of urine; when almost 
cold, add 1 oz. of oil of vitriol and 4 oz. of spirits of turpentine. 
Apply to wounds with a feather. A very powerful liniment. 

Sloan's Horse Ointment. — 4 oz. resin ; 4 oz. bees-wax ; lard, 
8 oz. ; honey, 2 oz. Mix slowly and gently, brmg to a boil ; tlien 
add less than 1 pint spirits turpentine ; then remove and stir till cool. 
Unsui-passed for horse flesh, cracked hoofs, human fiesh, &c. 

Mexican Mustang Linument. — Petroleum, olive oil, and carbon- 
ate of ammonia, each equal parts, and mix. 

Merchant's Gargling Oil.— Take 2^ gals, linseed oil ; 2J gals. 
spirits turpentine ; 1 gal. western petroleum ; 8 oz. liquor potass. ; 
sap green, 1 oz. ; mix aU together, and it is ready for use. 

Arabian Condition Powders. — Ground ginger, 1 lb ; sulphuret 
of antimony, 1 lb. ; powdered sulphur, 1 lb ; saltpetre, 1 lb. Mix aU 
together, and administer in a mash, in such quantities as may be re- 
quired. The best condition powder in existence. 

Blistering Liniment.— 1 part Spanish flies, finely powdered ; 3 
of lard ; and 1 of yellow resin. Mix the lard and resm togetlicr, 
and add the flies when the other ingredients begin to cool. To render 
it more active, add 1 pint spirits turpentine. 

Medicated Food for Horses and Cattle. — Take linseed 
cake and pulverize or grind it up in the shape of meal, and to every 
50 lbs. of this ingredient, add 10 lbs. Indian meal ; 2 lbs. sulphuret 
of antimony ; 2 lbs. ground ginger, 1| lbs. of saltpetre, and 2 lbs. 
powdered sulphur. Mix the whole thoroughly together, put in neat 
boxes or packages for sale or otherwise as desired, and you will have 
an article equal in value to " Thorley's Food," or almost any other 
preparation that can be got up for the purpose of fattening stock or 
curmg disease in every case when food or medicine can be of any use 
whatever. This article can be fed in any desired quantity, beginning 



farmers' receipts. 39 

"witli a iaw tablcspoonf uls at a time, for a horse, mixing it Tvitli his 
grain, and in the same proportion to smaller animals, repeatinoj the 
dose and increasing the quantity as the case may seem to require. 

LoTiox FOR Mange. — Boil2oz. tobacco in 1 quart ^vater ; strain ; 
add sulphur and soft soap, each 2 oz. 

For Strains and Swellings.— Strong vinegar saturated with 
common salt, used warm, is good for strains and reducing swellings. 
1 oz. of white vitriol ; 1 oz. of green copperas ; 2 teaspoonfuls of 
gmipowder, all pulverized together, and dissolved in 1 quart of soft 
water, and used cold, rubbing in thoroughly, is one of the best appli- 
cations kno^vn for reducing swellings. 

HooF-Bou>n) Wash. — Spirits turpentine. 4 oz. ; tar, 4 oz. ; whale 
oil, 8 oz. Mix, and apply to the hoofs often. 

To Toughen Hoofs.— Wash them frequently in strong brme, and 
turn brine upon the bottoms, and soak a few minutes each time. 

Scratches. — Cut off the hair close, and wash the legs in strong 
soap-suds or urine, or wash with warm vinegar saturated with salt, 
and afterwards dress over with a small quantity of hog's lard. 

Cough. — Quit feeding musty hay, and feed roots and laxative food. 
Sprmlde human urine on his fodder, or cut up cedar boughs and mix 
with his graiii ; or boil a small quantity of flax-seed, and mix it ia a 
mash of scalded bran, adding a few ounces of sugar, molasses, or 
honey. Administer lukewarm. If there should be any appearance 
of heaves, put a spoonful of ground ginger once per day in his pro- 
vender, and allow him to drink freely of lime water. 

Split or Broken Hoof. — Let tlie blacksmith bore two holes on 
each side of the crack or split ; pass long nails through the holes and 
clinch tight. After anointing with the hoof-bound liquid, it will 
soon grow together. 

Colic Cure.— Bleed freely at the horse's mouth ; then take J lb. 
raw cotton, wrap it aroimd a coal of fire, so as to exclude the air ; 
when it beghis to smoke, hold it under his nose till he becomes easy. 

To Cure Disteivh^er. — Take IJ gals, of blood from the neck vein ; 
then administer sassafras oil, IJ oz. Cure, speedy and certain. 

FouNT)ER cured IN 2-i HouRS. — Boll or steam stout oat-straw for 
half an liour, then wrap it around the horse's leg quite hot, cover up 
with wet woollen rags to keep in the steam ; in six hours renew the 
application, take 1 gal. of blood from the neck vein, and give 1 quart 
linseed oil. He may be worked next day. 

Curb for Staggers. — Give a mess twice a week, composed of 
"bran, 1 gal. ; sulphur, 1 tablespoonfnl ; salti:)etre, 1 spoonful ; boiling 
sassafras tea, 1 quai-t ; assafcetida, Ig oz. Keep the horse from cold 
water for half a day afterwards. 

Ring-bone and'' Spavin Cure. — Venice turi^ientine and Spanish 
flies, of each 2 oz. ; euphorbium and aqua-ammonia, of each 1 oz. ; 
red precipitate, J oz. ; corrosive sublimate, J oz. ; lard, IJ lbs. Pul- 
verize all, and put into the lard ; simmer slowly over" coals, not 
scorching or burning ; and pour off, free of sediment. For ring- 
bones, cut oH the hair, and rub the ointment well into the lumps 
once in 48 hours. For spavms, once in 24 hours for 3 mornings. 
Wash well previous to each ai^plication with suds, rubbing over the 
place with a smooth stick, to squeeze out a thick, yellow matter. 
This has removed very largo ring-bones. 



40 farmers' receipts. 

\ 

Another Cctre. — Take sweet oil, 4 oz. ; spirits turpentine, 

2 oz. ; oil of stone, 1 oz. Mix, and apply tliree times per day. 
K the horse is over four year old, or in any case when this is not suffi- 
cient, in addition to it, you will fit a bar of lead just above it, wirmg 
the ends together, so it constantly wears upon the enlargement ; and 
the two together will cure nine cases out of every ten, in six weeks. 

Cuke for Bone Spavins — $300 Recipe. — Corrosive sublimate, 
quicksilver, and iodine, of each 1 oz. Rub the quicksilver and iodine 
together ; then add the sublimate, and lastly the lard, rubbing them 
thoroughly. Shave off the hair the size of the bone enlargement ; 
grease all around it, but not where the hair is shaved off, this pre- 
vents the action of the medicine, except on the spavin. Then rub in 
as much of the paste as will lie on a 3-cent piece, each morning, for 

3 or 4 mornings. In from 7 to 8 days, the whole spavin will come 
out ; then wash the wound with suds for an hour or so, to remove 
the poisonous effects of the paste ; afterwards heal up the sore with 
any good healing salve, or Sloan's Horse Ointment, as per recipe 
above, keeping the sore covered while it is healing up. 

Another very Valuable Recipe For Ring-bone. — ^Pul- 
verized cantharides, oils of spike, origanum, amber, cedar, Barba- 
does tar, and British oil, of each 2 oz. ; oil of wormwood, 1 oz. ; 
spirits turpentine, 4 oz. ; common potash, J oa. ; nitric acid, 6 oz. ; 
sulphuric acid, 4 oz. ; lard, 3 lbs. Melt the lard, and slowly add the 
acids ; stir well, and add the other articles, stirring till cold ; clip oii 
the hair, and apply by rubbing and heating in. In about 3 days, or 
when it is done running, wash off with soap-suds, and apply again. 
In old cases, it may take 3 or 4 weeks ; but, in recent cases, 2 or 3 
applications have cured. 

Another.— Pulverized cantharides, oils of origanum and amber, 
and spirits turpentine, of each 1 oz. ; olive oil, J oz. ; sulphuric acid, 
3 drams ; put aU, except the acid, into alcohol ; stir the mixture, add 
the acid slowly, and continue to stir till the mixture ceases to smoke; 
then bottle for use. Apply to rmg-bone or spavin with a sponge tied 
on the end of a stick, as long as it is absorbed into the i)arts ; twent}^- 
Xour hours after, grease well with lard ; and in twenty-four hours 
more, wash off well with soap-suds. One application is generally 
sufficient for spavins, but may need two ; ring-bones, always two or 
three applications, three or four days apart, which prevents loss of 
hair. This will stop all lameness, but does not remove the lump. 

Splint and Spavin Lintment. Oil of origanum, 6 oz. ; gum 
camphor, 2 oz. ; mercurial ointment, 2 oz. ; iodine ointment, 1 oz. ; 
melt by putting all into a wide-mouthed bottle, and setting it in a 
kettle of hot water. Apply it to bone spavins or splfuts, twice daily, 
lor four or five days, and a cure is guaranteed. 

Poll Evil and Fistula.— Common potash dissolved in J pint of 
water, 1 lb. ; add J oz. belladonna extract, and 1 oz. gum arable dis- 
solved in a little water ; work all into a paste with wheat flour, and 
bottle up tight. Directions : wash the sores well with Castile soap- 
euds ; then apply tallow all aromid them. Next, press the above 
paste to the bottom of all the orifices ; repeat every two days till the 
callous fibrous base around the poll evil or fistula is completely de- 
stroyed ; put a piece of oil-cloth over the sores, and afterAvards heal 
up with Sloan's Horse Ointment, 



POINTS IN A HORSE. 
DIAGRAM OF A SOUND HORSE. 



41 




1. Forehand. 

2. Forehead. 

3. Face. 

4. Nose. 

5. Wings of the nose. 
C. Muzzle. 

7. Jaw. 

8. Throat. 

9. Windpipe, or Throt- 

tle. 

10. Point of the Shoul- 

der. 

11. Chin. 

12. Curb of the Chin. 

13. Outer comer of the 

Eye. 

14. Inner comer of the 

Eye. 

15. Foretop. 



POINTS IN A HORSE. 

16. Neck. 

17. Breast. 

18. Shoulder. 

19. Withers. 

20. Arm. 

21. Fore-arm. 

22. Fore-legs. 

23. Knee. 

24. Cannon-bones. 

25. Nape. 

26. Crest. 

27. Middle-hand. 

28. Back. 

29. Back-hand. 

30. Loin. 

31. Hip. 

32. Croup, or Rump. 

33. Dock. 



35. Girth. 

36. Barrel (the Ribs). 

37. Flank. 

38. Quarter. 

39. Thigh. 

40. Stifle. 

41. Hamstring. 

42. Point of the Hock. 

43. Hocks. 

44. Fetlocks. 

45. Small Pasterns. 

46. Large Pasterns. 

47. Crown of the Hoof. 

48. Hoof. 

49. Heels. 

50. Head. 

51. Mane,or Mane Hair. 



34. Elbow. 

Comparative Vat.tje of Food for Horses. — 100 lbs. of good hay 
is equivalent in value to 59 lbs. of oats, 57 lbs. of corn, 275 of carrots, 
54 lbs. of rye or barley, 105 lbs. of wheat bran, 400 lbs. of green 
clover, 275 lbs. of green corn, 374 lbs. of wheat straw, 442 lbs. of rye 
straw, 400 lbs. of dried corn stalks, 45 lbs. of wheat, 59 lbs. of corn, 
62 lbs. of sun-flower seeds, 69 lbs. of linseed cake, 195 lbs. of oat 
straw, 105 lbs. of wheat bran; 1 lb. of oil cake is equal to 14 lbs cab- 
basre. 



42 



DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 




DIAGRAM SHOWING DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
The above diagram, copied from a circular issued by L. W. Warner 
& Co., manufacturers of Dr. Herrick's Horse Medicines at 67 Murray 
St., N. Y., is, notwithstanding its lugubrious appearance, of the ut- 
most value to owners of horses ; for, taken in connection with the 
following references descriptive of the various numbers, indications, 
&c., it will prove of great utility in identifying and locating diseases 
in many doubtful cases. 

^ r Glanders. 

i* J Discharge from the Nostrils. 

o ) Membrane. 



4. 
5. 
6. 

7. 

8. 
10. 



C Glandular Swellings. 
Caries and Diseases of the Jaw. 
Fistula Parotid Dact. 
Diseases of the Eye. 
Scars on Forehead and over the 

Eyes. 
Scars from old Fontanels and 

Brain Diseases. 9. Poll Evil. 
Prurigo, or Mane Scab. 

11. Fistulous Withers. 

12. Saddle Galls, Sitfasts, &c. 

13. Fistulous Tail. 14. Rat Tail. 
15. Falling of the Fundament. 

16.' Luxation of Patella, or Whirl 
Bone Displaced. 

17. Hernia or Rupture. 

18. Broken Ribs. 19. Farcy. 

20. Sores from Constant Bleeding. 

21. Bridle Swellings. 

22. Fistula and Inflammation of 

Parotid Gland. 

23. Phlebitis, or inflamed 

Vein. 



35. Grogginess. 



Jugular 



24. Sore Throat. 

25. Tumors caused by Collar. 

26. Capped Elbow or Tumor. 

27. Wind Galls. 

28. Mallenders and Sallenders. 

29. Splint. 30. Capped Knee. 

31. Broken Knees and Open Joint. 

32. Clap of the Back Sinews. 

33. Ringbone. 
Aciite and Chronic Founderer. 

Ring Foot 
Quittor. 
Tread on the Coronet and 

Overreaches. 
Sand, Toe, Cow and Quarter 

Cracks. 
Girth SAvellings. 
Wind Colic, Fret, Gripes, or 

BeUy-ache. 

41. Thorough pin. 

42. Capped Hocks. 

43. Swelled or Sprung Sinews. 

44. Scratches. 

45. Spavin. 

46. Curb. 47. Swollen Legs. 



34. 

36. 
37. 



39. 
40. 



FAFtMERS' RECEIPTS. 43 

To Ta^ie Horses. — Take finely-grated horse castor, oils of rho- 
dium and cumin ; keep them in separate bottles well corked ; put 
some of the oil of cumin on your hand, and approach the horse on 
the wiudy side. He will then move toward you. Then rub some of 
the cumin on his nose, give him a little of the castor on anytliing 
he likes, and get eight or ten drops oil of rhodium on his tongue. You 
can then get him to do anything you like. Be kind and attentive to 
the animal, and your control is certain. 

Best Reiviedy for Heaves. — ^Balsam of fir and balsam of co- 
paiba, 4 oz. each, and mix with calcined magnesia sufficiently thick 
to make it into balls ; and give a middling-sized ball night and morn- 
ing for a week or ten days. 

Cure for Bots in Horses. — Give the horse, first, 2 quarts of 
new milk, and 1 quart molasses ; 15 minutes afterwards, give 2 quarts 
very strong sage tea ; 30 minutes after the tea, give 3 i^ints (or enough 
to operate as i^hysic), of curriers' oil. The molasses and milk cause 
the bots to let go their hold, the tea puckers them up, and the oil 
carries them completely away. Cure, certain, in the worst cases. 

LixiaiENT FOR Sweeny. — Alcohol and spirits turpentine, of each 
8 oz. ; cami^hor-gum, pulverized cantharides, and capsicum, of each 
1 oz. ; oil of spike, 3 oz. ; mix. Bathe this liniment in with a hot 
iron, and a cure is sure to follow. 

For Looseness or Scouring in Horses or Cattle.— Tormen- 
til root, powdered. Dose for a horse or cow, 1 to IJ oz. It may be 
stirred into 1 pint of milk, and given ; or it may be steeped in 1^ 
pints of milk, then given from throe to six times daily, until cured. 

Scours and Pin- Worms in Horses and Cattle.— White ash 
bark burnt into ashes, and made into a ratlier strong lye ; then mix 
J pint of it with 1 pmt warm water, and give all two or three times 
daily. This will ceitainly carry off the worms, which are the cause, 
in most instances, of scours and looseness. 

English Stable Linevient, very strong. — Oil of spilvc, aqua- 
ammonia, and oil of turpentine, each 2 oz. ; sweet oil, and oil of 
amber, each, IJ oz. ; oil of origanum, 1 oz. Mix. 

Colic Cure for Horses and Persons. —Spirits turpentine, 
3 ox. ; laudanum, 1 ox. ; mix ; and for a horse give ^11 for a dose, by 
putting it into a bottle with half a pint of warm water. If relief is 
not obtained in an hour, repeat the dose, adding half an ounce of the 
best powdered aloes, well dissolved. Cure, certain. 

For Persons, a dose would be from 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls in warm 
tea ; children or weak i^ersons, less. 

Liniment for fifty cents per gallon. — ^Best vinegar, 2 qts. ; 
pulverized saltpetre, J lb. ; mix, and set hi a cool place till dissolved. 
Invaluable for old swellings, sprams, .bruises, &c. 

SnoEiNG Horses. — A smith who shod for the hunt, and who said 
that he would have to shut uj) shop if a shoe was lost, as it might 
cause the loss of a horse worth a thousand pounds, fastened the shoe 
as follows : — As he drove the nails, he merely bent the points down 
to the hoof, without twistmg them off, as the usual practice is ; he 
then drove the nails home, and clinched them. He then twisted off 
the nails, and filed them lightly to smooth them, thus having, as he 
remarked, a clmch and a rivet to hold the nails. 

Horse Ail. — Make a slow fire of old shoes, rags, herbs, &c. 



44 farmers' receipts. 

When fired a little, smother so as to make a ^eat smoke and steam, 
then set a "barrel without heads, over the fire, and hold the horse's 
head down in the barrel, and smoke him well. This will soon pro- 
duce a copious running at the nose, and he will be so well pleased 
that he will volmitarily hold his head in the smoke. Continue this 
half an hour or more daily, meanwhile give him potatoes and warm 
bran mashes, and gently physic if there be much costiveness which 
the laxative food will not remove. If he has fever, treat him for it. 

Saddle and Harkess Galls, &;c. — ^Wliite lead and linseed oil, 
mixed as for paint, is unrivalled for healing saddle, harness, or col- 
lar galls and bruises. Try it, applying ynth a brush. It soon forms 
an air-tight coating and soothes the pain, powerfully assisting nature. 

Grease Heel. — Ley made from wood-ashes, and boil white-oak 
bark in it till it is quite strong, both in lye and bark-ooze ; when it is 
cold, it is fit for use. AVash oft the horse's legs with Castile soap; 
when dry, apply the above ley with a swab fastened on a long stick 
to keep out of liis reach, as the smart caused by the application might 
make him let fly without much warning; but it is a sure cure, only 
it brings off the hair. To restore the hair after the cure is effected, 
make and apply a salve by stCAVuig elder bark in old bacon ; then form 
the salve by adding' a little resin, according to the amount of oil when 
stewed, or J lb. resin to each pound of oil. 

Valuable Remedy for Heaves. — Calcined magnesia, balsam of 
fir, balsam copaiba, of each 1 oz. ; spirits turpentine, 2 oz. ; -put them 
all into 1 pint best cider vinegar; give for a dose, 1 tablespoonful in 
his feed, once a day for a week; then every other day for 2 or 3 months. 
AYet his hay with brine, and also his other feed. He will cough more 
at first, but looser and looser till cured. 

To Distinguish and Cure Distejmper.-— Wet up bran with rather 
strong lye; if not too strong, the horse will eat it greedily. If they 
have the distemper, a free discharge from the nostrils, and a conse- 
quent cure, will be the result, if contmued a few days; but if only a 
cold, with swellings of the glands, no change will be discovered. 

RE3IEDY FOR FOUNDER. — Draw about 1 gal. blood from the neck; 
then drench the horse with linseed oil, 1 qt. ; now rub the fore-legs 
long and well with water as hot as can be borne without scalding. 

Piiysic-Ball for Horses. —Barbadoes aloes, from 4 to 5 or 6 
drams (according to size and strength of the horse); tartrate of 
X)otassa, 1 dram; ginger and Castile soap, each 2 drams; oil of anise, 
or peppermint, 20 drops; pulverize and make all into one ball, Avitli 
thick gum solution. Feed by givmg scalded bran instead of oats, for 
two days before giving the physic, and during its operation. 

Physic for Cattle. — Take half only of the dose above for ahorse, 
and add it to glauber-salts, 8 oz. ; dissolve aU in gruel, 1 quart, and 
give as a drench. 

Hoof-ail in Sheep. — Muriatic acid and butter of antimony, of 
each 2 oz. ; white vitriol, i:>ulverized^ 1 oz. ; mix. Lift the foot, and 
drop a little of it on the bottom, only once or twice a week. It kills 
the old hoof, and a new one soon takes its place. 

SurERPHOSPHATE OF LlME, THE GREATEST ACRICULTURAIi DlS- 

co^^i:RY of the Age. — ^Take a large i)uncheon, large tub, or barrel, 
and put into it 200 lbs. water; add, very slowly and cautiously, 100 lbs. 
of pure sulphuric acid; you must bo very careful, while handling this 



FAKMERS'j^KECEIPTsT 45 

article^ not to let it touch your ski a o^ clothing, as it will instantly 
blacken the skin, and destroy the clothing, -whereyer it comes in con- 
tact; and, when mixed with water, it engenders a very intense heat. 
Into this mixture throw 200 lbs. of bones, no matter how old or use- 
less they may be. The sulphuric acid instantly attacks and enters 
into combination with the bones, reducing them to a pasty consistence, 
and completely dissolving them. Keep under cover, and turn them 
over occasionally,^ while the process is going on; and, when com- 
pleted, dump out the whole contents on the bam floor or on a plat- 
form of boards, and thoroughly work .into the mass four times its 
bulk of dry bog-earth or dry road-dust; mix and pulverize completely 
with a wooden shovel. The bog-earth acts as an absorbent or drier, 
retaining the fertilizing properties of the compound, and rendering it 
easy of uniform distribution. If whole bones are used, it will take 
six or eight weeks to dissolve them ; if they are broken with an axe, 
they will dissolve in about three weeks ; if they are ground in a bone 
mill, four days wiU be sufficient.'' This manure is the most powerful 
fertilizer in existence ; and, when made by these directions, it is the 
cheapestj'^as one ton is equal to thirtj^-two tons of barn-yard manure. 
For top-dressing grass lands, use 300 lbs. per acre; for corn, potatoes, 
beans, turnips, &c., apply 450 lbs. per acre in the driU, mixiug with 
the soil; for wheat, rye, oats, or barley, 400 lbs. per acre, harrow in 
with the seed; for buckwheat, 300 lbs. per acre. 
\ SuPERPHOsrHATE IN TwENTY-FOUK Houiis. — Any farmer who 
has got an apparatus for steaming food for cattle can make super- 
phosphate in quick style by admitting steam from the boiler into the 
barrel containing the water, acid, and ground bones. The heat thus 
generated quickens the dissolution of the bones m a wonderful man- 
ner; and, if the process is properly conducted, it will not take over 
twenty-four hours in any case. It is indispensable that the barrel be 
tightly covered to retain the steam. 

Fertilizer for Tobacco. — Add 40 lbs. of the best Peruvian 
guano to each 100 lbs. of the superphosphate made by the above 
receipt, and you will liave one of the most powerful fertilizers for 
tobacco that can be made. If you do not have Peruvian guano, use in- 
stead 30 lbs. of hen manure to each 100 lbs. of superphosphate. 

Ho:me-:nl\de Poudrette. — Few fertilizers are wasted with the 
prodigality of extravagance which attends the use of night soil, while 
the exercise of a little care and attention is all that is required to 
secure one of the most x)owerful fertilizers in existence. Night soil 
contains phosphate of lime, which is essential to the gro^vth of 
animals' bones, and which is not supplied from the atmosphere like 
carbonic acid and ammonia. In order to receive the droppings in a 
manageable and inoffensive state, the vault should be provided with 
a large, tight box made of matched plank, placed to slide on scantling, 
so that it can be drawn out, by attaching a horse, whenever required. 
Provide plenty of dry, black loam from the woods or swamps ; refuse 
cliarcoal, dry -pent, or alluvial deposits answer first-rate. Keep them 
dry, in barrels or boxes on the spot, under cover; spread a thick layer 
on the bottom of the receiving box, and at intervals of a few days 
throw in a liberal supply of these absorbents on the accumulating de- 
posit. If a few handiuls of plaster are thrown in occasionally, it wiU 
suppress unpleasant odors and increase the value of the manure. 



46 farmers' recetpts. 

Tlio emptying of slops and dish water in the box should be strictly 
prohibited. When the box is filled, you can remove it, and convert 
it into poudrette. For this purpose it must be worked over with an 
additional quantity of muck, or other absorbent, in such proportions 
that it will form, with what has been previously added, about three- 
quarters of the entire compound. The worldng should be done under 
a shed, and the whole kept perfectly dry. It should be shovelled over 
and mixed several times at intervals, and finally screened, and made 
as uniform throughout as possible ; the finer it is i)ulverized, and the 
drier it is kept, the better. 

HoME-iviADE Guano of Uneqi7Ali.ed Excellence.— Save all 
your fowl manure from sun and rain. To prepare it for use, spread a 
layer of dry swamp muck (tlie blacker it is the better) on your bam 
floor, and dump on it the whole of your fowl manure; beat it into a 
fiue powder with the back of your spade; this done, add hard wood 
ashes and plaster of Paris, so that the compoimd shaU be composed of 
the following proportions: dried muck, 4 bushels; fowl manure, 2 
bushels; ashes, 1 bushel; plaster, 1 J bushels. Mix thoroughly, and 
spare no labor; for, in this matter, the elbow-grease expended will bo 
well paid for. A little before planting, moisten the heap wLth water, 
or, better still with urine; cover well over with old mats, and let it lie 
till wanted for use. Apply it to beans, com, or potatoes, at the rate 
of a handful to a hiU ; and mix with the soil before dropping the seed. 
This will be found the best substitute for guano ever invented, and 
may be depended on for bringing great crops of turnips, corn, 
potatoes, &c. 

To Dissolve Large Bones for Manure without Expense. — 
Take any old flour barrel, and put into the bottom a layer of hard- 
wood ashes ; put a layer of bones on the top of the ashes, and add 
another layer of ashes, filling the space between the bones with them ; 
then add bones and ashes alternately, fijiishing off with a thick layer 
of ashes. When your barrel is filled, pour on water (urine is better, ) 
just sufficient to keep them wet, but do not on any account suffer it 
to leach one drop ; for that would be like leaching your dungheap. 
In the course of time they Avill heat, and eventually soften down so 
that you can crumble them with your finger. When sufficiently 
softened, dump them out of the barrel on a Jieap of dry loam, and 
pulverize and crumble them up tiU they are completely amalgamated 
into one homogeneous mass with the loam, so that it can be easily 
handled and distributed when required. You may rely on it, this 
manure will leave its mark, and show good results wherever used. 

Substitute for Superphosphate. — If you have inch bono 
ground in a bone-mill, and cannot afford to purchase sulphuric acid 
to work it up into superphosphate of lime, you can reduce your bones 
into a fine impalpable powder by simply using three barrels of loamy 
soil to every barrel of inch bones ; mix them together. The bones 
wiU soon begin to heat and ferment, and continue so for some time ; 
they will then cool off. You will then proceed to chop down and 
pulverize and work the mass thoroughly ; it will begin to reheat and 
ferment and cool doT\Ti again ; and you will continue working it over 
till the contents are brought to the proper state of fineness, when you 
will have a fertilizer of astonishing power. It is only a year or two 
since a statement appeared in the ^^ Coimtry Gentleman,'* of the 



farmers' rlceipts. 47 

experiments of a ^Fr. Haskell ^vith a manure prepared after this 
method, who found it even superior to superphosphate of lime. 

HOAY TO DOUBLE THE USUAL QUAXTITY OF MaXUIIE OX A 

F/VRM. — Provide a good supxjly of black swamp mould or loam from 
the woods, within easy reach of your stable, and place a layer of this, 
one foot thick, under each horse, with litter as usual, on tlie top of 
the loam or mould. Remove the droppings of the animals every 
day, but let the loam remain for two weelvs ; then remove it, mixing 
it with the other manure, and replace with fresh mould. By this 
simple means, any farmer can double not only the quantity but also 
the quality of his manure, and never feel liimself one penny the 
poorer by the trouble or expense incurred, while the fertilizing value 
of the ingredients absorbed and saved b^'- the loam can scarcely bo 
estimated. 

Josiah Qumcy, jun., has been very successful in keeping cattle in 
stables the year through, and feeding them by means of soiling. 
Tlie amomit of manure thus made had enabled him to improve the 
fertility of a poor farm of 100 acres, so that in twenty years the hay 
crop had increased from 20 to 300 tons. The cattle are keptiji a well- 
arranged stable, and are let out into the yard an hour or two mornuig 
and afternoon ; but they generally appear glad to return to thcii 
quarters. By this process, one acre enables him to support three oi 
four cows. They are fed on grass, green oats, com fodder, barley, 
&c., which are sown at intervals through the sprmg and summei 
months, to be cut as required ; but he remarks that his most valuable 
crop is his manure crop. Each cow produces 3J cords of solid, and 
3 cords of liquid manure, or (y^ cords in all. Five to eight miles frt)n? 
Boston, such manure is worth five to eight dollars a cord. From this 
estimate, he has come to the conclusion that a cow's manure may be 
made as valuable as her mUk. 

Twenty Dollars' Worth of Manure for al:5iost Nothing. — 
If you have any dead animal^ — say, for instance, the body of a 
horse, — do not suffer it to pollute the atijaosphere by drawing it away 
to the woods or any other out of the way place, but remove it a short 
distance only, from your premises, and put down four or five loads 
of muck or sods, place the carcass thereon, and sprinkle it over with 
quick-lime, and cover over immediately with sods or mould sufficient 
to make, with Avhat had been previously added, 20 good wagon- 
loads ; and you will have within twelve months a pile of manure 
worth $20 for any crop you choose to put it upon. Use a propor- 
tionate quantity of mould for smaller animals, but never less than 
twenty good wagon-loads for a horse ; and, if any dogs manifest 
too great a regard for the enclosed carcass, shoot them on the spot. 

Fish Coj^ipost, Substitute for Bone-Dust, Manure from 
Fish Refuse, &c. — The fish owes its fertilizing value to the animal 
matter and bone-earth which it contains. The former is precisely 
similar to flesh or blood, consisting of 25 per cent, of fibrin, the rest 
being water ; and their bones are similar in composition to those of 
terrestrial animals. As fertilizing agents, therefore, the bodies of 
fishes will act nearly in the same way as the bodies and blood of 
animals ; 100 lbs., in decaying, produce 2 J lbs. of ammonia. Hence 
400 lbs. of fish rotted in compost are enough for an acre. The great 
effect is due to the ammoniacal portion ; for it renders the herbage 



48 FAKMEKS* RECEIPTS. 

dark-green, and starts it very rapidly. One of tlie best composts is 
made as loUows : Dried "bog-earth, loam, or peat, seven barrels ; 
hardwood ashes, two barrels ; fish, one barrel ; slaked lime, one 
bushel. Place a thick layer of the bog-earth on the bottom ; on the 
top of this put a layer of the fish, then a sprinkling of lime, then a 
a layer of ashes ; on top of the ashes put a thick layer of bog-earth, 
loam, or peat ; then another thin layer of fish, lime, and ashes, and 
so on till your materials are worked in ; then top off with a thicli 
layer of the absorbents, to retain the fertilizing gases. The decompo- 
sition of the fish will proceed very rapidlj^, and a very rich compost 
will be the result. It should be shovelled over and over and thor- 
oughly intermixed and pulverized. Put this on so as to have 400 lbs. 
of fish to the acre. It mav be applied with the greatest benefit to com, 
turnips, potatoes, beans, &c., in the drill, and broad cast on the grass. 

Superphosphate can be made from pogy-chum, or the refuse of other 
fish, after the oil is expressed, by dissolving in suli)huric acid, and 
afterwards mixing wit-h dry loam, precisely as directed for making 
superphosphate with bones. Whale-oil or the oil of any fish, when 
made into a compost with loam, and a little lime or wood ashes, 
yields a very powerful manure, merely mixed with absorbent earth 
and applied at the end of the month. Impure whale-oil, at the rate 
of 40 gallons per acre, has produced a crop of 23i tons of turnips per 
acre ; while on the same soil, and durmg the same season, it took 40 
bushels of bone-dust to produce only 22 tons per acre. 

Ashes froli Soil by Spontaneous Combustion.— Make your 
mound 21 feet long by lOJ feet wide. To fire, use 72 bushels of lime. 
First a layer of dry sods or parings on which a quantity of lime is 
spread, mixmg sods with it; then a covering of eight inches of sods, 
on which the other half of the lime is spread, and covered a foot thiclc, 
the height of the mound being about a yard. In tweuty-four hours 
it will take fire. The lime should be fresh from the kiln. It is 
better to suffer it to i^ite itself than to effect it by the operation 
of water. When the fire i^ fairly kindled, fresh sods must be ap- 
plied ; but get a good body of ashes in the first place. I thinlc it 
may be fairly supposed that the lime adds full its worth to the 
quality of the ashes, and, when limestone can be got, I would ad- 
vise the burning a small quantity in the mounds, which would bo 
a great improvement to the ashes, and would help to keep the fire in. 

Substitute for Barn-manure.— Dissolve a bushel of salt in 
water enough to slack 5 or 6 bushels of lime. The best rule for pre- 
paring the compost heap is, 1 bushel of this lime to 1 load of 
Bwamp-muck, intimately mixed ; though 3 bushels to 5 loads make;; 
a very good manure. In laying up the heap, let the layer of muck 
and lime be thin, so that decomposition may be more rapid and 
complete. When lime cannot be got, use unleached ashes, — 3 or 4 
bushels to a cord of muck. In a month or six weeks, overhaul and 
work over the heap, when it will be ready for use. Sprinkle the 
salt water on the lime as the heap goes up. 

Sheep-Dipping Coimposition. — Water, 1 gal. ; benzine, 8 ounces ; 
cayenne pepper, 2 ounces. Mix ; make what quantity you require, 
using these proportions. Dip your sheep and lambs in the composi- 
tion, and it will make short work of the vermin. 

Oat or Wheat Straw made equal to II ay.— Bring 10 gallons 



FARMEKS' KECEIPTS. 49 

water to a boiling heat ; take it off tlie fire, and add to it at on.^ 
3 gallons of linseed miground ; let it remain till it gets cold ; theL. 
empty the whole into a cask contammg 41 gallons of cold water, 
and let it remain for forty-eight hours. At the end of that time, 
it will he reduced mto a thin jelly, like arro^vroot. Spread out ^ 
ton straw, and sprinlde it over regularly witli the whole of the 
liquid from the cask. The stock will eat it up as clean, and keep 
as fat on it, quantity for quantity, as they would do on hay. 

Death fok Vekmin on Plants ok Anijmai.s. — Pour a gallon of 
boiling water on one pound tobacco leaves, straui it in twenty minutes ; 
for vermm, on animals or plants, this decoction is certain death. 

Remedy fos Curcuxio in Fruit Trees. — Sawdust saturatea m 
coal oil, and placed at the roots of the tree, wiU be a sure prevent- 
ive ; or, clear a circle around the tree from all rubbish ; fill up all 
little holes and smooth off the ground for a distance of at least 3 
feet each way from the tree, then x^lace chips or small pieces of 
wood on the ground within the circle ; the curculio wiU take refuge 
in large numbers below the chips, and you can pass aroimd in the 
mornings and kill them off. 

Grafting Wax.— Resin, 1 lb. ; befes-wax, 1 lb. ; with taUow or lard 
sufficient to soften untU it cau he readily applied with thehand; melt. 

To CuiiTivATE Tobacco. — To raise tobacco, select a sheltered 
situation, where the young plants can receive the fuU force of the 
Sim ; bum over the surface of the ground early in spring (new land is 
best), rake it well, and sow the seeds : have a dry, meUow, rich soil, 
and alter a shower, when the plants have got leaves the size of a 
quarter-doUar, transplant as you would cabbage plants, 3J feet apart, 
and weed out carefully afterwards. Break off the suckers from the 
foot-stalks, as they appear ; also the tops of the plants when they are 
well advanced, — say, about three feet high, — except those designed 
for seed, which should be the largest and best plants. The ripeness 
of tobacco is known by small dusky spots appearing on the leaves. 
The ]3lants should then be cut near the roots, on the morning of a day 
of smishiae, and should lie singly to wither. When sufficiently 
withered, gather them carefully together, and hang them up under 
cover to cure and prepare for market. 

To PiiESER\nE Potatoes from Rot. — ^Dust over the floor of tho 
bin with lime, and put in about 6 or 7 niches of potatoes, and dust 
with lime as before, then more potatoes, using about 1 bushel of lime 
to 40 bushels of potatoes. The lime improves the flavor of the pota- 
toes, and effectually kills the fungi which causes the rot. 

An old veteran farmer, with 63 years* experience, has successfully 
fought the potato rot in the ground^ as follows : He plants them in 
the latter part of AprU, or beginning of May, and in the old of the 
moon. When six inches high they are plastered and dressed out 
nicely. Kow for the secret. When blossoming, take 2 parts plaster, 
and 1 part fine salt, mix well together, and put 1 large spoonful of 
this compound as near the centre of each hiU as possible. AVhen 
ripe, take them out of the ground, have them dry when put in the 
cellar, and keep them in a dry, cool i3lace. 

Packing Fruits for Long Distances. — ^Take a box of the propei, 
size, soft paper, and sweet bran. Place a layer of bran on tho 
bottom, then each bunch of grapes is held by the hand over a 

4 



50 farmers' receipts. 

sheet of tlie paper ; the four corners of the paper are brought up 
to the stalk and nicely secured ; then laid on its side in the box» 
and so on until the first layer is finished. Then dust on a layer of 
bran, giving the box a gentle shake as you x^roceed. Begin the 
second layer as the first, and so on until the Avhole is full. The 
bloom of the fruit is thus preserved as fresh, at the end of a 
journey of 500 miles, as if they were newly taken from the tree. 
Never fails to preserve grapes, peaches, apricots, and other fruit. 

Thorley's CoNDiiMENTAr. FooD. — The following is a formula to 
make 1 ton of the food : take of Indian meal 900 lbs. , locust beans finely 
ground GOO lbs., best linseed cake 300 lbs., powdered turmeric and 
gidphur of each 40 lbs., saltpetre 20 lbs., licorice 27 lbs., ginger 3 lbs., 
anise-seed, 4 lbs., coriander and gentian of each 10 lbs. , cream of tartar 
2 lbs., carbonate of soda and levigated antimony each 6 lbs., common 
salt 30 lbs., Peruvian bark 4 lbs., fenugreek 22 lbs., mix thoroughly. 

Cure for Swelled Bags in Cows.— An excellent remedy for 
swelled bags in cows, caused by cold, etc., is gum cam^^hor h oz., to 
sweet oil 2 ozs. ; pulverize the gum, and dissolve over a slow fire. 

To Increase the Flow of IMilk in Cows. — Give your cows 
three times a day, water slightly warm, slightly salted, in which bran 
has been stirred at the rate of 1 qt. to 2 cals. of water. You wiU find 
if you have not tried this daily practice, iiiat the cow will give 25 per 
cent, more milk, and she will become so much attached to the diet 
that she Avill refuse to drink clear water unless very thirsty, but this 
'mess she will drink at almost any time, and ask for more. The 
amount of this drink necessary is an ordinary water-pail full each 
time, morning, noon, and night. Avoid giving cows " slops," as they 
are no more fit for the animal than the human. 

Home-made Stump Machine. — Take 3 pieces of common joints, 
put them together in form like a common harrow, letting the tapering 
ends lap by each other some 6 inches, making a place for the chain to 
rest in. Cut off the roots at any distance you please from the stump, 
place the machine at one side of the stump, tapering end up ; hitch the 
chain on the opposite side and pass it over the machine ; then hitch a 
good yoke of oxen thereto, and you will see the stump rise. Another 
method is as follows : in the fall of the year bore a 1-inch hole 18 
mches deep into the centre of the stump, and put in 1 oz., of saltpetre, 
filling up with water, and plugging the hole up. In the spring take 
out the plug, put in half a gill of kerosene and set fire to it. It will bum 
out the stump, to the farthest root. Here is another plaD : in the fall, 
with an inch auger, bore a hole in the centre of the stump 10 inches 
deep, and put into it a J lb. of vitriol, and cork the hole up very tight. 
In the spring the whole stump and roots extending all through their 
ramifications will befomid so rotten that they can be easily eradicated. 

To SrROUT Onions. — Pour hot water on the seed, let it remain 2 
or 3 seconds, and they will inmiediately sprout, and come up 
much earlier. 

To Renew Old Orchards.— Early in the spring, plough the 
entire orchard, and enrich the whole soil with a good dressing of 
compost of manure, swamp-muck, and lime ; scrape off the old 
bark with a deck-scraper, or a sharp hoe ; apply half a bushel of 
Ume, and the same of ground charcoal round each tree. Then 
apply diluted soft soap, or strong soap-suds, on the trunks and 



FARMERS* RECEIPTS. 51 

limbs, as high as a man can reach. TVlicn tlio trees are in full 
bloom, throw over them a good proportion of fine slaked lime, 
and yon ^vill reap abundant fruits from your labors. 

To Destroy the Moth ok Miller. — Dr. AVaterman says, "I took 
two white dishes (because white attracts tlieir attention in the 
night) or deep plates, and placed them on the top of the hives, 
and filled them about half-fuU of sweetened vinegar. The next 

oniing I had about 50 millers caught ; the second night I caught 
50 more ; the third night, being cold, I did not get any, the fourth 
light, being very warm, I caught about 400; the fifth night I got 
about 200." 

To Keep Milk Svteet, ani> Sweetest Sour Milk.— Put into the 
millf a small quantity of carbonate of magTiesia. 

To Make Cheap and Good Vinegar.— To eight gallons of clear 
rain-water, add 6 quarts of molasses ; turn the mixture into a 
clean, tight cask, shake it well two or three times, and add 1 pt. 
of good yeast. Place the cask in a warm place, and in ten or 
fifteen days add a sheet of common wrai)ping-paper, smeared with 
molasses, and torn into narrow strips ; and you wiU have good vinegar. 
The paper is necessary to form the " mother," or life of the liquor. 

Mr. Culley's Red* Salve, to cure the Rot in Sheep. — Mix 4 
02. of the best honey, 2 oz. of burnt alum reduced to powder, and 
J a pomid of Armenian bole, Avith as much train or fish oil as wiU 
convert these ingredients into the consistence of a salve. The honey 
must first be gradually dissolved, Avhen the Armenian bole must bo 
BtiiTed in ; afterwards the alum and train-oil are to be added. 

To Lmprove the Wool of Sheep, by S]mearing.— Immediately 
after the sheep are shorn, soak the roots of the wool that remains ail 
over with oil, or butter, and brimstone ; and, 3 or 4 days afterward, 
wash them with salt and water. The wool of next season will not bo 
much finer, but the quantity will be in greater abundance. It may 
be depended upon, that the sheep will not be troubled with the scab 
or vermin that year. Salt water is a safe and effectual remedy 
against maggots. 

To I^Iariv Sheep without Injury to the Wool. — To 30 spoonfuls 
of linseed oil, add 2 oz. of litharge, 1 oz. of lampblack ; boil 
aU together, and mark the sheep therewith. 

To Prevent the Fly in Turnips. — From experiments lately 
made, it has been ascertained that lime sown by hand, or dis- 
tributed by a machine, is an infallible protection to turnips against 
the ravages of this destructive insect. It should be applied as 
soon as the turnips come up, and in the same daily rotation in 
which they were sown. The lime should be slaked immediately 
before it is used, if the air be not sufficiently moist to render that 
operation nimecessaiy. 

Coloring for Cheese. — The coloring for cheese is, or at least 
should be, Spanish annatto ; but, as soon as coloring became 
general in this country, a color of an adulterated kind was exposed 
for sale in almost every shop. The weight of a guinea and a half 
of real Spanish annatto is sufficient for a cheese of fifty pounds* 
weight. If a considerable part of the cream of the night's milk 
be tiiken for butter, more coloring will be requisite. The leaner 
tlie cheese is, the more coloring it requires. The manner of using 



52 farmers' receipts. 

annatto is to tic up in a linen rag the quantity deemed snfficieut, 
and put it into J pt. of warm water over night. This infusion is 
put into the tub of milk in the morning with the rennet infusion ; 
dipping the rag into the milk, and rubbing it against the palm or 
the hand as long as any color runs out. The yolk of egg will 
color butter. 

The Great Secrets tor TuAPriNG FioxES and other Game. — 
Musk-rat musk and skunk musk mixed. Can be procured at the 
druggists, or from the animals themselves. To be spread on the bait 
of any trap. This receipt has been sold as high as $75. Another, 
costing $50, for minks, &c. — Unslaked lime, ^ lb. ; sal-ammoniac, 
3oz., or muriate of ammonia, 3 oz. MLx, and pulverize. Keep in 
a covered vessel a few days until a thorough admixture takes 
]>lace. Sprhilde on the bait, or on the ground around the trap. 
Keep in a corked bottle. 

Food for Sixging Birds. — Blanched sweet almonds, pulverized, 
J lb. ; pea meal, 1 lb. ; saffron, 3 grs. ; yolks of 2 hard boiled eggs^- 
Red ace all to a powder by rubbing through a sieve. Place the in?:.- 
tare in a frjiug pan over a fire, and add 2 oz. butter and 2 oz. 
honey. Slightly cook for a few minutes, stirring well, then set off 
to cool, and preserve in a closely corked bottle. 

Much Butter from Litti.e Milk. — Take 4 ozs. pu]%verized alum, 
^ oz. pulverized gum-arabic, 50 grs. of pepsin ; place it m a bottle for 
use as required. A teaspoonfid of this mixture added to 1 pt. of 
new milk will, upon churning, make 1 1^ of butter. Agents are sell- 
iug this secret for $5. 

Co:\iPOSiTiON FOR Driving out Rats, etc. — Keep on hand a 
quantity of chloride of lime. Tlio whole secret consists in scattering 
it dry all around their haunts and into their holes, and they Avill leave 
at once, or a liberal decoction of coal tar i)laced in the entrance of 
their holes will do as Avell. 

How to form Springs. — ^The finest springs can be made by boring, 
which is performed by forcing an iron rod into the earth by its own 
weight, turnmg it round, and forcing it up and down by a spring- 
pole contrivance. The water will sometimes spout up several feet 
above the surface. Iron pipes are put down in the hole after the 
water is found. Depressed situations, having a southern exposure, 
with rising ground towards the north, are the best situations in the 
United States or the Canadas to find water. 

To Burn Leme without a Kiln. — Make a pyramidal pile of large 
limestones, with an arched furnace next the ground for putting in 
the fuel, leaving a narrow vent or funnel at the top ; now cover the 
whole pile with earth or turf, in the way that charcoal heaps are 
covered, and put in the fire. The heat will be more completely 
diffused through the pile, if the aperture in the top is partially closed. 
Produces a superior article of lime. 

Eye Water for Horses and Cattle.— Alcohol, 1 tablespopnful ; 
extract of lead, 1 teaspoonfiil ; rain water, ^ -pint. 

To Destroy Moss on Trees. — Paint them with white-wash made 
of quick lime and wood ashes. 

To Protect Fruit-trees from attack of Mice, etc.— Tar, 1 
part ; tallow, 3 parts ; mix. Apply hot to the bark of the trqe with a 
paint brush. 



farmers' receiits. 53 

Points of a Good Horse.— He should be about ISJ hands high ; 
the head light and clean made, wide between the nostrils, and the 
nostrils themselves large, transparent and open ; broad in the fore- 
head, eyes prominent, clear and sparkling ; ears small and neatly set 
on ; neck rather short and well set up ; large arm or shoulder, well 
thrown back, and high ; withers arched and high ; legs fine, flat, 
thin and small-boned ; body round and rath^ir light, though suffi- 
ciently large to afford substance when it is needed ; full chest, afford- 
ing play for the lungs ; back short, with the hind-quarters set on 
rather obliquely. A good draught horse should have a rather large, 
well-shaped head, a clean, long ear, full eye, neck rather long, but 
not too much arched ; strong withers, lying weil forward to catch 
the collar at the proper angle for draught, and broad shoulders, well 
spread into the back, back very straight, ribs long and well rounded, 
hind-legs bent at the hock, fore-legs forward, hind-quarters some- 
what round, but not sufficiently to make them look short ; the mane 
and tail of short, but not coarse hair, and with a fetlock about two 
inches long, broad knees, long hocks, short shanks, and hard ankles 
or fetlock joints, and round hoofs, well opened behind, ajid the 
nearer you approach this description the nearer the horse will be to 
perfection. 

The Epizootic. — The early symptoms of the disease are a light, 
hacking cough, with a general dulness, and an indisposition to move ; 
cold legs, with a watery discharge from the nostrils. At first, the 
nasal membrane is pale,' but, as the disease advances, becomes highly 
colored, and the mucous discharge changes to a greenish yellow 
color, and the pulse becomes more rapid. As soon as the symptoms 
appear, the animal should be kept warm in the stable, by blanketing. 
The following prescriptions are recommended : No. 1 — Linseed oil, 
1\ ozs. ; turpentine, IJ ozs. ; liquor ammonia fort., 1 oz. Mix all 
together, and apply to the throat. No. 2 — Nitrate potash, IJ ozs.; 
tartarized antimony, IJ ozs. ; digitalis, IJ ozs. Pulverize all to- 
gether, and give one night and morning. If not very bad, the digi- 
talis may be omitted. The disease consists of an inflamma^tion of 
the mucous membrane lining the throat, which gradually extends 
from the epiglottis downwards till it reaches the lungs, when i1 
assumes a decidedly dangerous character. The following will arre-*''^ 
the disease at once, if taken in time : Boil a handful of smart- weed tir 
all the strength is obtained, and pour the liquid boiling-hot over th^ 
usual mess of oats, and, when all is cold, feed them to the horse. 
Repeat till all symptoms disappear. Cure certain. Ground gingei 
mixed with the oats, has also proved effectual. 

Age of Horses. — By Teeth.— A. horse has 40 teeth, 24 double 
teeth, or grinders, 4 tushes, or single file teeth, and 12 front teeth, 
called gatherers. As a general thing, mares have no tushes. Be- 
tween 2 and 3 years old, the colt sheds his four middle teeth, 2 above 
and 2 below. After 3 years old, 2 other teeth are shed, 1 on each 
side of those formerly changed ; he now has 8 colt's teeth and 8 
horse's teeth; when 4 years of age he cuts 4 new teeth. At 5 years 
of age, the horse sheds his remaining colt's teeth 4 in number, when 
his tushes appear. At 6 years of age his tushes are up, appearing 
white, small and sharp, while a small circle of yomig growing teeth 



54 farmers' receipts. 

are observable. The mouth is now complete. At 8 years of age the 
teeth have filled up, the horse is aged and his mouth is said to be full. 

By Eyelid. — After a horse is 9 years old, a wrinkle comes on the 
eyelid at the upper corner of the lower lid, and every year thereafter 
he has one well defined wrinkle for each year over 9. If, for instance, 
a horse has three of these wrinkles, he is 12 ; if 4, he is 13. Add the 
number of wrinkles to 9, and you will invariably judge correctly of a 
horse's age. 

Those who manage horses should be careful never to inflict any 
unnecessary pain, for it is only by the law of kindness that a horse 
can be trained and managed. No man ever yet struck a horse, but 
he made the horse the worse for it. Patience and kindness will ac- 
comiDlish in every instance what whipping will fail to do. Horses 
liaving a vicious disposition are invariably made so from cruel treat- 
ment. Horses are designed to Avork, and daily labor for them is as 
much a necessity to their existence as to that of man's. It is not the 
hard drawing and ponderous loads that wear out horses and make 
them poor, balky and worthless; but it is the hard driving, the worry 
by rough and inhuman drivers, that uses up more horse flesh, fat and 
muscle than all the labor a team performs. Another great reason 
why there are so few really sound animals is because of their being 
put to work too soon. Horses are not developed until they are 5, 6 or 
7 years old, and they should do very little work until they reach that 
period. When a horse is worked hard its food should chiefly be oats ; 
if not worked hard its food should chiefly be hay; because oats supply 
more nourishment and flesh making material than any other food ; 
hay not so much. 

Artificial Rubber from Milkweed. — The juice or sap is express- 
ed from the milk- weed by running it between iron rollers and then 
allowing it to ferment or evaporate to the consistency of thin molasses. 
It may then be slowly boiled to reduce it to a thick mass which may 
be treated in the usual way of manufacturing the genuine rubber. 
See Booty Shoe and Rubber ManujYs Dep't. 

To Pickle Meat ix One Day. — Get a tub nearly full of rain or 
river water, and put two pieces of thin wood across it and set the beef 
on them at about the distance of 1 inch from the water. Heap as 
much salt as will stand on the beef and let it remain 24 hours, then 
take off the beef and boil it, and you will find it is completely impreg- 
nated by the salt, the water having drawn it through the meat. 

Baron Liebig's Great Fertilizer. — Dry peat, 20 bushels, un- 
leached ashes, 3 bushels, fine bone dust, 3 bushels, calcined plaster, 
o bushels, nitrate of soda, 40 lbs., sulphate of ammonia, 33 lbs., sul- 
phate of soda, 40 lbs. Mix numbers 1, 2 and 3 together, then mix 
numbers 5, 6 and 7 in 5 buckets of water. When dissolved, add the 
liquid to the first, second, and third articles. When mixed, add the 
fourth article. This is a cheap and efficient fertilizer, and this quan- 
tity applied to one or two acres of turnips, beets, oats, corn, wheat, 
grapes, &c., will bring abundant returns. 

Another Cheap Fertilizer. — Ammonia, 60 lbs.; nitrate of soda, 
40 lbs. ; ground bone, 250 lbs. ; plaster, 250 lbs. ; salt ^ bushel ; wood 
ashes, 3 bushels ; stable manure, 20 bushels. Use the above quantity 
on 6 acres. Labor included, it will cost about $15, in some places 
less, and is equivalent in value to some fertilizers which cost $50 or 
£10 sterling per ton. 



FARMERS RECEIPTS. 



55 



To Protect Sheep from the Gad Fly.— In August and Sep- 
tember this fly lays its eggs in the nostrils of sheep, where they are 
hatched and the worms crawl into the head, and very frequently eat 
through the brain. In this way many sheep are destroyed. "As a 
protection, smirch their noses with tar. ' Lay some tar in a trough or 
on a board, and strew fine salt on it. The sheep will finish the opera- 
tion. The tar will protect them, and what they eat will promote their 
health. 




PORTABLE STEAM ENGINE. 
Threshing by Steam Power. — A 4 horse power Portable Engine 
with 6 inch cylinder ; pressure of steam 45 lbs. per square inch, revo- 
lutions 140 per minute, has threshed, mider favorable surroundings, 
320 bushels per day of 10 hours, coal consumed 3 cwt. Another engine 
of 5 horse power threshed 400 bushels, coal consumed, 4 cwt. Ano- 
ther of 6 horse power, threshed 480 bushels, coal consumed 5 cwt. 
Another of 7 horse power, threshed 560 bushels, coal consumed 6 cwt. 
Another of 8 horse power, threshed 640 bushels, coal consumed 7 cwt. 
Another of 10 horse power threshed 800 bushels per day, coal consumed 
9 cwt. The economy of these performances is evident at a glance. 



5Q 



FAR3IERS KECEIPTS. 



and even if much less work than the above were effected, it is evident 
that such an engine as the one represented above, would, if mounted 
on wheels, prove a most valuable acquisition to any neighborhood 
composed of thrifty farmers,who might, by an equitable arrangement, 
become both the owners and beneficiaries of the same. Many porta- 




ble engines are known to be performing excellent service, not only in 
threshing grain, but in chaffing straw, hay, &c., food for cattle, cutting 
wood for f uel,and sawing logs into boards. Among other late inventions, 
we have one as novel as it is meritorious, consisting of a self-propell- 
ing engine, capable of moving itself from one l/>cality or farm to 



farmers' receipts. 



57 



another, together with the necessary fuel and water, without the aid 
of horses. An excellent view of this most useful invention. is pre- 
sented in the cut. 

Excelsior Axle Grease.— Tallow, 8 lbs. ; palm oil, 10 lbs. ; plum- 
bago, 1 lb. ; heat and mix well. 

pLOUGHiisG Table.— Showlng the distance travelled by a 
Horse in Plowing an Acre of Land ; and the quantity 
OF Land Cultivated per Day, Computed at the rate of 16 
AND 18 Miles per Day of 9 Hours. 



ii atu of 

Fnriow 

slice. 


Space travel- 
led in Plough- 
ing an Acre. 


Extent Ploughed 
per Day. 


B'dtJi of 

Furrow 

slice. 


Space travel- 
led in Plough- 
ing an Acre, 


Extent Ploughed 
per Day. 


Inches. 


Miles. 


18 3Iiles. 


16 Miles. 


Inches. 


Miles. 


18 Miles. 


16 Miles. 


7 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 


14 1-2 
12 1-2 
11 

9 9-10 

9 

8 1-4 

7 1-2 


1 1-4 
1 1-2 
1 3-5 

1 4-5 
2 

2 1-5 
2 1-3 


1 1-8 
1 1-4 
1 1-2 
1 3-5 
1 3-4 

1 9-l( 

2 1-1( 


14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 


6 1-2 
6 1-6 
5 3-4 
5 1-2 
5 1-A 
4 9-10 


2 1-2 
2 3-4 

2 9-10 

3 1-10 
3 1-4 
3 1-2 
3 1-5 


2 1-4 
2 2-5 
2 3-5 
2 3-4 

2 9-10 

3 1-10 
3 1-4 



Rapid Rule to Reckon Cost of Hay, Coal, &c. — Multiply the 
number of pounds by half the price per ton, and remove the decimal 
point three places to the left. Example : What is the cost of 764 lbs. 
of coal at $14 per ton ? Ans. : ^.348. 



Process ; 



764 
14-^2= 7 



5.348 



To Measure Grain.— Rule.— Level the grain; ascertjiin the space 
it occupies in cubic feet; multiply the number of cubic feet by 8, and 
point off one place to the left. 

Example : A box level full of grain 20 ft. long, 10 ft. wide, and 
5 ft. deep, how many bushels does the box contain ? Ans. : 800 
bushels. 

Process : 20x10x5=1000x8-10=800 



Or, 



1000 ft. 
8 



800.0 

iVc.e,— Correctness requires the addition to every 300 bushels of 1 
extra bushel. 

Quantity of Seed required for a Given ISTumber of Hills, 
or length op Drill. — Asparagus, 1 oz. to 60 feet drill; beet, 1 oz. to 
50 ft. diiU; carrot, 1 oz. to 180 ft. driU; endive, 1 oz. to 150 ft. drill; 
onion, 1 oz. to 100 ft. driU; parsley, 1 oz. to 150 ft. drill; parsnip, 1 oz. 
to 200 ft. drill; radish loz. to 100 ft. drill; spinach, loz. to 100 ft. drill; 
tnrnip,l oz. to 150 ft. drill; peas, 1 qt. to 100 ft. drill; dwarf beans, 1 qt. 
to 150 hills; corn, 1 qt. to 200 hills; cucumber, 1 oz. to 50 hills; water- 
melon, 1 oz. to 30 hiUs; muskmelon, 1 oz. to 60 hills; pumpkin, 1 oz. to 



58 farmers' receipts. 

40 hills ; early squash, 1 oz. to 50 hills ; marrow squash, 1 oz. to 16 ii^Us; 
cabbage, 1 oz. to 3000 plants ; cauliflower, 1 oz. to 3000 plants; celery, 
1 oz. to 4000 plants; egg plant, 1 oz. to 2000 plants; lettuce, 1 oz. to 
4000 plants, pepper, 1 oz. to 2000 plants; tomato, 1 oz. to 2000 plants. 

Quantity of Seed required per Acre, and Actual weight 
OF EACH TO THE BusHEL. — Wheat, broadcast, Ij to 2 bushels; ditto, 
in drills, IJ bushels, weight per bushel, 60 lbs; rye, broadcast, Ij 
bushels, weight 56 lbs. ; oats, broadcast, 2 bushels, weight 33 lbs. ; 
timothy, broadcast, 2 gals., 45 lbs. per bushel; red clover, broadcast, 
3 to 4 gals., 60 lbs. per bushel; white clover, broadcast, 8 lbs., 50 lbs. 
per bushel; lucerne, broadcast, 10 lbs., 54 lbs. per bushel; herd or red 
top, broadcast, 1 to IJ bushels, 14 lbs. per bushel ; bluegrass, broad- 
cast, 1 to IJ bushels, 14 lbs. per bushel; millet, broadcast, | to 1 
bushel, 45 lbs. per bushel; Hungarian, broadcast, J to 1 bushel, 50 
lbs. per bushel; corn in hills, 1 to Ijgals., 56 lbs. per bushel; tur- 
nips and ruta baga, 1 lb., 50 lbs. per bushel; onion sets, 28 lbs. per 
bushel . 

The Vitality of Seeds may be tested by placing almost any of 
the larger seeds or grains on a hot pan or griddle ; when the vitality 
is perfect the grain will pop, or crack open with more or less noise. 
Where tlie vitality is defective, or lost, it remains immovable in the 
vessel. A celebrated botanist's recipe for improving and fertilizing 
all kinds of seed, consists in the preparation of a solution of lime, 
nitre, and pigeon's dung in water, and therein steeping the seed. 
Tested on wheat, the produce of some of these grains was reported at 
60, 70 and 80 stems, many of the ears 5 inches long, and 50 corns 
each, and none less than 40. The same botanist (Millar) produced 
500 plants from 1 grain, and 576,840 grains, weighing 47 lbs. Grains 
of wheat in different comitries yield from 6, 10, 16, and even 30 to 1 : 
Cape wheat 80 to 1. Barley yields from 50 to 120. Oats increase 
from 100 to 1000. Wheat and millet seed germinate in one day, bar- 
ley in 7, cabbage in 10, almond and chestnut and peaches require 12 
months, and rose and filbert 24. A field of wheat buried under an 
avalanche for 25 years, proceeded on its growth, &c. , as soon as the 
snow had melted. A bulbous root found in the hand of a mummy, 
above 2000 years old, lately produced a plant. Potatoes planted be- 
low 3 feet do not vegetate ; at J foot they grow quickest, and at 2, are 
retarded 2 or 3 months . 

Cobipound for Reviving Exhausted Orchards — Sulphate of 
potash, 30 lbs. ; sulphate of magnesia, 15 lbs. ; salt, 35 lbs. ; plaster of 
Paris, 15 lbs. ; chloride of magnesia, 5 lbs. All to be well powdered 
and mingled with barn manure, and then dug in around the roots at 
the rate of 10 to 20 lbs. to a tree. This compound is assumed to re- 
store those elements to the soil of which it has been exhausted during 
many years of fruit bearmg, and the secret has been sold to hundreds 
at extortionate prices. 

Artificial Manure. — The composition of Dr. Jeannel's artificial 
manure for pot plants, as detailed to the Central Horticultural 
Society of France, is as follows : — Nitrate of ammonia, 400 grammes 
(a gramme = 15 grains) ; phosphate of ammonia, 200 grammes ; ni- 
trate of potash, 250 grammes ; hydrochlorate of ammonia, 50 gram- 
mes ; sulphate of lime, 60 grammes ; and sulphate of iron, 40 gram- 
mes. One gramme or 15 grains of this n:ixture is dissolved in a litre 
of water, and used once or twice a week. 



FARMERS RECEIPTS. 59 

EQUiVAiiENT Fertilizing Pkoperties of Yakious Manures.— 
1 lb. guauo equals 28 lbs. cow manure, 33 farm yard do., 22 swine do., 
21 horse, 14 buman. 

Seed Oats. — Place your oats in a heap at tbe leeward end of the 
tbresbing floor on a day when a gentle breeze is blowing through the 
barn. Take a common wooden flour-scoop and throw the oats against 
the wind, towards the other end of the floor. A few minutes' experi- 
ence will enable you to throw them so that they will fall in a semi- 
circle at a nearly uniform distance from where you stand, the oats 
which fall farthest are the best for seed, and are to be carefully swept 
together as fast as they accumulate in sufficient quantities. 

Seed Wheat should not only be thoroughly cleaned from the 
seeds of weeds, but small grains should be taken out with a separator 
or suitable fanning mill, leaving only the largest, plumpest, and ear- 
liest ripened kernels. To prevent smut, soak the seed wheat m brine, 
and then dust it with unslacked lime; this will prove a perfect preven- 
tive. 

To Produce the Pear in Perfection. — Pears are liable to crack 
when the trees stand in soil deficient in lime and potash. These es- 
sential elements are restored to exhausted soil by the application of 
wood ashes at the rate of 400 bushels to the acre, which ensures the 
renewal of the proper proportions necessary to supply the require- 
ments, viz., 40 per cent, of potash and 30 per cent, of lime. This will 
check the cracking of the fruit. Tested. Applied to the roots of the 
trees and vegetables, 12 qts. of soot mixed with 1 hogshead of water, 
is a most powerful stimulant of growth and production. A paint oi 
soot and sweet milk ai^plied to fruit trees will keep rabbits off. 

SAI.T AND its Uses. — Salt appears to be as necessary for vegetable 
life as it is to animal life. Applied in combination with other manures 
at the rate of 2 cwt. to the acre, it never fails to produce wonderful 
results on all kinds of grain and vegetable productions, and the vor- 
acity shown by animals for salted hay is well known. 

To Kill the Potato Bug. — Mix 1 lb. Paris green with 10 lbs. 
poor flour or fine whitmg. To use, take a circular piece of wood 4 or 
5 inches in diameter (it may be cut out of a 2 inch x^lank), insert a mop 
handle in the centre, tack on an old tin can with one end removed for 
the reception of the block, punch the other end with holes through 
which to sift the compound on the hills as you pass along the rows, 
and bore a hole in the wooden end for the reception of the mixture, 
and fit a plug to secure it. The compound should be sifted on the 
hills while the vines are wet with dew or rain. 

The Striped Bug on Cucumbers and Melons maybe destroyed, 1st, 
By sifthig charcoal dust over the plants 3 or 4 times in succession^ 
2nd. Use a solution of 1 peck of henhouse manure to IJ gals, water, 
and sprinkle the plants freely with it after sunset. Chinch-hugs.— 
Place any old rags in the crotches of the trees. The worms will take 
refuge and spin in the old rags, when the latter may be thrown in boil- 
ing water. Cateiyillars. — Use a solution of Ipart in 500 of sulphide oi 
potassium, sprinkle on the tree by means of a hand syringe. Curculio. 
—Make a very strong solution of water and gas tar, so that aftei 
standing 48 hours it will be powerful and dark colored like creosote 
On the appearance of the curculio, drench the tree thoroughly with a 
hand-forcing pump, repeating it every 3 days for 2 weeks, and de- 
stroy all fallen fruit. 



60 farmers' receipts. 

To Relieye Choked Cattle. — In choking, the accumulation of 
gas (chiefly sulphuretted hydrogen) is the cause of the animal's 
death. This gas can be decomposed by forcing a strong solution of 
salt and water down the animal's throat ; or, force the beast to jump 
over the bars of a gate or fence. When she touches the ground on 
the opposite side, the obstruction will be ejected. Another way is to 
use four or five feet of J-inch rubber hose, and push the obstruction 
down. 

Farrow Cows. — Feed them liberally, and they will give rich milk, 
though perhaps but little of it. Let them have three or four quarts 
of meal per day through the winter and spring, and do not stop giv- 
ing it when the grass comes. As soon as it dries them up, they will 
be fit for the butcher. 

To Cook Food for Cattle. — To Cook Hay. — Cut it, wet it well, 
put it in an upright tank or cask, with a false bottom and tight 
cover, press it down firmly, and pass the steam in under the false 
cover. To CooJc Corn. — Soak as many barrels, half full, as you wish 
to cook from 15 to 24 hours ; turn on steam and cook until done, 
and the barrels will be full. To MaJce Mash. — Fill as many barrels, 
half full of water, as you wish to make barrels of mush; bring the 
water nearly to a boil i3y passing the steam to the bottom ; stir into 
each barrel from IJ to IJ bushels of meal until well mixed ; then cook 
until done, when the barrels should be full. To Cook Vegetables. — 
Fill the barrels full, and, if no other cover is at hand, chop the top 
fine with a shovel ; then cover them up with meal or proven- 
der, and cook until done ; have holes in the bottom of the barrels 
to carry off condensed steam. 

To Fatten Sheep. — Sheep will fatten readily on good clover-hay 
alone, if the hay has been cut in full bloom, so as to retain all its 
juices before they are turned into woody fibre, and of a good green 
color. A sheep of, say 120 lbs. live-weight, will consume 21 lbs. of 
clover-hay per week, and increase in weight 2 lbs. Allowing that it 
would ordinarily take 14 lbs. to keep it in good stationary condi- 
tion, an expenditure of 7 lbs. of hay extra will x^roduce 1^ lbs. of 
mutton, worth in the spring 10 cents, — perhaps more, — so "that the 
hay is literally realizing to the farmer at the rate of $30 or 
more to the ton. No other stock, we think, will give a return for 
the trouble of fattening hke this. To fatten sheep more rapidlj', 
the daily addition of a small quantity of oats to their feed will pro- 
duce good effects. Keep their quarters dry, well-ventilated, and 
abundantly littered with clean straw, with freedom of access to good 
water, and an occasional taste of salt. The health of sheep during 
the grazing season will be promoted by giving the sheep tar at the 
rate of a gill a day for every 20 sheep ; and, if given pine boughs 
once or twice a week, they will create appetite, prevent disease, and 
increase their health. The best sheep to keep, both for wool and mut- 
ton, is the American Merino. 

Hay Racks for Sheep. — The cheapest and best rack for sheep 
can be made of 8 boards, 4 long and 4 short ones, nailed to 4 
posts, forming an enclosure 12 or more feet long, as the case may 
be, and 32 inches wide. The bottom board should be at least 10 
inches wide, and the top one need not be over 4, with a space be- 
tween of from 6 to 8 inches, depending somewhat, upon the size of 
the sheep that are to eat, with their heads through this aperture. 



ON BEE KEEPING. 



61 



CONSTKUCTION OF BeE HiVES. — 

Few departments of economy and 
use are more productive of utility, 
profit, and real pleasure than the 
intelligent management of the hon- 
ey hee, but perhaps no other sub- 
ject is less understood by the enor- 
mous masses of the vast population 
who in every grade of society, 
might be benefited by a correct 
knowledge of the subject. In order 
to manage bees with profit it is ne- 
cessary to discard the old method of 
suffocation with sulphur, the old 
barrels, hollow logs, straw hives, 
boxes, &c., of the past, and keep 
abreast with the new discoveries of 
the age. All that is required*" f or 
success is to plan well, and always 
work in harmony with, and never 
against, the heaven derived 
instincts which guide the 
marvellous operation of this 
wonderful insect. Fore- 
most among the appliances 
which benefit man and fa- 
cilitate the labors of the 
bees we would mention the 
American Movable Comb 
Hive, cuts of which are pre- 
sented herewith. 

Directions for malcing the 
American Hive. — The bot- 
tom board is 13J inches 
wide, 18 inches long and IJ 
inches thick. The front and 
back are 14J inches wide 
and 19 J inches long. The 
8x10 observation door in 
the back, is cut out with a 
buzz-saw, 3 inches from the bottom, and thin strips f in. wide arc 
tacked on the sides and toj) of the opening even with the outer edge 
to leave an J in. rabbet on the inside for the glass. The door is fin- 
ished by nailing an inch clamp on end and side, beveled and hung to 
the clamp above. Both front and back have a rabbet for the frames 
on the inside, across the top 4 J in. wide and § in. deep, and the same 
extend down the edge ^ in. wide, against which the moveable side is 
to fit. The clamp is nailed on the front Ih. in. up from the bottom, 
and the IJ in. fly holes are bored 3 ins. from centre to centre just 
above it. 

The stationary side with the IJ in. clamp on the upper end is 19J 
ins. long and 15 ins. wide. A part of the front is cut off 3 ins. from 




62 ON BEE KEEPING. 

the bottom, to withiii If in. of the edge next to the movable side, and 
the last surface is left beveling out to make the entrance block C, 
easy of removal, which is 12 J ins. long, to the beveled point, and 
2 ins. wide, and beveled each side and between the 1 J pillars, 1^ ins. 
up on the outside, and f in. upon the inside, and the" edges rounded 
off to leave a bee passage § of an in. high. — (See entrance block in the 
first cut.) 

The block is held in place by the base of the same button that 
holds the entrance slide, B. The entrance slide B is l-J ins. wide, 15 
ins. long, and g in. thick, having 2 notches § in. high a-nd 1 in. long, 
cut to fit the pillars, C, when closing the hive. 

A movable side to fit over the oi)en part of the Mve, (as shown 
wide open in cut) secured by clamps, is 16jins. long, and 14 ins. wide 
at the top and J less at the bottom to mal^e it easy to remove. 

Beforenailingthebody of the hive together, nail a clamp 3 ins. 
wide and 12| ins. long on the under side of the bottom board, cross- 
wise to prevent it from warping. Use wrought nails and drive them 
through upon a heavy iron to clinch them, and nail the clamps on 
the front and back in the same manner. Fasten the bottom board in 
a vice and nail the back on the bevelled end just even with the 
lower part of the observation door, and use two or three long brad 
nails near the edge next to the moveable side. Next nail on tho 
stationary side firmly to the back and bottom board, especially at the 
front edge, then to the front having the movable side in place. Nail 
the clamp on the upper end of the stationary side, nailing through tho 
ends into the front and back. Next, nail the strip under tho 
bottom board next the moveable side, which is 14 ins. long by 2 J ins. 
Avide at the back end, and rmis to a point at the other end. Nail tho 
IJ in. clamps on the ends of the movable side, when the two hooks 
and metallic buttons are screwed on the edge of the front and back 
after painting. When finished the movable side isi in. shorter than 
the front and back, to avoid killing bees that may be on the stand 
when closing the hive. The adjustable bevelled strips rest upon tho 
frame rabbets next the stationary side, and holds the frames over 

against the movable side. -.-. 

^ There are nine of the movable comb' frames, "and all are made 
alike. The bees pass up into the honey boxes through slots or mor- 
tises. Each of the two slots hi the projecting edge of the top bars, is 
4 in. wide and 2 ins. long. The side bars are 7-16th of an inch thick, 12 
in. long and | wide being sawed from lumber that thickness. Tho top 
bars lack J in. of 14 in. in length, and lack l-16tli of an inch of 1 J ins. in 
width. They are sawed 7-I6th of an inch, thick from a plank which 
should be exactly the right thickness for their width. 
If The Improved Comb Guide, which the bees invariably follow, is. 
constructed in a manner that secures straight combs. A groove is 
made in the centre of the lower side of the top bar, into which is in- 
serted a thin stri^) of wood having its lower edge coated with bees- 
wax. The projectmg nails in the side bars to keep the frames apart 
should have large heads and be driven through a hole in an iron or 
hard piece of wood, 9-16th of an inch thick. The frames are held from 
the walls of the hive by a triangular strip across the frout, 5-16tli 
in thick, and the one on the back is not nailed on until the glass is in, 
when it is dressed to give the frames J in. play between the trian- 
gular strips. ' ' 



ON BEE KEEPING. 63 

The tops and bottoms of the 12 small honey boxes are 4J x GJ ins. 
and about J in. thick. A slot 1^ x 3 ins. is cut across the tops and 
bottoms of all except the tops of six of the first set of boxes. The 
four comer posts are f in. square and 5 ins. long. The end glass 4 x 
5 and side glass 5x6 ins. are held in place by a two prong narrow 
strip of tin through the corner of the posts and the prongs bent each 
•way over the glass. 

The end pieces of the caps are 15J ins long, 8J ins. wide at the ends 
and 10| ins. wide in the centre, each having a 1 J in. hole, covered with 
wire cloth on the inside. The side i:)ieces are 17 ins. long and 8^ wide 
the upper edge sawed beveling to fit the roof boards. 

The roof boards are 20| ins. long, and each 11 ins. wide, with the 
up]3er edge beveled to fit, and the lower edge leveled to ctand plumb. 
A Ij inch half round is nailed on the top to cover the joint. 

In painting, give the hives one coat of white and when dry, putty 
and paint the second coat ; and while the paint is fresh, cloud, with 
the hive hanging upon a board projecting from the shop wall, 6 feet 
from the floor, by passing beneath it a lighted coal oil lamp with a 
small round wick. When the paint is dry screw on the hooks and 
buttons, giving each a tap that it may fit the movable side more 
-closely. 

By consulting the Painters Department, beginning at page 132, the 
reader will find an immense number of formula for compounding 
paints of every description at the lowest cost. Many of these will bo 
admirably adapted for painting bee-hives in a beautiful and inex- 
pensive style. 

The lumber used should be thorouglily seasoned, and, after both 
sides are dressed, it should be, for the body of the hive, J in. thick. 
In the cut, the bottom board, x)rojects in front of the hive, making a 
convenient alighting board, and being inclined, is kept clean by the 
bees during the working season, By removing the entrance block, 
C, a large openmg is made for brushing out litter in the winter or 
early spring, and for hiving new swarms. By the use of the small 
slide, B. held in place by the same button, the entrance can be con- 
tracted, if necessary, to the admission of a single bee, thus effectual- 
ly guarding a weak swarm from robbery, and the entrance may be 
closed entirely by making notches d, d, in the slide correspond with 
the pillars. By means of the movable side and the observation door 
at the back of the hive every facility is furnished for obtaining ho- 
ne^^, observing j)rogress, removing or adding frames to strengthen 
weak stock, transferring, &c.*, &c., without injuring the combs or irri- 
tating the bees, and the honey boxes on the top may be removed or 
added at will. 

- Another hive of intrinsic excellence Is called the Climax, and stiU 
another, the American, with Climax improvements, see cuts. The 
Climax is made in two parts. The upper part, which contains the 
boxes (or frame) is provided with common trunlc rollers, and rests 
on cleats, secured to the lower parts of the hive. These cleats extend 
far enou.j^h beyond the hive to allow the upper to roll oft from the 
lower without crushing, disturbing or in any way interfering with 
the labors of the bees . The strips forming the track, have drop legs 
at their outer ends, and are hinged just outside the body of the hive, 
and when not in use, fold up snugly against the hive. The bottom 
board of the upper part answers every purpose of a honey board. 



64 



ON BEE KEEPING. 



It is provided with two slots to admit the bees ; each slot is provided 
with a zinc strip on the under-side, connected by a wire with a han- 




THE CLIMAX BEE BJVE 




AMERICAN BEE HIVE WITH CLIMAX IMPKOYEMEXT. 

die on the outside. By this simple contrivance, all communication 
between the two parts of the hive may be instantly cut off, and divi- 
dhig or any other operation performed without difficulty. 

The bottom board of the lower part is made of plank 1 J ins. thick; 
and is beveled from the centre to each end, and projects far enough in 
front and rear to form alighting boards. Along the summit of 
the bottom board is nailed a triangular strip notched on the upper 
edge. Corresponding notches are^made in the centre of the lower 
edges of the bottom bars of the frames. Then notches are cut bevel- 
Img, so that the frames are easily inserted or withdrawn, but when 
in place, are immovahle,?ind will not shake or jostle, no matter how 
the hive is turned. Then there is a central rest for the frames, which 
renders them entirely independent of each other, and of the walls of 
the hive. The well known propensity of bees to glue every thing to- 



OK BEE KEEPING, 



65 



getlier that they can is thus anticipated and prevented, while at the 
same time a free passage all around, between, above and below the 
frames, is afforded. The lower part has two entrances on opposite 
sides, and the bottom board slanting each way is easily kept clean. Bj 
removing the entrance block, complete ventilation is effected, and for 
surx^lus honey in the comb, twenty-four small frames above, each 5x6 
and 2 ins. wide are used. Six of these frames are placed together, top 
and sides close fitting, and a pane of glass, 5x6 inches, placed at 
each end. A strip of tough paper, about 2 ins. wide, is then glued to 
each side and turned aromid on the glass, which holds them firmly in. 
place. Twelve frames thus made into tic o surplus boxes, just cover the 
top, and another tier, above this, furnish room for 50 lbs of honey, in 
the best shape for market or home use, the cost of these frame boxes 
being less than half that of the common glass boxes. 

Another important auxihary to the apiculturist will be found in 
the Honey Extractor, represented herewith. This is a geared ma- 
chine made of metal, or other suitable material, fitted with an 




HONEY EXTRACTORS. 



interior arrangement for receiving the movable frames containing 
tlie comb and honey from the hive. The centrifugal force generat- 
ed by the rapid rotary motion of the frame causes the honey to fly 




in every direction against the inner side of the machine, and flow 

down into the vessel beneath. The frame and perfect comb, minus 
the honey, is then returned to the hive to be again filled with lioney. 
This operation may be repeated with the same comb for twelve oi* 
fifteen years, if required and the value of the device may be imma° 





66 ON BEE KEEPING. 

gined when it is known that each ponnd of the comb, so far as the 
labor of the bees is concerned, is equivalent or equal to the collec- 
tion of twenty pounds of honey. The knife represented herewith is 
used for uncapping honey for extracting. 

As the utility of the preceding remarks will be greatly enhanced 
by additional information regarding bees, we herewith append the fol- 
lowing excellent representations of the tenants of the hive, together 
with practical instructions for profitable management. 




QUEEN* DRONE. BLACK WORKER. ITAL. WORKER, 

The Italian bees are becoming great favorites wherever they hav© 
been introduced, and are rapidly supplanting the black bees. " They 
are credited with being very industrious workers, making three 
flights for every two made by the black bees, and storing much more 
than double tlie honey, besides being more prolific, as is evidenced 
by their m6re frequent swarming. Besides, the Italian bee is very 
hardy, working earlier and later in the season and gathermg honey 
from sources not frequented by the common bee. 

Useful Hints for Beginners. — 1. Work quietly; avoid sudden 
jars ; never fight 3'our bees, and always keep cool. 2. If you get 
stung, remove the sting, squeeze out all the poison you can, and ap- 
ply hartshorn. 3. Use plenty of smoke ; a roll of drj^ rags or decay- 
ed wood makes the best ; blow in the entrance and at the top of 
frames. If you are timid, use rubber gloves on your hands, and, a 
veil over the face and head ; the veil must be long enough to allow 
the vest or coat to be put on over it. 4. When pasture first becomes 
plenty in the spring is a good time to transfer bees. Always work 
among the hives during the middle of the day, when the bees are 
busy. 5. Stocks without eggs or young brood m June, must be 
queenless and should be supplied with a queen or queen cell, or they 
will dwmdle away and perish either by robbers or moth. 6. When 
symptoms of roblaing occur, use the utmost caution. Contract the 
entrance of weak hives, and allow no comb, honey, sugar or syrup 
to be around. Avoid opening hives as much as possible. 7. Avoid an 
excess of drone comb by the presence of a queen in swarms where 
combs are to be constructed. As swarms having young queens sel- 
dom swarm that year, less drone comb is built in, swarms having 
young queens. 8. Quiet is essentially necessary to the well-being of 
an apiary. Do not place it near Mills, Steam Works, or Manufac- 
tories of any kind. If possible have it in view from the windows of 



ON BEE KEEPING. 



67 



the family room, as mncH extra trouble may be avoided. 9. As 
natural talent or business tact, is requisite, witli education to success 
in business, so a careful turn of mind and a love for the business, 
with an understanding of the subject, is necessary to success in bee- 
keeping. 10. Put en honey boxes partly filled with comb as soon as 
the'^lower part of the hive is well filled with honey and bees, and 
Avhen they are gathering honey plentifully ; commence with only one 
or two boxes at a time on the most populous stocks. 11. In transfer- 
ring combs always give those the x)ref erence that contain worker 




DRONE AXD YrORKER COMB. 

brood. Pat brood comb near the centre of the hive in the order in 
which they were in the box hive. Do your transferring where rob- 
bers cannot possibly be attracted. 12. "Avoid weak sv^^arms, as they 
gather but little honey, breed slowly, and are in danger of destruc- 
tion by robbers, the *^moth, or severity of winter. Weak swarms 
should always be united in the fall, and should never be made by 
di^dding early in the season. 13. Whenever you notice the bees run- 
ning about the entrance in the evening in a disturbed condition, mark 
that hive and notice it the next evening. If the bees run about 
smelling each other, it is a sign they have lost their queen and 
should receive attention. 14. In establishing an apiar>', select a 
gentle slope to the south-east; face the hives in the sam^e direction, if 
possible have running water near ; shade and protection from winda 
and the heat of the sun are important. Set every hive as perpendi- 
cular as a clock — for a stand, take two short pieces of 4 x 6 scantling" 
and lay or nail on a board. 15. To make queen cages, cut wire cloth 



68 



ON BEE KEEPING. 



3x4 inches; pull out two or three transverse wires from one of the 3 
inch edges, and insert the projecting ends thus left in the corres- 
ponding meshes of the other three inch edge, and fasten them ; stop 
one end with a cork or wood. AVhen you wish to introduce a 
queen, put her in the cage and stoj) the other end with wax. IG. A 
lew inches of drone comb is amply abundant for any hive, 
as drones consume a great deal of honey and gather none. The 
movable frame hive renders any preventive operation very easy : the 
cut will euable the beginner to identify the drone by the large 
cells. 17. In the Northern States and British Provinces, experiments 
dem.onstrated that bees wintered in the open air have consumed 
about 45 lbs. of honey per hive, Avhile bees wintered in the cellar 




COMB SnOWTNG BKOOD AND QUEEX CELI;. 

during the same period consumed on an average only 5 lbs each In 
another case 6 hives wintered out of doors lost an average of 29^ lbs, 
in weight each, during 3 m.onths, while 20 hives in the cellar lost 
only 5 J lbs, each, during the same time. Do not place them in the 
cellar until the severe weather begins ; give them plenty of upward 
ventilation in order to pass off the vapor generated from the bees ; 
place the hives in rows on shelves, keep them in a clean dark place, 



ON BEE KEEPING. 69 

but not in a damp or badly ventilated cellar, for that is certain death 
to bees, and keep wire cloth tacked over the entrance to each hive ; 
if a dry absorbent material such as cut straw or shavings, can be 
placed in the upper part of the hive to receive and absorb the un- 
healthy emanations from the bees, ail the better ; in out door wintering 
especially, this is a most desirable plan, as it retains the heat while 
it absorbs the effluvia. 18. Bees wintered on their summer stands 
should always be allowed from 30 to 50 lbs, of honey to each colony 
and extra protection around the hive if the cold is very intense, 19. 
When eggs are deposited by the queen in the cells prepared by the 
workers, in 3 days they hatch into small worms which are nurtured 
and fed , until about the eighth day the larvae becom.e nymphs, and 
are sealed up in their cells to reappear as perfect bees. The queen 
bee emerges in from 10 to 17 days, the drone in 24, and the workers 
in 21 days from the egg. The cut illustrates a comb showing brood 
and queen'cell but the artist has not succeeded very well in representing 
the royal form with which nature has endowed her majesty. In from 3 
to 5 days after emerging, the queen leaves the hive to meet the drones in 
the air, for fertilization. She never leaves the hive at any other times- 
except when she goes with a swarm, and one copulation is all sufficient 
to ensure fertility for life. Under favorable circumstances she will 
deposit 3000 eggs per day. 20. in introducing an Italian queen to a 
colony of common bees, enclose her in a wire cloth cage and insert 
the cage in the centre of a comb where the bees will cluster upon it. 
In 36 hours release the queen, smear her with honey, and allow her 
to crawl down among the bees. 21. When bees are short of honey 
a good and cheap food may be provided by using good coffee sugar, 
4 lbs, added to water, 1 qt. , bring to a boil, skim and allow it to cooL 
22. Another. Take of the best quality of brown sugar, two parts by 
measure, to one part of pure soft water ; boil and skim it ; then to 
-every quart of the mixture, add one even teaspoonful of the best crears- 
tartar ; dissolve the cream tartar before putting it in. Remove the 
empty comb with the frame from the hive fill them by allowing the 
syrup to drain through a proper strainer into the cells, and then 
return the frames to the hive. With box hives, use seme good feedei- 
or a dish of proper size to set under the cap on the top of the hive ; 
fill the dish wiih the syrup, and throw on iBne shavings or cut straw, 
to prevent the bees from falling into it. 23. The best substitute for 
bee bread or natural pollen is rye flour unbolted. In the absence of 
rye, use other flour. 24. The damp air may be drawn from a cellar 
in which bees are being wintered by connecting the cellar and your 
stove pipe by means of a 2 inch tin pipe passing up through the floor. 
25, In hivmg bees, nse diluted honey or white sugar syrup, damp the 
inside of your liive and gently sprinkle the bees with the liquid ; it 
will render them so happy that you may handle them as you please. 
Surplus Honey Stored in Boxes.— "Those having bees in 
common hives, and who wish their surplus honey stored in boxes, 
Tvill obtain the greatest amount and avoid many disappointments by 
attending to the following conditions : 1; The boxes should be tight 
and large, but not over four or five inches high, and protected from 
the changes of the weather by an outer cap. 2. The bees should be 
induced to commence in them by attaching pieces of clean empty 
combs to the under side of the top, ^nd placing the boxes directly 



70 ON BEE KEEPING. 

over tiie breeding apartment, witli large openings under each box to 
admit the bees. 3. Early in the season select a lew populous stocks, 
giving a box to each, and when the bees have commenced in them, 
give boxes to the next strongest, being careful not to give too much 
room mitil a start has been made. 4. Keep the hives cool by shad- 
ing from the sun, and if the bees cluster outside, when flowers are 
plenty, ventilate by enlarging the entrances and giving more room in 
the boxes if needed. After a populous stock has nearly filled its 
boxes it will often take long enough time to finish them, to have 
half filled empty ones, besides the difficulty so often experienced in 
getting the bees to commence in the boxes after those first filled are 
removed, which objections are both overcome in the American hive, 
described in the article on hives." Bee-Keepers' Text Book. 

Hatching and Fertilization of Queens.— "In about eight 
days after the old queen leaves with the first swarm, the most advan- 
ced sealed queen is ready to emerge. During this time the old stock 
is without a hatched queen, the young queen immediately upon leav- 
ing her cell, if not restrained by the workers, commences the work of 
destruction upon her yet imprisoned sisters. She accomplishes this 
by biting open the side of each cell near its base, and dispatching the 
unfortunate inmate with her sting. She is yet incompetent for the 
maternal duty, and must leave the hive to meet the drones in the air 
for the purpose of fertihzation. This once accomplished, the work- 
ers, awaiting her safe return, greet her with a reverence and affec- 
tion never shown before. They hasten to prepare the cells to receive 
her tuiy eggs, and seem to realize that on her existence the perpetua- 
tion of the family depends. There is also a perceptible change in the 
queen's form, her abdomen being a little swollen and somewhat 
lengthened, but not as much as at the height of the breeding sea- 
son. She now remains the fruitful mother of the prosperous and 
happy colony." Bee-Keepers' Text Book. 

To Prevent new Swarms from leaving their Hives. — 
*' Natural swarms occasionally refuse to stay after having been hived, 
usually in consequence of heat or strong odor about the hive. In 
nucleus swarming this seldom or never happens, because the bees 
are never Avithout a comb containing brood and honey ; and they 
will not leave voluntarily. Therefore when hiving ii swarm in a 
moveable comb hive, go to any stock that can spare a comb contain- 
ing brood and honey. Brush back the bees, being careful not to 
remove the queen or any queen-cells with comb, and place it in the 
hive that is to receive the new swarm. It will not only prevent the 
bees from decamping but will greatly encourage them, and should 
bad weather confine them to the hive they will be secure from star- 
vation. If the swarm is put in a common hive, place over them a 
box of honey taken from the parent stock." Bee-Keepers' Text Book. 

The Nucleus System of Swarming.—" The introduction of a 
mature fertile queen to a colony tioo loeeks sooner than ichen ihey 
sivarm naturally is an advantage sufficient to pay for the extra 
trouble. The time gained in breeding is equivalent to a swarm. M. 

QUINBY. 

In swarming bees on this system, we first rear a queen in a small 
cluster nucleus of bees, allowing the nucleus hive to remain in its 
;)lace until the queen becomes fertile, wlieii we swarm the bees by 



ON BEE KEEPING. 



71 



simply causing the two hives to exchanf^e places. Unlike natural 
swarming, the old queen remains in the parent stock and its labors 
go on scarcely interrupted. The system is based upon the well known 
law, that bees, after luxuriating upon the flowers, will return to the 
exact spot of their old habitation. Form a nucleus from an Italian or 
other populous stock by blowing a few whiffs of smoke mto the en- 
trance and opening the hive ; select a frame of comb containing caj)- 
ped brood, but especially plenty of eggs and young larvse. After 
looking this over carefully, lest the old queen be removed, place it 
with its adhering bees in the empty hive, and next to it another comb 
containing honey, which will afford protection to the brood and food 

for the bees. As many of the old bees 
will return to the parent stock, give the 
nucleus hive at least a quart of bees 
and set it on a new stand two or three 
rods distant. Contract the entrance so 
that l)ut one or two bees can pass at the 
same time, and set a feed pan on the 
frames, or a sponge filled with sweet- 
ened water will supply their wants until 
the yoimg bees go to work in their new 
location. In place of the combs removed 
from the parent-stock, set in empty 
frames with a full one between. If the 
frames are put near the centre, the old 
stock will increase all the faster, as the 
queen will fill the new comb with eggs as 
fast as it is built. The removal of the 
two combs stimulates the bees to great 
activity by giving them room to work, 
and detaches just bees enough to prevent 
their clustering idly about the entrance. 
Tlie nucleus wiU construct queen-cehs 
and rear a queen as -well as a whole 
swarm. Besides, the queen is easily found among so few bees. We 
now wait until the tenth or eleventh day, from the time the nucleus 
was formed, when we open it, and witk a sharp thin bladed knife, cut 
out all the queen-cells hut one and use them immediately in forming 
other nucleus, by attachmg one of them to a frame of comb and bees 
taken from an old stock, as before described, and placed in an empty 
hive. In transferring queen-cells great care must be taken not to 
press or dent them, or expose them long to the hot sun or cool air for 
fear of destroying the royal occupants. The beginners should re-' 
move but one "at a time, returning the frame from which it is taken 
to its place in the hive until the royal cell is adjusted in its new loca- 
tion. When practicable have about an inch square of comb attached 
to the cell, and upon taking the comb or brood from the old stock, 
make an opening among the eggs and larv- se where bees will be 
sure to cluster upon it and keep it warm, and carefully in- 
sert it as shown in figure, leaving an open space below it. 
If the first nucleus was formed from the only Italian stock 
in the yard, and more queen-ceils are wanted, remove every queen- 
ceU from it, and add another comb of eggs and brood from its parent 




72. 



ON BEE-KEEPING, 



stock. Bu J when no more queen-cells are needed, leave one to hatch, 
and as by this time the brood will all be capped over, the bees will be 
liable to follow the young queen on her excursions to meet the drones. 
To prevent this, exchange one of the combs for one containing eggs 
and young larvae. When forming the other nucleus, young queens 
will return unless lost by birds or other casualties, to which all queens 
are once exposed. Such loss is easily ascertained among so few bees, 
and we have only to insert another queen-cell, adding a comb contain- 
ing eggs and brood and repeat the trial. Should the parent stock be 
very populous it may be swarmed by taking a queen from the nucleus 
belonging to a less populous stock, and another queen reared there. 

When and how to Swarm the Bees. — ^Every populous stock, from 
which a nucleus has been formed, should be swarmed, if the weather 
is favorable, as soon as the queen in the nucleus has become fertile. 
This is, usually, in from six to ten days after inserting the queen-cell, 
and is readily determined by examining the combs for eggs. We now, 
unless the yield of honey is very abundant, confine the young queen 
in a gauze wire cage. Havmg filled up the nucleus hives with empty 
frames, exchange the places of the two hives, brmging the entrance 
of the nucleus hive where the old stock has stood, and where the mass 
of the old bees will return from the fields, thus throwing out of the 
old stock swarms of workers into the nucleus hive while the old bees 
from the nucleus will enter the old hive and minister to the wants of 
the numerous brood of the parent stock. The bees must not be swarm- 
ed between the hatching and the fertilization of the queen, and should 
they be swarmed when the honey harvest has received a check from 
a storm or drought, the bees thus empty ot honey and consequently 
more quarrelsome, being suddenly thro^Ti hito the presence of a 
strange queen (although of the same scent) are inclined to sting her. 
To prevent this she is caged for thiity-six hours, when the bees from 
the old stock will mostly have joined the nucleus colony and she may 
be safely liberated. But, if she was taken from another nucleus, we 
sometimes let her remain caged a day longer, or smear her well with 
warm honey, and drop her in among the bees. Thej^ immediately 
commence licking up the honey, and/07Y/ei to sting her. If from any 
cause the stocks are swarmed when the*^ bees are Avorking but little, 
and after three or four days the nucleus swarm be found deficient in 
bees, it may be strengthened by exchanging some of its empty frames 
for frames of capped brood from the parent stock, or should the flowers 
yield bountifully within a week, the location of the two hives may 
again be exchanged. The bees will not quarrel as they are of the 
same scent. Unless a nucleus has been formed several weeks, or when 
honey is scarce, it is sometimes necessary to treat both stocks, especi- 
ally the old one, to tobacco smoke. This precaution, however, is only 
for the inexperienced, since, in the midst of the swarming season, 
when the flowers are in profusion, little protection is needed either for 
the queen or the operator. 

Hens Made to Protect Bees. — A bee raiser has patented an in- 
vention for the protection of bees from the attacks of the honey moth, 
which enters the hives at night, and rifles the stores. The idea arose 
out of his familiarity with the daily routine, not of bees only, but of 
hens. Hens, he observed, retire to rest early ; but bees seek repose 
earlier still ; no sooner are they sunk into slumber, than the moth 
steals into their abode and devours the produce of their toil. He has 



ON BEE-KEEPING. 



73 



now built a stand of liives with a hen house connected. The bees first 
betake themselves to their dwelling and settle themselves for the 
night. The hens then come home to roost on their perch, and as they 
take their places upon it, their weight sets some simple mechanicism 
to work, which at once shuts down the doors of all the hives. When 
the day dawns, however, the hens leave their roost, and the removal 
of their weight from the perch raises the hive doors, and gives egress 
to the bees in time for their morning's work. 




Explanation of the above Cuts. — The cut A represents brood 
in various stages from eggs and larvse in the lower part of the comb to 
brood capped at e, and just emerging at/; n, is a queen-cell just 
commenced at from larvse ; 6, a perfect queen-cell capped over ; a, 
a cell from which the queen has just emerged. B represents queen- 
cells destroyed ; C unimpregnated queen; D fertile queen; E male 
moth or miller ; F female miller. 

To Kill Bee Moths. — Bee moths can easily be killed by setting a 
pan of grease on which is placed a floating lighted wick, near the 
hives after dark : the light will attract the moths in large numbers, 
when they will be destroyed by falling into the grease . 

Many persons are deriving substantial yearly incomes amounting 
to thousands of dollars from bee-keeping, and it is credibly reported 
that the late Mr. Quimby left property valued at $100,000, all derived 
from this source alone. Mr. Quimby wrote that the honey gathered 
by bees compared with what was lost for the lack of bees to gather it, 
was but as 1 compared with 1,000, so that it seems as if a careful per- 
son, engaged in bee-keeping, and thoroughly equipped with all mod- 
em appliances for the business, possesses, as old honest Sam Johnson 



74 BEE-KEEPING, &C. 

once expressed himself regarding a different subject, " The potential- 
ity of growing rich beyond the dreams of avarice,'* and what is of 
still greater importance, the pleasure derived from the business is al- 
most ineffable in comparison with the satisfaction of being rich. 

Limited space forbids the further consideration of this attractive 
subject in this place, and the author would conclude by expressing 
his sincere obligations to the editor of the " Bee-Keeper's Magazine " 
for according permission to make extracts from the varied contents of 
an excellent little manual called the "Bee-Keeper's Text Book," and 
other reliable sources of information. For the benefit of parties de- 
siring further light on this fascinatmg topic, he would state that the 
"Bee-Keeper's Magazine" will fill the entire bill of their require- 
ments. It is a. first rate illustrated monthly journal of 32 octavo pages, 
devoted exclusively to Bee-Culture, edited by Albert J. King, con- 
taining monthly contributions from Mrs. E. S. Tupper, and other 
eminent writers and bee-keepers in both Europe and America. A 
large space is devoted to Beginners, giving useful information, Jwsi 
lohen it is needed, throughout the year. Terms $1.50 per year. The 
proprietors will send the Magazine four months on trial, and include 
a 64 page pamphlet (price 50 cents), containing a beautiful life-like 
chromo of Honey-Plants and Italian Bees in their natural colors; 
Prize Essay by Mrs. Tupper ; Queen Rearing by M. Quimby; instruc- 
tions for beginners, &c. , all for 50 cents. Address, King & Slocum, 
61 Hudson street, New York. 

Food for Mocking Birds. — Mix well together corn meal, pea 
meal (made by drying split peas in an oven and then grinding them 
in a mill), each one part, moss meal, prepared from the moss seed 
imported from Germany, J part, add sufficient melted lard not to make 
it too fat or greasy, and sweeten with molasses . Fry the mixture in 
a frying-pan for J an hour, stirring it all the time, to avoid burning. 
Mocking, and other birds of like nature, will leave all other food for 
this. 



FOR LUMBERMEN, BUILDERS, CONTRACTORS, 
MILL OWNERS, SHIP BUILDERS, SHIP OWNERS, 
NAVIGATORS, QUARRYMEN, STONE CUTTERS, 
MERCHANTS, AND BUSINESS MEN GENERALLY. 

To Prevent wood from Cracking. — Place the wood in a bath 
of fused paraffine heated to 212^ Fahr. and allow it to remain as long 
as bubbles of air are given off. Then allow the paraffine to cool down 
to its point of congelation, and remove the wood and wipe off the 
adhering wax : wood. treated in this way is not likely to crack. 

To Bend Wood. — Wood enclosed in a close chamber and submitted 
to the action of steam for a limited time will be rendered so pliant 
that it may be bent in almost any direction. The same process will 
also eliminate the sap from the wood and promote rapid seasoning. 

Fire Proofing for W^ood. — Alum, 3 parts; green vitriol, 1 part; 
make a strong hot solution with water, make another weak solution 
with green vitriol in which pipe clay has been mixed to the consis- 
tence of a paint. Apply two coats of the first, dry, and then finish with 
one coat of the last. 



LUMBERMEN S CA:\rP. 



75 




LUMBERMAN'S SHANTY OR CAMP. 

Many of the honest farmers and sturdy lumbermen of the North- 
ern States, Canada and JS ew Brunswick, will be at no loss to under- 
stand the uses of the humble mansion represented in the cut, and 
many a forest wanderer and w,eary hunter will identify the modest 
habitation as the counterpart of another where he has been refreshed 
by the substantial meal, and invigorated by the peaceful slumber en- 
joyed under the hospitable roof. However poor the lumberman may 
be, however numerous his trials and privations, and we are sorry to 
say they are not few in number, this we will say, that whether you are 
known or unknown, rich or poor, whether you are bent on business 
or pleasure, in the lumber camp you are always made to feel at home ; 



76 



CUTTING LOGS, &C. 



the *'bestm the house" is at your service, and hospitality is dis- 
pensed with a princely generosity. Under such circumstances it is 
wisdom to accept and folly to refuse the proffered beneficence, and 
many can attest that they have enjoyed these kind offices to exhaust- 
ed humanity with a relish (thanks to the i)ure oxygen so bountifully 
supplied to their lungs by a forest atmosphere), known to but few in 
the dwellings of the wealthj'-, or in the sumptuous and costly hotels 
of tlie crowded city, with their bountiful and costly bills of fare, em- 
bracing the best in the market. 




CUTTING LOGS IN THE WESTERN PINE FORESTS. 

The usual time for commencmg lumbermg operations in New* 
Brunswick and many parts of Canada, is in the faU, soon after the 



CUTTING LOGS, AC 



77 




LOADING PINE LOGS I^T THE WESTERN FOPwESTS. 

operators, many of whom are farmers, liave safely housed their cro])s, 
consisting of hay, oats, buckwheat, potatoes, &c., and the Avork con- 
tinues with very little intermission until towards spring. It must be 
confessed that lumbering pursuits are not well calculated to produce, 
in the minds of those who follow them, a very strong bias towards 
scientific agriculture, the tendency being rather to produce derange- 
ment in that respect, but there seems to be a fascination in the busi- 
ness which very few who enter upon it seem able to resist, and much 
of the farmmg work is considered by many as only of secondary con- 
sequence compared with lumbering, being stimulated principally^ by 
the necessity arising for agricultural j)roducts in the lumber camps, 
and for family uses at home. 

In selecting the site for a camp, the principal object is to obtain a 
• central position within easy reach of water, and an ample supply of 
timber adapted to the wants of the market. It is also of great con- 
sequence that it should be easily accessible for the purpose of trans- 
porting, or " portaging," as it is termed, the substantial supplies re- 



78 



BREAKING A JAM. 




BREAKING A JAM. 



quired by the men and horses engaged in the work, and convenient to 
a suitable " landing," usually on or near a stream, where the logs are 
unloaded to await the breaking up of the ice, and the spring floods, 
which are to convey them to their destination. The work is systemati- 
cally conducted, every man from the boss to the cook having his post, 
but the labor is very severe, and taxes the utmost energies of both 
man and beast, some of the loads drawn by the latter being of enorm- 
ous bulk and weight. This kind of toil continues during the fall and 
winter months, only to give place in the spring to another form of 
labor, which is, if possible, still more arduous, and is certainly more 
dangerous; that of "driving" the lumber down stream. The driv- 
ing operations are commenced by rolling the logs into the stream on 
the breaking up of the ice and guiding them down the current, the 
poor fellows being often up to the waist in cold water, and when a 
*' jam," or lock of the timber takes place in the stream, owing to ob- 
structions or barriers of any kind, the danger of "breaking" it is 
positively fearful, many having been killed outright, by the sudden 
" shoot " taken by the liberated timber as it rushes forward, impelled 
by the surging floods in the rear. 



ON LUMBERING. 79 

In lumbering districts the season of active work for cutting timber 
ranges from November until towards the middle of March ; in New 
Brunswick much of the work performed in (jetting outy or hewing 
birch timber, is done during the summer months, but the cutting and 
haulmg of spruce logs is the principal object of winter operations. 
In getting out birch timber, the tree is felled and hewn square to the 
largest available dimensions, and allowed to remain till sleighing sets 
in before being hauled to the stream for transportation. Owing to 
the density of birch timber much of it is lost by submergence in the 
water, and for the purpose of rendering it more buoyant it is usual to 
induce floatation by forming connections with spruce logs or other tim- 
ber of light specific gravity. The rigorous climate of the Northern 
States and ■ Canada is most favorable for the growth of hardy mer- 
chantable timber, such as pine, spruce, &c., but is inimical to mahog- 
any, box, lignumvitae and other dense tropical woods which require 
a warm climate. 

Timber grown in humid, swampy or wet localities, with the excep- 
tion of cedar, willow, poplar, &c . , is not so firm, sound, and durable 
as that grown on dry and elevated situations, where the soil is largely 
composed of loam interspersed with sand, gravel and stones. Trees 
selected from the midst of the forest possess greater elegance of form 
and are usually straighter, less knotty, and more merchantable every 
way, than timber exposed to the ravages of storms, &c., on the con- 
fines adjacent to the clearings, or on hill sides and exposed places, 
sheltered situations being the most favorable for the groivth of timber, 
but not so promotive oi hardness as unprotected localities. A dense, 
dark, green color in the leaves of trees during June and July indicates 
a sound, healthy growth, while the sere and yellow leaves, scanty in- 
number, decaying branches, with spotted, streaked, loosened and dis- 
eased bark, indicates defective timber. To secure timber in its best 
condition for long endurance, it should be cut during mid-winter, say 
in January or February, and during July in summer, and should be 
. worked up as soon as possible by sawing, splitting or hewing, into the 
desired dimensions. 

The nature of the various departments of the work is very well 
illustrated in the cuts presented herewith, which are engraved m the 
best style from exceedingly fine photographs of actual scenes in the 
Western forests, and therefore truthfully'- depict the various stages of 
getting out lumber, from the cuttmg down of the great trees, sawing 
them into lengths, hauling them out, and finally " landing "the logs 
on or near the stream, in readiness for the spring freshet to drive 
them to market. Though many of these streams are too shallow in 
summer to float an Indian in the lightest bark canoe, yet, when 
swollen by spring freshets, each one becomes a wide and deep 
river. 

Many ingenious contrivances have been constructed to procure tim- 
ber from mountauis. A novel locomotive has been made in Califor- 
nia to run on the long flumes that are used to float lumber down 
from high elevations. The wheels fit on the edge of the sides of 
the flume, an# at the ends of the car are paddle wheels dipping into 
the water, and which are turned by the swift current. By a simple 
arrangement, this power is made to propel the locomotive up the 
flume, and it runs back itself. Alpnach, in Switzerland, as is well 
known, was, during war time widely noted for its famous slide, or 



80 



ON LUMBERING. 




UiTLOADIKG LOGS OlST THE LANDING. 

wooden trough/contaming a stream of water, iii wliicli the timber 
was launched with terrific velocity from the forests on Mount Pilatus 
into Lake Lucerne, a distance of 8 miles. 

Spruce forests possess a wonderful recuperative power, it being 
well known that they may be stripped of merchantable timber dur- 
ing any given year, and ten j^ears subsequently, if nothing happens, 
another harvest will be ready for the axe. The great bane of all for- 
ests is fire, and the loss resulting from this one cause is simply incal- 
culable. While it is true that many forest fires are accidental, it can- 
not be denied that the majority are purposely set ; and, while such 
atrocious wickedness caimot be too severely denounced, it is equally 
true that owing to the privacy of the act,' and consequent want of 
proof, the offender too frequently escapes the retribution which his 
enormities deserve. The recent forest fires in Michigan, Wisconsin, 
and other places, proved terribly destructive, and the ^called "great 
Miramichi fire'* wUl be memorable for generations to come, on ac- 
count of the terrible destruction of human life and propertj^ of every 
kind effected by it. Many of the old settlers on the Miramichi have 
a vivid remembrance of that awful calamity, and can recount many 



SEASONING OF TIMBER. 81 

harrowing narratives of suffering, consternation, death and hair- 
breadth escapes during that terrible time, when the sky appeared as 
one sheet of flame, emitting a universal rain of lire, wliich de- 
stroyed everything in its course, even burning the soil from the 
earth, rendering thousands of acres a barren desert to this day. 

A most singular case of forest-destruction occurred many years 
ago, as related by the Allemaine Zeitung, in which a subterranean 
fire, undoubtedly of volcanic origin, burnt the roots of 250 acres of 
forest trees at Magland, in Switzerland, which, falling, were also con- 
sumed ; flames also, issued near Lausanne. 

Seasoning and Preserving Timber. — This may be effected — 1st. 
By piling and completely ventilating under cover for a period 
of from two to five years, for thorough seasoning. 2nd. By immer- 
sion in water for a few weeks. This improves all kinds of timber, 
both flat, square and round. If a man wishes to season green boards 
quickly, let him throw them into Avater, — all the better if it is run- 
ning Avater, — and the sap will be withdrawn very rapidly : a sliort 
subsequent exposure to the air will be all that is necessary. 3rd. 
Fell your trees during June and July, while in full leaf, and allow 
them to lie until every leaf has fallen ; it is said the leaves will ex- 
haust nearly all the sap from the tree, leaving it dry in from one 
month to six weeks, according to the dryness or wetness of the 
weather. 4th. Small pieces of non-resinous wood can be seasoned 
perfectly by boiling four or five hours ; the process taking the sap 
out of the wood, which shrinks nearly one-tenth in the operation. 
5th. Kiln-diying, is adapted only for boards and small timber ; it is Lia- 
ble to check, crack, and otherwise injure the wood, unless the process is 
cautiously conducted. Black walnut cannot be seasoned in this way 
at all : for this wood use Process No. 1. 6th. Steaming.— This pro- 
cess has been adopted by some, and has proved successful in elimin- 
atmg the sap from the wood. 7th. Kyanizing consists in the satura- 
ration of the wood with corrosive sublimate, — solution, 1 lb. of chlo- 
ride of mercury in 4 gals, water. 8th. Burnettizing . — By this process, 
impregnation of the wood is effected by submitting it to an end-ways 
pressure of 150 lbs. to the square inch, — solution, 1 lb. of the chlo- 
ride to 10 gals, water. 9th. Boucheri's Process. — Impreg-nation is 
effected as in the last instance, using a pressure of 15 lbs. to the 
square inch, — solution, 1 lb. sulphate of copper to 12J gals, of 
water. 10th. BethoV s Process. — As above, by submitting "the wood 
to an end-ways pressure of 150 to 200 lbs. per square inch, Avith creo- 
sote oil intermixed with bituminous matter, lltla. Rohhins' Process. — 
See full description of this process in the Mechanical Dei3artment of 
this work. 12th. Samuel Wood*s Process, consists in vaporizing and 
withdrawing the sap from the wood, as described in Bobbins' Process, 
and forcing in a solution of sulphate of iron at a pressure of 175 lbs. 
per square inch for thirty minutes ; then finishing with another solu- 
tion of carbonate of lime. 

In preserving and seasonuig wood by impregnation with coal tar, 
creosote, etc., it is essential that the juices of the wood should be com- 
pletely withdrawn and the albumen coagulated, otherwise decay vrill 
ensue. Wood treated in this way repels decay, the attacks of worms, 
etc., and is greatly increased in strength and resilience. • 

Dr. Feuchtwanger's process for preser^^ing wood consists in steam- 

6 



82 SEASONING OF TIMBER. 

ing the timber, and injecting a solution of silicate of soda for eight 
hours ; afterwards, soak wood for the same period in lime-water. 

George Woods, the celebrated organ manufacturer, in Cambridge- 
port, near Boston, has also discovered and patented a very valuable 
method of seasoning timber. 

Lumber is improved by repiling, and the shifting of its position at 
proper intervals. Violent currents of heated air cause cracks, etc., in 
the lumber during natural seasoning ; a moderate temperature is the 
best in every respect. The proportion of water in different woods 
varies from 26 to 50 per cent. A beam of green oak w^eighing 972 lbs. 
lost 342 lbs. by seasoning. 

The best results are attained by piling the lumber under shelter in 
properly arranged piles, elevated on blocks at least 2 feet from the 
ground, each kind of timber by itself, with 1 inch slats interposed be- 
tween the boards at short distances, to keep them straight, and permit 
the air to circulate freely, while square and round logs should be 
stripped of bark and raised from the ground. 

The best timber, is that which has been allowed to attain full ma- 
turity previous to being felled. The age of a tree is easily determined 
by the number of concentric rings displayed on the stump. Spruce 
and fir matures very rapidly, pine more slowly, and oak matures in 
from 75 to 200 years. White oak is said to be favorably influenced 
by the vicinity of sea water; the growth of many other trees is re- 
pressed by it. In Nova Scotia the great valley extending from Com- 
wallis to Digby, is noted for the enormous quantity and excellent 
quality of the fruit produced, while on the other side of the mountam 
fronting the Bay of Fundy, the propagation of fruit trees has proved 
an entire failure, and no man could form any conception of the pro- 
digious extent of the New Brunswick forests from a steamer's deck, 
while sailing along the treeless, rock-bound coast of that Province. 

The best timber in a tree is always the part near the ground. The 
quality of the wood may be frequently determined by a healthy, 
fresh, and uniform appearance, free from white or yellow spots, 
blending to a deeper shade near the heart. Yelloio stains indicate 
the existence of dry rot, caused by the fermentation of the albumen 
in the wood ; and the sapwood, being liable to early decay on account 
of the putrefactive decomposition of the vegetable juices, should be 
removed. The loss to lumbermen from this cause, when they are 
obliged to *' hang up,'* or abandon their drives, owing to the insufll- 
ciency of water in the stream to float them to their destination, is very 
great, and in the event of failure to drive them down with the ensuing 
fall or spring floods, often proves ruinous. 

The excellence of timber is liable to be impaired by many causes, 
among others, 1. Wind-shakes or circular chinks, or rents, involving 
the separation of the annular layers of wood from each other; a very 
bad imperfection. 2. Brashrwood, caused by deterioration or decay 
in the timber,induced by age, imparting a brittle crumbling grain to the 
wood, together with a reddish and porous appearance. 3. Twisted loood 
is very unsafe for long stretches, on account of its liability to break 
suddenly, owing to the screAV like formation of the grain. 4. Splits^ 
checks, and cracks, if greatly expanded and enlarged, almost ruin 
the timber for any useful purpose except the most common kind ; 
the same is true concerning, 5. Knotty timber, which though it may 



SEASONING OF TIMBER. 



83 



be substantial is not well adapted for fine work, but subserves many 
important uses, such as roofing, fencing, &c. 6. Belted timber, con- 
sists of trees Tvhich were dead and partially decayed previous to being 
felled; usually very bad. 7. Common rot. — Timber and lumber of 
various kinds, are liable to be affected in this way, whenever exposed 
to alternate humidity and dryness. It may also be induced by im- 
perfect ventilation in sheds, and manifests itself by yellow decaying 
spots, and a sulphur colored dust in the apertures and crevices of the 
timber. 8. Perforated timber. — This mischief is caused by worms 
and insects which infest timber and exist on the albumen, sugar, &c 
contained in it. Submerged timber is affected in a similar manner by 
the ravages of the Teredo navilis, a genus of testaceous mollusks. 
Number of Cubic Feet of Timber in a To^^r (Avoirdupois), to- 
gether WITH THE Weight in lbs. per Cubic Foot. 





"T!^ 


Cubic 




Tbs" 


Cubic 


Woods. 


per 
Cubic 


Feet 
per 


Woods. 


per 
Cubic 


Feet 
per 




Foot. 


Ton. 




Foot. 


Ton. 


Alder, dry. 

Ash, " 1 


50. 
52.812 


44.80 
42.414 


Larch, dry. | 


34. 
35. . 


65.8 


43.125 




Lignum Vitae. 


83.312 


26.866 


Apple, '* 


49.562 


45.18 


Logwood. 


57.062 


39.225 


Bay, 


43.601 
51.375 


43.601 


Mahogany. 


35. 
66.437 


64. 
33.714 


Beech. 


43.8 




Maple, dry. 


46.876 


47.66 


(( (< 


53.25 




Oak, Canadian. 


54.5 


41.101 


Birch, common. 


43.8 




*' English. 


58.25 


38.455 


*< American black. 


46.9 




** live, seasoned. 


66.75 


33.558 


Box. 


62.5 


39.40 


" '' green. 


78.75 




Bullet-wood. 


58. 




" white upland. 


43. 


52.09 


Butternut, dry. 


23.5 




Pear, dry. 


41.312 




Cedar, " 


35.62 


63.866 


Plumj " 


49.062 


47.47 


Cork, 


15. 


149.333 


Poplar. 


26.31 




Cherry, ** 


44.687 




Pine, pitch, dry. 


41.25 


54.303 


Chestnut, " 


38.125 




*' red, " 


36.875 


60.745 


Ebony, mean of 2 sets. 


79.4 




" white, '* 


34.625 


64.693 


Elm, dry. 


41.937 


53.25 


'* well seasoned. 


29.562 


75.773 


35.625 


62.97 


" yellow. 


33.812 


66.248 


Fir, white. 


35.57 




dry. 


28.812 




Fir, New England, dry. 


34.4 




Poplar, mean of 2 sorts 


28.5 




Fir, Norway Spruce " 


32. 




Rosewood, dry. 


45.5 




Fir, Riga. 
Gum, blue, dry. 


46.9 




Satinwood, " 


55.312 




£2.687 




Spruce, ** 


31.25 


71.68 


Hackmatack, " 


37.10 


60.37 


Tamarack, ** 


23.937 




Hazel, ** 


53.75 




Teak, African oak. 


46.9 




Hemlock, «* 


23. 




Walnut, dry. 


41.9 


53.42 


Hickory, pig nut. 


49.5 


45.252 


** black, dry. 


31.25 


71.68 


** shell bark. 


43.125 


51.942 


Willow. 


36.562 


61.265 


Holly, dry. 


47.5 




<( (( 


30.375 


73.744 


Juniper, '* 


35.375 










Lance wood, dry. 


45. 











COMPARATIVE VALUE OF DIFFERENT WOODS, EXHIBITING 
THEIR CRUSHING STRENGTH AND STIFFNESS. 



Teak 


6555 


Beech 


3079 


Walnut 


2374 


English Oak 


4074 


Quebec Oak 


2927 


Yellow pine 


2193 


Ash 


3571 


Mahogany 


2571 


Sycamore 


1833 


Elm 


3468 


Spruce 


2522 


Cedar 


700 



84 



AGE, &C., OF TREES. 



LOGS OJJ THE LANDING AWAITING THE SPRING FRESHETS. 




Age, &c., of Trees.— An oak tree in 3 years grows 2 ft. lOJ ins. 
A larch 3 ft. 7^ ins. ; at 70 years it is full grown : and a tree of 79 years 
was 102 ft. high, and 12 ft.' girth, containing 253 cubic ft. Another of 
80 years was 90 ft. and 17 ft., and 300 cubic feet. An elm tree in 3 
years grows 8 ft. 3 in. A beech, 1 ft. 8 in. A poplar, 6 ft. A willow, 
9 ft. 3 in. An elm is full grown in 150 years and it lives 500 or 600. 
Ash is full grown in 100, and oak in 200 The mahogany is full 
grown in 200 years to a vast size. A Polish oak, 40 ft. round had 600 
circles. An oak in Dorsetshire in 1755, was 68 ft. round ; 2 near Cran- 
borne Lodge are 38 and 36 ft. There are yews from 10 to 20 ft. diam., 
whose age is from 1000 to 2000 years. A lime in the Orisons is 51 ft. 
round, and about 600 years old. An elm in the Pays de Yaud is 18 ft. 
diam. and 360 years old. The African baobab is the patriarch of liv- 
ing organizations; one specimen by its circles is estimated at 5700 
years old by Adamson and Humboldt. The trunk is but 12 or 15 ft. to 
the branches, and often 75 ft. round. A cypress in Mexico is 120 ft. 
round and is estimated by De Candolle to be older than Adamson' s 
baobab. The cypress of Montezuma is 41 feet round. Strabo wrote 
of a cypress in Persia, as being 2500 years old. The largest tree in 
Mexico is 127 ft. round, and 120 high, with branches of 30 ft. A chest- 
nut tree on Mount Etna is 196 ft. round close to the ground, and 5 of 
its branches resemble great trees. De Candolle says there are oaks in 



BUYING AND SELLING TIMBER. 85 

France 1500 years old. The Wallace oak, near Paisley, is nearly 800 
years old. The yew trees at Fountain's Abbey are about 1200 years 
old. That at Crowhurst, 1500. That at Fortingal, above 2000. That 
at Braburn, 2500 to 3000. Ivys reach 500 or 600 years. The larch 
the same. The lime 600 or 700 V^ars. The trunk of a walnut tree, 12 
it. in diam. , hollowed out, and furnished as a sitting-room, was im- 
ported from America and exhibited in London, The trunk was 80 ft. 
high, without a branch, and the entire height 150 ft, the bark 12 ins. 
thick and the branches from 3 to 4 ft. in diam. The California pine is 
from. 150 to 200 ft. high and from 20 to 60 ft. in diam. The forests in 
watered tropical countries are formed of trees from 100 to 200 ft. high, 
which grow to the water's edge of rivers, presenting a sohd and im- 
penetrable barrier of trunks 10 or 12 ft. in diam. The dragon tree is 
hi girth from 40 to 100 ft. and 50 or 60 feet high ; and a misosa m South 
America is described, whose head is 600 ft. round. 

Tensile Strength of different kinds of Wood, showing the 
Weight ok Power required to tear asunder 1 Square Inch. 



Lbs. 

Lance 23,000 

Locust 25,000 

Mahogany 21,000 

Box 20,000 

African Oak 14,500 

Bay 14,500 

Teak 14,000 



Ash 14,000 



Lbs. 

Pitch Pine 12,000 

White Pine, (American) 11,800 

White Oak, " 11.500 



Beech 11,500 

Chestnut, sweet 10,500 

Maple 10,500 

White Spruce 10,290 

English Oak 10,000 

Pear 9,800 

Larch 9,50o 

Mahogany, Spanish 8,000 

Walnut 7,80a 

Poplar 7,000 

Cypress 6,000 



Elm 13,400 

Sycamore... 13,000 

Willow 13,000 

Christiana Deal 12,400 

Spanish Mahogany 12,000 

BuYrsTG and Selling Timber.— Inch boards, plank, joists and 
scantling are generally sold by board measure, the dimensions of one 
foot of board measure being 1 ft. long, 1 ft. wide and 1 in. thick. 
Round timber is sold by the cubic foot, and when squared by hewing 
or sawing is estimated to lose one-fifth, hence a ton of round timber 
is estimated to contain only 40 cubic feet. Square timber, hewn or 
sawn, is also sold by the cubic foot and rated at 50 cubic feet to the 
ton, but as usually surveyed, a ton of timber contains 50 92-lOOths 
cubic feet. 

Pine and spruce spars, from 10 to 4J in. diam. are estimated by 
taking the diameter, minus the bark, at J of their length at the large 
end ; they are generally bought and sold by the inch diameter, all 
under 4 ins. being considered poles. 

The soundness of timber may be tested by applying the ear to the 
middle of one of the ends, while another party strikes the other end. 
The blow will be clearly and distinctly heard, however long the beam 
may be, if the wood is sound and of good quality, but if decay has 
set in, the sound will be muffled and indistinct. The toughest part of 
a tree will always be found on the side next the north. 

British Carpentry. — The fir timber in general use is imported 
from Memel, Riga, Dantzic, and Sweden. Mem el timber is the most 
convenient for size, Riga the best in quality, Dantzic the strongest, 



SQ BRITISH CARPENTRY, &C, 

and Swedish the toughest. Riga timber can always be depended 
upon ; red puie may be used whenever durability and strength are 
objects ; and Quebec yellow pine for light dry purposes. Deals are 
from Norway, Sweden, Prussia, Russia and Kew Brunswick. For 
framing, the best deals are the Norway, particularly the Christiana 
battens ; for pannelling, the Christiana white deals ; for ground floors, 
Stockholm and Gefle yellows ; for upper floors. Dram and Christiana 
whites; Archangel and Onega planks for warehouse floors and stair- 
cases, and for best floors, &c., Petersburg, Onega and Christiana battens. 

100 Superficial ft. make 1 square of boarding, flooring, &c. 

120 deals are denominated one hundred. 
50 cubic ft. of timber equal 1 load. Also, 

600 superficial ft. of inch boards equal 1 load. 

Battens are from 6^ to 7 ins. in breadth, deals, SJ to 10 Ins., and 
planks 11 to 12 ins. 

12i 12-f eet boards to 1 square of rough boardmg or flooring. 

12| " edges shot, 

13 *' wrought and laid folding. 

13i " " " straight joint. 

14 " *' " ploughed and tongued. 

17 12-ft. battens to 1 square of Avrought folding door. 

18 " yellow to a straight joint floor. 

The duration of well seasoned wood, when kept dry, is very great, as 
beams still exist which are known to be nearly 1100 years old. Piles 
driven by the Romans, and used in the formation of bridges prior to 
the Christian era, have been examined of late, and found to be per- 
fectly sound after an immersion of nearly 2000 years. 

Russian Way of Stopping Holes in Ships.— In that country, 
there has lately been invented ai"»d successfully apijlied, a ready 
means for stopping holes made in ships by collision or otherwise. It 
consists of a plaster made of two rectangular sheets of canvas sewed 
together, bordered with a rope, and containing a water-proof material. 
A sounding-line has to be passed under the keel, and brought up on 
the other side : then the plaster can be lowered to the hole, ai;id made 
fast. Several cases are pited in which this invention has been em- 
ployed with advantage ; and a large number of Russian ships are 
now furnished with such plasters. It is proposed that men be spe- 
cially trained and ready for the manoeuvring of the apparatus. 

To Raise the Body of a Drowned Person. — In a recent fail- 
ure to recover the body of a drowned person in New Jersey, a French- 
Canadian undertook the job, and proceeded as follows : Having sup- 
plied himself with some glass gallon-jars, and a quantity of un- 
slaked lime, he went in a boat to the place where the man was seen 
to go doAvn. One of the jars was filled half full of lime, then filled 
up with water, and tightly corked. It was then dropped into the 
water, and soon after exploded at the bottom of tlie river, with a 
loud report. After the third trial , each time at a different place, the 
body rose to the surface, and was secured. 

To Get Rid of Rats, &c. — Get a piece of lead pipe and use it as a 
funnel to introduce about IJ ozs, of sulphide of potassium into any 
outside holes tenanted by rats ; not to be used in dw^ellings. To get 
rid of Mic, use tartar emetic mingled with any favorite food ; they 
will eat, sicken, and take their leave. 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 87 

HrDRAHLic Ceivient. — ^Powdered clay, 3 lbs. ; oxide of iron, 1 lb. ; 
and boiled oil to form a stiff paste. 

Engineers' Cement.— Equal parts of red and white lead, with dry- 
ing oil, spread on tow or canvas. An admirable composition for uniting 
lar^e stones in cisterns. 

Stone Cement River. — Sand, 20 parts; litharge, 2 i^arts; quick- 
lime, 1 part: mix with linseed oil. 

Glue. — ^Powdered chalk added to common glue strengthens it. A 
glue which wiU. resist the action of water is made by boiling 1 lb. of 
glue in 2 qts. of skimmed milk. 

Cheap Waterproof Glue. — Melt common glue with the smallest 
possible quantity of water; add, by degrees, hnseed oil, rendered 
drying by boiling it with litharge. While the oil is being added, the 
ingredients must be well stirred, to incorporate them thoroughly. 

Fire and Waterproof Glue.— Mix a handful of quick-lime with 
4 oz. of linseed oil ; thoroughly lixiviate the mixture ; boil it to a good 
thickness, and spread it on thin plates in the shade : it will become 
very hard, but can be dissolved over a fire, like common glue, and is 
then fit for use. 

Prepared Liquid Glue. — ^Take of best white glue, 16 oz. ; white- 
lead, dry, 4 oz. ; rain-water, 2 pts. ; alcohol, 4 oz. With constant stir- 
ring dissolve the glue and lead in the water, by means of a water- 
bath. Add the alcohol, and continue the heat for a few minutes. 
liEstly, ix)ur into bottles, while it is still hot. 

To Mae:e Grindstones from Coinimon Sand. — River sand 32 lbs. ; 
shellac, 10 parts; powdered glass, 2 parts; melt in an iron pot, and 
cast into moulds. 

Polishing Powder for Specula. — Precipitate a dilute solution 
of sulphate of iron by ammonia in excess ; wash the precipitate; press 
it in a screw press till nearly dry; then expose it to heat until it 
appears of a dull red color m the dark. 

On Saw-Mills. — ^To Get the Most Lumber from Saw-Logs. 
— Experience has abundantly proved to our satisfaction that this can 
be done only by the use of the circular saw. Some parties are in 
favor of the mulay saw. Human ingenuity has been so prolific in the 
invention and construction of this kind of "^machinery, that the prin- 
cipal difficulty with the intendmg purchaser seems to be an inability 
to decide whose machine is really the best. Every builder or inventor 
appears to claim for his machine such a perfect constellation of valu- 
able features, that a certain amount of hesitation in coming to a de- 
cision seems to be inevitable. In the stationary form of saw mills, 
the saws are arranged either single or in gangs. Some of the port- 
able kind (circular saw mills) have an upper saw to complete the cut 
made but partially through large logs by the lower saw. See 
diagram. By the single movement of a lever, the head-blocks on 
which the log rests, are simultaneously moved up, moving the log a 
distance nearer the saw, adequate to the thickness of board desired, 
with an overplus the width of the cut made by the saw. By moving 
another lever, a pinion meshing into a rack beneath the log-carriage is 
made to impel the log against the .saw, and run the log backwards 
after the board is cut. These movements, on the best constructed 
raacliines, are made with surprising velocity, some of them being ac- 
credited with having cut over 60,000 feet of lumber in one day. 



88 



OLD FASHIONED SAW-MILL, &C. 




The performance of a 36 liorse-power steam engine attached to a 
modern saw-mill, is equivalent to that of 75 saAv-pits requiring the 
labor of 150 men. 

Comparative Resilience of Yamous Kinds of Timber, Ash 
BEING 1, Fir -4, Elm '54, Pitch Pine -57, Teak -59. Oak '63, Spruce '64, 
Yellow Pine '64, Cedar '66, Chestnut "73 Larch '84, Beech '80. By resi- 
lience is understood the quality of springing back, or toughness. 

Percentage of Increase in Strength of Different Woods 
BY Seasoning. — ^White pine, 9 per cent.. Elm 12*3 per cent., Oak 26*6 
per cent.. Ash 44*7 per cent. Beech 61 '9 per cent. 

TRANSVERSE STRENGTH OF WOODS, SHOWING THEIR 
BREAKING WEIGHT FOR A THICKNESS OF ONE INCH 
SQUARE AND ONE FOOT IN LENGTH, WITH WEIGHT 
SUSPENDED FROM ONE END. 



Breaking Value 
weight, for use. 



Lbs. 

Locust 295 

Hickory 250 

Oak, live American. . .245 
*' white <' ..230 

" African 208 

Teak 206 

Maple 202 

Oak, English, best. . .188 

Ash 168 

Pine, American 60 

Birch 160 

Chestnut 160 



80 
55 
55 
50 
50 
60 

45 
55 
50 
40 
53 



Breaking Value 
weight, for use. 



Lhs. 

Oak, Canadian 116 36 

" live American . . . 245 65 

*< English 140 35 

Deal Christiana 137 45 

Pine pitch 336 45 

Beech 130 32 

Pine wliiteAmerican.130 45 

Elm 125 30 

Pine Norway 123 40 

Oak Dantzic 122 30 

White wood 116 38 

Riga Fir <)4 30 

Pine, white 92 30 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 



89 



Occasionally we listen to a great deal of rant regarding the beati- 
tudesof "the good old times," during the lives of our forefathers. 
The?e times proved very disastrous to the enterprismg Dutchman, 
4hofinT663 Started the' first saw-mill i^ England which he ^^^^^^ 
finally obliged to abandon, and fly to save his hfe. In 1767 another 
Siv-miU, at Lime-house, near London, was demohshed by a mob of 
sawyer^ who considered that their business would be rumed to a 
dead certainty if things were allowed to go on. 







Q,^ o o o o o o o 

fl . r-l T-t r-( i-l(M CO Tj« 

o fl 




02 OQOTHTt<b-Ob-< 
PJ ^r-t(M<N<NCOeO' 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C,, RECEIPTS. 91 

The old method of manufacturing himber and dhnension stuff by 
ripping logs lengthwaj^s on the sawpit, is still fresh in the remem- 
brance of many. One man mounted the log and pushed the saw- 
downwards and pulled it upwards, assisted by another man in tho 
X)it below, with a veil over his face to keep the sawdust out of his 
eyes. We hail with gratitude the modern improvements which en- 
able us to dispense with every such form of labor. 

Having tried the up and down saw and the circular saw also, wo 
■would again repeat our conviction that the last mentioned is the best 
for manufacturing lumber, and should any person act on this expression 
of opinion, let them in the first place be very careful to get, if possible, 
the best machine, bring it to the mill, and set it perfectly level and 
true. When you get it in operation, see that you handle it carefully. 
If you have been used to running the up and down saw only, you will 
soon find out that your former experience avails almost nothing in 
the management of the rotary machine ; but when you get the hang 
of running it, the compensation in the way of convenience, rapidity, 
and quantity of work, is immense. Some prefer to use the inserted 
tooth saws, and will use no other. They seem to possess many ad- 
vantages, and are entirely safe. A late invention of spreading tho 
tipper part of the tooth towards the point during the process of manu- 
facture, spreading it out so as to make the point of the tooth tho 
thickest part of the circumference of the saw, enables the sawyer to 
dispense in a great measure with the use of the swage. Those insert- 
ed tooth saws which do not possess this improvement must be care- 
fully swaged and filed at least twice per day, and sometimes as often 
as six or seven times per day, depending upon the kind of lumber 
being cut. In filing or swaging the saw, be careful to form the point 
of the teeth absolutely square, and even across, the slightest deviation 
from perfect truth in this respect being apt to cause the saw to r?/?2, as 
it is termed, or vary from its proper course while j)assing through the 
log. Some prefer to form the pomt of the tooth a little hooking, just 
enough so as to be barely perceptible, and in swaging to use thatimrt 
of the die belonging to the swage, which gives the tooth of the saw a 
slightly curved or rainbow form, something* in this shape ^, or 
scarcely so much curved. One sawyer of 20 years* experience in 
running machinery, informed us that he never did better or more 
rapid work with his mill than when he kept his saw exactly right on 
these ii6'opom?s just stated. If you can run a No. 7 gauge saw on 
your mill, the loss resulting from sawdust will be very slight, and as 
large saws are generally thickest at the centre, tapering off towards 
the circumference, this size or No. 6 will, as a general rule, be found 
sufficiently strong for most purposes. Make sure at all times, es- 
pecially during frosty weather, that the dogs have a secure hold of 
the log before the saw enters it. It is only a few days ago that a 
case came to my knowledge of a firm near Fredericton, N.B., having 
sustained a severe loss by a log (insuflflciently secured of course) 
canting over on the saw as it was passing through it. The effect was 
to break off the saw from the mandril, twist off the nut at the end 
near the saw, and break away tho two iron pins used for securing the 
saw in the coUar, causing a stoppage of the mill, and the consequent 
expense of repair and delay. When you get the miU in operation, see 
that you handle it carefully, and maintain unceasing watchfulness 



92 I^IACIIINISTS, ENGINEERS', AC, ItECEirTS. 

over it while in operation. Give it ptof?/ of power ; if joudonH, 
you may as well sliut up shop at once ; good attendance, and with a 
good machine, the attendants will not have much ttine to play them- 
selves, I can assure you. Keep all the parts well oiled — ^that has a 
great deal to do with the smooth and successful running of the 
machine ; and, by the way, I would remark that saw-mills are not 
the only things in this world that run all the better for being oiled. 
If that kind, loving, gentle, and affectionate spirit of which oil is the 
symbol, pervaded the hearts and the minds of our race, and found 
nniversal expression iu every thought, Avord, and deed during our 
daily intercourse with each other, it would be a very different 
world from what it is — ^better for ourselves, find better for our neigh- 
bors. Let us all carry on this branch of the oil business as extensively 
as possible, and we shall soon see a brotherhood " dweUing together 
in unity.'* In order to facilitate calculations regarding the velocity 
cf saws, here^vith is appended a reliable table to ser^^e as a guide in 
ascertaining the proper speed for runnmg : — 

TABLE GIT SI'EED FOR CIRCULAR SAWS. 

3G inches hi diameter, 1000 revolutions per minute 



38 




u 


950 




il 


40 




u 


900 




li 


42 




il 


870 




it 


44 




u 


840 




it 


40 




li 


800 




it 


48 




a 


7G0 




tc 


5(5 




11 


725 




it 


52 




11 


700 




tc 


54 




iC 


675 




tt 


50 




a 


G50 




it 


58 




it 


G25 




it 


GO 




it 


GOO 




it 


02 






575 




a 


04 




560 




a 


GO 




n 


545 




il 


08 




a 


530 




il 


70 




(( 


515 




li 


72 




il 


500 




a 


74 




n 


485 




11 


76 




li 


475 




11 


Shingle machine 


saws 


1400 




(( 



The march of improvement in the manufacture of shingle machines 
has been truly wonderful, and they can now be i^rocured from tlio 
manufacturer, of almost any capacity and power, at very reasonable 
rates. Shingle machines are now in use, which cut out over 30,000 
shingles per day, carrying two or more bolts. Some of them possess 
very comi^lex machinery and are positively dangerous to operate unless 
continual vigilance is maintained. One gentleman well known to 
the writer, was crippled for life by having his hand terribly lacer- 
ated during an unguarded moment by one of these machines. As a 
rule the less gearing and the more simplicity there is about the me- 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 93 

clianism of a, sliiiigle macliine Uic more satisfaction will be derived 
from it. 

In the manufacture of sliingles, as \rell as in anything else, it is the 
wisest policy to use the best materials. Get good rift, free from 
knots, sand, bark, &c., and you will inevitably get good merchant- 
able stuff, with less waste and more pleasure every way, both with 
the machinery in the first i^lace, and the satisfactory state of your 
excliequer in the last. It is all the better if you can lay in a good 
stock one year ahead,, as it cuts much easier when properly seasoned, 
to say nothuig of the saving in weight during transportation. In 
edging shingles, many prefer the saw to the revolving knives, as it 
enables the operator in many cases to get a shingle of extra quality 
by trimming a poor shingle down, and selecting the best part. This 
can be done by a smart hand with marvellous rapidity, but still, to 
use a modem i^hrase, many persons can't see it, and so they use the 
knives, giving what they conceive to be good reasons for so doing. 

Velocities of AVood Wokking Machineiiy. — Circular Saxes v.t 
periphery, GOOO to 7000 ft. per minute , Band Saios, 2500 feet ; Gayir/ 
Saivs, 20 incli stroke, 120 strokes per minute ; Scroll Saws, SO'O 
strokes per minute; Planinrj Macliine Cutters at periphery, 4000 to 
GOOO feet. Work under plaining machine l-20th of an inch for each 
cut. Moulding Machine Cutters, 3500 to 4000 feet; Sqiianng-up 
Machine Cutters, 7000 to 8000 feet; Wood Carvincj Drills, 5000 revo- 
lutions; Machine Augers, 1\ in. diam., 900 revolutions; ditto, | in. 
diam., 1200 revolutions; Gang Saivs, require for 45 superficial feet of 
pine per hour, 1 horse-power. Circular Saics require 75 superficial 
feet per hour, 1 liorse-power. In oak or hard wood f ths of the above 
quantity require 1 horse-p)ower ; Sharpening Angles of Machine Cutters. 
Adzing soft wood across the grain, S0<^ ; Planing Machines, ordinary 
softwood. 35°; Gauges and Ploughing Machines, 40°; Ilardicood 
Tool Cutters, 50° to 55°. 

Filing Saavs. — Thegi-and secret "of putting "any saw in - the best 
possible order, consists in filing the teeth at a given angle to cut 
rapidly, and of a uniform length so that the points will all touch 
a straight edged rule without showing a variation of the hundredth 
part of an inch. Besides this, there should be just set enough in the 
teeth to cut a kerf as narrow as it can be made, and at the same time 
allow the blade to work freely without pinching. On the contrary, 
the kerf must not be so wide as to permit the blade to rattle when in 
motion. The very points of the teeth do the cutting^ If one tooth 
is a twentieth of an inch longer than two or three on each side of it, 
the long tooth will be required to do so much more cutting than it 
should, that the sawing caimot be done well, hence the saw goes 
jumping along, working hard and cutting slowly; if one tooth ig 
longer than those on either side of it, the short teeth do not cut 
although their pomts may be shari:). When putting a cross-cut saw 
in order, it will pay well to dress the points with an old file, and af- 
terAvards sharpen them with a fine Avhetstone; much mechan- 
ical skill is necessary to put a saw in prime order ; one careless thrust 
with a file Avill shorten the point of a tooth so much that it will be 
utterly useless, so far as cutting is concerned ; the teeth should bo 
set with much care, and the filing done with the greatest accuracy. 
If the teeth are uneven at the points, a large flat file should be secured 



94 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 



to a block of wood in such a manner that the very points only may 
be jointed, so that the catting edge of the same may be in a straight 
line, or circle, if it is a circular saw; every tooth should cut a little as 
the saw is worked. The teeth of a hand saw for all kinds of work 
should be filed fleaming, or at an angle on the front edge, while the 
back edges may be filed fleaming or square across the blade. The 
best way to file a circular saw for cutting wood across the grain, is to 
dress every fifth tooth square across, and apart one twentieth of an 
inch shorter than the others, which should be filed fleaming at an 
angle of about forty degrees. 

As regards such saws as are used for cutting up large logs into lum- 
ber it is of the utmost importance to have them filed at such an angle 
as will ensure the largest amount of work with the least expenditure 
of power. The following diagrams will help to illustrate our mean- 
ing. Fig. 1 shows the shape^of teeth which nearly all experienced 




Fig. 1. 

mill-men consider as that standard form which combines the greatest 
amount of strength and capacity for rapid Avork, with the minimum 
of driving power while doing the work. 

Figure No. 2 represents a passable form of teeth which are capable 
of doing a good deal of work, but their great weakness lies in their 
slender points. Look out for "breakers" when teeth of this 
description are imssing through dry spruce or hemlock knots. 




Fig. 2. 



MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 95 

Fig. No. 3 illustrates tlie appearance of one of those intolerable 
TTood rasps which are altogether too common in saw-mills. Only 
think what an appalling waste of valuable power is required to drive 
a " jigger" like this through a large log! 




Fig. 3. 

Fig. 4, at a, is intended to show the method of ascertaining the 
proper-angle, that of sixty degrees, at which such saws should bo 
filed. The diagram being self-explanatory requires but little further 
elucidation here. A quarter circle with Imes radiating from the centre 
towards the circumference is represented near the verge of the segment 
of a circular saw. The lower part corresponds with the level of the 
horizon, and the higher part at 90° corresponds with the zenith or 
meridian, where the sun appears at noon-day. Exactly half-way up 
is 450 ; look up a little higher and you will find G0°, indicated by the 
radiating line which runs parallel with the angle of the tooth of the saw 
and this is the guide you must follow in filing. The same rule is seer 
applied to a straight mill saw at h. 

Many good authorities contend that mill saws snould in no case be 
set with the instrument commonly used for that purpose, but that in 
lieii thereof the teeth should be spread out at the points with the 
swage or upset to a sufficient extent to permit the body of the saw to 
operate without binding. Both instruments require to be skilfully 
handled, and the swage, when used in this way, has proved itself equal 
to every emergency Avithout the risk of breaking the teeth. It would 
be quite safe to say that the saw-set should only be used on saws of 
this description with the most extreme caution and care. Every man- 
ufacturer, however, has his own opinion, and consequent practice on 
the subject, some contending that one way is right and the other di- 
rectly the reverse. 

To Repair Fractured Circular Saws. — The best way to do 
this is to drill a small round hole at the termination of the crack, which 
effectually jprevents its further extension. I have seen some circular 
saws very neatly repaired by riveting thin clamps to each side of the 
fracture, both clamps and rivets being countersunk so they will be 
level with the surface of the saw, and placed in such a position across 
the crack as to impart the greatest possible strength to the weakest place. 

To Mexd Broken Cross-cut Saws.—Iu the first place scarf off 
the broken edges in such a manner that when lapped over each other 



96 



MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS , &C., RECEIPTS. 



they will be about the same thickness as the rest of the plate, and 
rivet them together loosely with iron rivets inserted through holes 
which must be punched for that purpose ; the ends must be united 




with great accuracy so that the teeth, &c,, of the saw may range 
truly. Now place the saw in the fire, then a tlux of powdered borax 
and sal ammoniac is flowed all over it after having it raised to the 
proper heat. See page 270 for preparing and using the composition. 
Return the saw to the fire and when it is raised to the proper welding 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 97 

heat, place it on the anvil and unite the joint as rapidly as possible 
with the hammer ; be careful not to heat so hot as to injure the steel. 
When the job is well done, and the part properly tempered, it will be 
found as strong as the rest of the plate. I know one blacksraith in 
Canada who told me that this class of work was the best paying part 
of his business. 

Quantity Ain> Cost of Supplies for Horses and LuMBERiNa 
Crews in the woods. — The following figures have been kindly 
furnished for this work by the obliging manager of Messrs. Gilmour's 
mill on the Gatineau, near Ottawa, Canada, and are most valuable as 
affording a basis for calculating the quantity and quality of the sup- 
plies required for men and horses engaged in this branch of industiy. 
These calculations are the result of long experience in the business, 
and are based on actual consumption. 

Quantity of Oats for each span of horses, 51 lbs. per day. 
" Hay *^ " 40 '* 



(( 


Flour used by each 


man 


1.80 




it 


Pork 






1.22 




it 


Beef 






0.85 




it 


Beans 






0.33 




u 


Fish 






0.12 




ti. 


Onions 






0.13 




li 


Potatoes 






0.4T 





Total daily consumption per man 4.92 

Quantity of Tea used *' 1 J lbs. per month. 

The diiily allowance of oats for each span of horses may appear 
large, but it must be remembered that the labor is extremely severe, 
and more hay will be rcquued if any part of the oats is withheld. On 
making inquiry with reference to the item of molasses, so largely 
used by our lumbering friends in New Brunswick and Maine, tho 
answer returned was that owing to the heavy cost of the commodity, 
it was entirely omitted from the list of supplies. The following 
exhibits the comparative value of Mess and Prime Pork, calculated 
from actual consumption : — 
Mess Fork ^^ ..^ Prime Mess. 

& ..:..:: ...sis so 

25 IS 08 

24 17 35 

23 IG 62 

22 15 89 

21 15 16 

20 14 43 

19 13 70 

18 12 97 



Mess Pork, Prime Mess, 

S17 $12 24 

16 11 51 

15 10 78 

14 10 05 

13 9 32 

12 8 59 

11 7 86 

10 7 13 

9 640 

1 Barrel Mess averages 37 lbs. grease, 6 lbs bones, when cooked. 
1 '' Prime Mess 24 " 13 

To Mend Broken Saws. — Pure silver, 19 parts ; pure copper, 1 
part ; pure brass, 2 parts ; all to be filed into powder, and thor- 
oughly mixed ; place the saw level on the anvil, broken edges in 
contact, and hold them so ; now put a small line of the mixture 
along the seam, covering it with a larger bulk of powdered char- 

7 



98 MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 

coal ; now with a spirit lamp and a jewellers' blow-pipe hold the 
coal dust in place, and blow sufficient to melt the solder mixture ; 
then with a hammer set the joint smooth, and file away any su- 
jperfluous solder, and you will be surprised at its strength ^ the 
'heat will not injure the temper of the saw. 

Velocity of Wheels, Pulleys, Drums, &c.— When wheels are 
applied to communicate motion from one part of a machine to an- 
other, their teeth act alternately on each other ; consequently, if one 
wheel contains 60 teeth, and another 20 teeth, the one containing 20 
teeth will make 3 revolutions while the other makes but 1 ; ana if 
drums or puUeys are taken in place of wheels, the effect wiU be tho 
same ; because their circumferences, describing equal spaces, ren- 
der their revolutions unequal; from this the rule is derived namely:— 

Multiply the velocity of the driver by the number of teeth it con- 
tains, and divide by the velocity of the driven. Tlie quotient will be 
the number of teeth it ought to contaiu ; or, multiply the velocity 
of the driver by its diameter, and divide by the Telocity of the 
driven. 

Example 1. If a wheel that contains 75 teeth makes 16 revolutions 
per minute, required the number of teeth in another, to work into and 
make 24 revolutions in the same time. According to rule, you mul- 
tiply 16 by 75, and divide the product, which is 1200, by 24, and you 
have the answer, 50 teeth. 

Example 2. Suppose a drum, 30 inches in diameter, to make 20 
revolutions per minute, required the diameter of another to make 60 
revolutions per minute. According to rule, you multiply 20 by 30, 
and divide the product, which is 600, by 60, and you have the answer, 
10 inches. 

Example 3. A wheel 64 inches in diameter, and making 42 revo- 
lutions per minute, is to give motion to a shaft at the rate of 77 revo- 
lutions in the same time ; find the diameter of a wheel suitable for 
that purpose. According to rule, multiply 42 by 64, and divide the 
product, which is 2688, by 77, and you will have for the answer 35 
inches nearly. 

77)2688(34 10-12 
231 



378 
308 70 

Example 4. Suppose a pulley 32 inches diameter to make 26 revo- 
lutions ; find the diameter of another to make 12 revolutions in the 
same time. 

According to rule, 26 x 32 -f- 12 = 69J— 

26 and 12) 832. This will be seen to be 69J 

39 , 

~ 694-12=4 

832 

Example 5. Find the number of revolutions per minute made by 
a wheel or pulley 20 inches in diameter, when driven by another 48 
inches in diameter, and making 45 revolutions in the same time. Ac- 
cording to rule, 48 x 45^20 == 108. That is, 48 multiplied by 45 == 
2160, divided by 20, gives the answer, 108 revolutions. 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS, 



99 



Construction of Trussed Roofs.— In roofs of the ordinary 
construction, the roof covering is laid upon rafters supported by 
horizontal purlins^ which rest on upright trusses or frames of timber, 
placed on the walls at regular distances from each other. Upon tho 
framing of the trusses depends the stability of the roof, the arrange- 
ment of the rafters and purlins being subordinate matters of detail! 
In Trussed Eoofs^ exerting no side thrust on the walls ^ each truss 
consists essentially of a pair of principal rafters or principals, and a 
horizontal tie 6eam, and in large roofs these are comiected and 
strengthened by king and queen j^^osts and stilts. (See figs. 2. and 3.) 
Fig. 1. shows a very simple truss in which the tie is abov« the 
bottom of the feet of the principal, which is often done in small roofs 
lor the sake of obtammg height. The tie in this case is called a 
collar beam. The feet of both common and principal rafters rest on 

a wall plate. The purlins rest 
on the collar, and the common 
rafters but against a ridge run- 
ning along the top of the roof. 
This kind of truss is only suited 
to very smaU spans, as there is 
a cross strain on that part of the 
principal below the collar, which 
is rendered harmless in a small 
span by the extra strength of 
the prmcipal, but which m a 
large one would be very likely to throw out the walls. 

In roofs of larger span the "tie beam is placed below the feet of the 
principal, which are tenoned into and bolted to it. To keep the beam 
from sagging, or bending by its own weight, it is suspended from 
the head of the principals by a king post of wood or iron. The lower 
part of the long post affords abutments for sturts supporting the 
principal immediately under the purlins, so that no cross strain is 




Fig.l. 




Fig. 2. 

exerted on any of the timbers in the truss, but they all act in the 
direction of their length, the principal and struts being subjected to 
compression, and the king post and the tie beam to tension. Fig. 2 
shows a sketch of a king truss. The common rafters but on a pole 
plate, the tie beams resting either on a continuous plate, or on short 
templates of wood and stone. 
Where the span is considerable, the beam is supported at additional 



lOQ 



MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS , &C.5 RECEIPTS. 



points "by suspension pieces called queen posts (fig 3), from the bot- 
tom of which spring additional struts ; and, by extending this 




Fig. 3. 

principle ad infinitum^ we might construct a roof of any span were it 
not that a practical limit is imposed by the nature of the materials. 
Sometimes roofs are constructed without king posts, the queen posts 
being kept apart by a straining piece. This construction is shown in 




Fig. 4. 

lig. 4, which shows the design of the old roof (now destroyed) of the 
church of St. Paul, outside the walls, at Rome. This truss is interest- 
ing from its early date, having been erected about 400 years ago : 
the trusses are in pairs, a king post being keyed in-between each 
I)air to support the beams in the centre. ' _ 

Of late years iron has been much used as a material r5r the f russe.v 
of roofs, the tie beams and suspendmg pieces bemg formed of light 
rods, and the principals and struts of rolled T or angle iron, to which 
fiockets are riveted to receive the purlins. 

Durable Insulation for Electric Wires. — Tin the wires and 
then cover witli pure rubber. 



STRENGTH OF WOODS. 



101 



The following tabulated form shows the results of Mr. Hodgkin- 
Bou's experiments on the crushmg strengths of different woods per 
square inch of section. The samples crushed were short cylinders 1 
inch diameter, and 2 inches long, flat at the ends. The results given 
in the first column are those obtained when the wood was moderately 
dry. The samj^les noted in the second column were kept seasoning 
2 months longer than the first. The third column is appended by the 
author, to illustrate the resilience or toughness of certain woods. 



Kind of Wood. 


Crushing strength per 
square inch of section. 


Length in feet of a rod 1 

inch square that would 

break by its own weight. 


Alder, 


6831 to 6960 




Ash, 


8683 to 9363 


42,080 


Bay, 


7518 to 7518 




Box, 


10300 




Beech, 


7733 to 7363 


38,940 


Birch, 


10300 




English Birch, 


3297 to 6402 




Cedar, 


5674 to 5863 




Deal, Christiana, 




65,500 


Red Deal, 


5748* to* '65*8*6**** 




White Deal, 


6781 to 7293 




Horabeam, 


7300 




Elder, 


7451 to 9973 




Elm, 


7451 to 10331 


39,050 


Fir (Memel), 




40,500 


Fir (Spruce), 


*"* '64*99* to* '6819**** 


Larch, 




42 160 


Mahogany, 


'*" '81*9*8* to' 8198**** 




Lignum Vitse, 


9900 




Oak (Quebec), 


4231 to 5982 




Oak (English), 


6484 to 10058 


32,900 


Pine (Pitch), 


6790 to 6790 




Pine (Red), 


5395 to 7518 




Poplar, 


3107 to 5142 




Plum (Dry), 


8241 to 10493 




Sycamore, 
Teak, 




35,800 
36,049 




82*4l' to 12101* 


Walnut, 


6063 to 7227 




Willow, 


2898 to 6128 





It was also found that in pillars of the same dimensions, but o : 
different materials, taking the strength of cast iron at 1,000, that of 
wrought iron was 1,745, cast steel 2,518, Dantzic Oak 108.8, and Red 
Deal 78.5. 

Beams of timber, when laid with their concentric layers vertical, 
are stronger than when laid horizontal, in the proportion of 8 to 7. 

Anti-Fouling Composition for Ships.— Melt, mix and grind to- 
gether into an impalpable powder, 1 part copper, 4 of zinc, and 1 of 
tin : mix thoroughly with red lead or Torbay mineral red, and ap- 
ply to the ship's bottom. (See "Marine Paint for Metals in Salt 
Water," under Painters* Department.) 



102 TONNAGE OF SHIPS. 

Measurement and Calculations of the Tonnage of Vessels 
AND Ships op the United States, under the Act of Congress 
OF May 6, 1864. 

The tonnage deck, in vessels having 3 or more decks to the hull, shall 
be the second deck from below, in all other cases the upper deck of the hull 
is to be the tonnage-deck. The length from the forepart of the outer 
planking, on the side of the stem, to the after part of the main stem post of 
screw steamers, and to the after part of the rudder-post of all other vessels, 
measured on the top of the tonnage deck, shall be accounted the vessel's 
length. The breadth of the broadest part on the outside of the vessel is ac- 
counted the vessel's breadth of beam. A measure from the under side of 
tonnage deck plank, amidships, to the ceiling of the hold (average thick- 
ness), shall be accounted the depth of hold. If the vessel has a third 
deck, then the height from the top of the tonnage deck plank to the under 
side of the upper deck plank shall be accounted as the height under the 
spar-deck. All measurements to be taken in feet and fractions of feet ; 
and all fractions of feet shall be expressed in decimals. The Register ton^ 
nage of a vessel is her entire internal cubical capacity in tons of 100 cubic 
feet each, to be determined as follows : Lengths, Measure the length of 
the vessel in a straight line along the upper side of the tonnage deck from 
the inside of the inner plank (average thickness) at the side of the stem 
to the inside of the plank on the stern timbers (average thickness), de- 
ducting from this length what is due to the rake of the bow in the thick- 
ness of the deck, and what is due to the rake of the stern timber in one- 
third of the round of the beam ; divide the length so taken into the num- 
ber of equal parts required by the following table, according to the class 
in such table to which the vessel belongs: 

Table of Classes. 

Class 1. Vessels of which the tonnage length according to the above 
measurement is 50 feet or under, into 6 equal parts. 

2. Over 50 feet and not over 100, feet into 8 equal parts. 

3. Over 100 feet and not over 150 feet, into 10 equal parts. 

4. Over 150 feet and not over 200 feet, into 12 equal parts. 
6. Over 200 feet and not over 250 feet, into 14 equal parts. 
6. Over 250 feet, into 16 equal parts. 

The extent of the areas is found by measurement and calculation, and 
if there be a break or poop or any other permanent closed in space on the 
upper decks, or on the spar deck, available for cargo, or stores, or for the 
berthing or accomodation of passengers or crew, the tonnage of such 
space shall be computed. If a vessel has a third deck, or spar deck, the 
tonnage between it and the tonnage deck is also computed. 

In ascertaining the tonnage of open vessels, the upper edge of the upper 
Btrake is to form the boundary line of measurement, and the depth shall 
be taken from an athwart shipline, extending from the upper edge of said 
Btrake at each division of the length. 

The register of the vessel must express the number of the decks, the 
tonnage under the tonnage deck, that of the between decks, above the 
tonnage deck ; also that of the poop or other enclosed spaces above the 
deck, each separately. In every registered U. S. ship or vessel the num- 
ber denoting the total registered tonnage shall be deeply carved or other- 
wise permanently marked on her main beam, and shall be so continued, 
and if at any time cease to be so continued such vessel shall no longer be 
recognized as a registered U. S. vessel. 

By a subsequent Act, approved Feby. 28, 1865, the preceding Act was so 
construed that " no part of any ship or vessel shall be admeasured or reg- 
istered for tonnage that is used for cabins or state-rooms, and construct- 
ed entirely above the first deck which is not a deck to the hull.'* 

Carpenters' Measurement for a Single-Deck Vessel.— i?MZe. 
Multiply the length of keel, the breadth of beam and the depth of hold 
together, and divide by 95. 



TONNAGE OF SHIPS. 103 

For a Double Deck VESSEii.— iJwZe. Multiply as above, taking lialf 
the breadth of beam for the depth of the hold, and divide by 95. 
British Measurement. 

The British mode for measuring vessels, authorized by Act of Parlia- 
ment in 1854, has been substantisSly copied into the above noted Act to 
regulate the admeasurement of tonnage in the United States, the main 
difference being a reduced number of areas or sections by the British 
method, which stands as follows. 

1. Vessels of which the tonnage length is 50 feet or under are divided 
into 4 equal parts. 

2. Over 50 and not over 120 feet, into 6 " " 

3. '* 120 '' " '' 180 <* '' 8 ** " 

4. ** 180 " ** " 225 ** ** 10 " " 

5. *' 225 ft. into 12 « " 
Divide the length of the upper deck between the after part of the stem 

and the forepart of the stern-post into 6 equal parts ^ and note the fore- 
most, middle, and aftermost points of division. Measure the depths at 
these three points in feet and tenths of a foot, also the depths from the 
under side of the upper deck to the ceiling at the timber strake ; or, in 
case of a break in the upper deck, from a line stretched in continuation 
of the deck. For the breadth, divide each depth into 5 equal parts, and 
measure the inside breadths at the following points, viz. : at 2 and 8 from 
the upper deck of the foremost and aftermost depths, and at 4 and 8 from 
the upper deck of the midship depth. Take the length, at half the mid- 
ship depth, from the afterpart of stem to the forepart of the stern-post. 
Then, to twice the midship depth, add the foremost and aftermost depths 
for the sum of the depths ; and add together the foremost upper and 
lower breadths, 3 times the upper breadth with the lower breadth at the 
midship, and the upper, and twice the lower breadth at the after division 
for suin of the breadths. 

Multiply together the sum of the depths, the sum of the breadths, and 
the length, and divide the product by 3500, which will give the number of 
tons or register. If the vessel has a poop or half deck, or a break in the 
upper deck, measure the inside mean length, breadth and height of 
such part thereof as may be included within the bulkhead ; multiply these 
three measurements together, and divide the product by 92.4. The quotient 
will be the number of tons to be added to the result, as above ascertained. 

For Open Vessels.— ThQ depths are to be taken from the upper edge of 
the lower strake. 

For Steam Vessels.— ThQ tonnage due to the engine room is deducted 
from the total tonnage computed by the above rule. 

To determine this, measure the inside length of the engine-room from 
the foremost to the aftermost bulkhead ; then multiply this length by the 
midship depth of the vessel and the product by the inside midship 
breadth at .4 of the depth from the deck, and divide the final product by 
92-4. 

Self- Acting N'autical Pump. — Captain Leslie, in a voyage from 
North America to Stockholm, adopted an excellent mode of empty- 
ing water from his ship's hold when the crew were disabled from 
performing that duty. About ten or twelve feet above the pump, he 
rigged out a spar, one end of which projected overboard, while the 
other was fastened as a lever to the machinery of the pump. To the 
end which projected overboard was suspended a water-butt half full, 
but corked down, so that when the coming wave raised the water- 
butt, the other end depressed the piston of the pump ; but, at the 
retiring of the wave, this was reversed ; for, by the weight of the 
butt, the piston came up again, and with it the water. Thus, without 
the aid of the crew, the ship's hold was cleared of w iter in a few hours. 



104 



ENGLISH FEEIGHT TABLE. 

GOODS PKOPORTIONED IN STOWAGE. 

The following Table is frovo.*^ Harrison's Freighters' Guide,* London 
Edition, 1848. The 1st column shows the Quantities, in Numbers and 
Decimal parts ; the 2d column the character, or kind of Goods ; the 
3d column the Gross Weight of the Goods in Tons and Decimal parts 
of a ton ; and the 4th column the number of Cubic Feet required for 
Stowing the same. [850 Cubic Feet equal 21.2 Tons, or 1 Keel.'] 



Quantities in 

Numbers & 

Decimals. 



*97. 
88. 
105. 
108. 
114. 
125. 
10. 
9.107 
7.760 
6.825 
4.444 
5.257 
7.2727 
17. 
17. 
17. 
17. 
17. 
17. 
14.923 

5.1515 
4.857 
r 1.275 



1.300 
1.200 
0.840 



t^ 0.708 
1.054 

3.885 

U. 

8. 
12. 
16. 



Articles of Freight. 



Quarters of Wheat, 61.2 lbs. per Bushel, equal 
do. Tares, Beans, & Peas 63 do. do. 

do. Rye, 57 do. do. 

do. Seed, 52 do. do. 

do. Barley, 52 do. do. 

do. Oats, 37 do. do. 

Tons Clean Hemp and Flax, do. 

do. Outshot do. do do, 

do. Half-clean do. do do. 

do. Codilla do. do do. 

do. Wool, do. 

do. Wool, compressed, do. 

do. Dried Skins, do . 

do. Tallow, 

do. Ashes, \ do. 

do. Hides (Salted), 

Loads of Timber (Baltic squared Fir),... . 

do. do (N. American do.), \ do. 

do. do (Birch do.), ) 

do. Masts (round), do. 

Pieces, Ft. In. In. 
Stand. Hund. Deals, 120 12 11 ly, 
do. do Battens, 120 12 7 21/2 

Mille Baltic Staves reduced 

Viz. 1200 pieces, 66 in. long hy 1^4 thick , 

do. Odessa do. do 

do. Quebec do. do 

do. Baltic Staves rough 

1200 pieces 72 inches hy 3^^ 

do. Odessa do. do 

1200 pieces 76 inches hy 3^4 

do. Quebec do. do 

1200 pieces 66 inches hy 2% 

do. West India do. do 

1200 pieces 42 inches hy I14 

Casks Pot and Pearl Ashes, .' do. 

Tons Bones (calcined), in Bulk, do. 

do. do. (manure, &c.), do do. 

do. do. (b^st quality), do do 



do. 
do. 



J^do. 



Tons 
Weight 



21.2 

20. 

21. 

20. 

21. 

16.5 

10. 
9.107 
7.76 
5.825 
4.444 
5.257 
7.2727 

17. 

18.5 
13,5 
22. 
17.5 

17. 
17.75 



15.25 



Cub. 
Feet 



f50 

do 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do, 

do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 

do. 
do. 



do. 



do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 



* Wheat is the standard, 8 imperial bushels of Wheat equal 1 Quarteri 
and 1 English Quarter equal 81/4 United States bushel. 
t The Staves average 6 inches in breadth. 



105 



ENGLISH FREIGHT TABLE. 



Quantities in 

Numbers & 

Decimals. 



9.444 

100. 
100, 
100. 
136. 
140. 
160. 

8.333 

9.166 
4.75 



9.7 

6. 
17. 
20. 
40. 
230. 
17. 
17. 

8. 

4.500 

10. 
8. 
110. 
156. 
120. 
535. 
180. 
144. 

20. 

20. 
120. 

16. 

21. 
150. 

40. 

60. 

60. 
100. 



Articles of Freight. 



200. 



Tons Mats of 400 pieces (Archangel), equal 
Barrels Tar do do. 

do. Pitch do do. 

do. Tar (Stockholm), do. 

do. Tar and Rosin (American), do. 

do. Flour 220 lbs. each (196 nett), do. 

Sacks do. 280 do do. 

ON COTTON. 

Tons New Orleans and Mobile, all com- ) ^ 
pressed, ) - 

do. best carrying ships, do do. 

do. Charleston and Savannah, not com- ) ^ 

pressed, j 

•do. Pernambuco and Maranham(!l^=*Ves- "j 
sels from these ports generally stow I ^ 
10 per cent, more than i^ the register ton- f ^ 
nage, part compressed, say 7 tons as above j 

do. Alexandria, all compressed , do • 

do. do, not compressed, do. 

Hogsheads Tobacco, do. 

do. Sugar 16^4 cwt . average, do. 

Tierces Coffee, 7 cwt. do do. 

Bags do. 1^4 cwt. do do. 

Tuns of Oil of 252 gals, each, do. 

do. Wine, Brandy, or any other Spirit ) ^ 
reckoning the full gauge of the Casks, f 
Tons Oranges and Lemons of 10 Chest ) ^ 
or 20 Boxes per Ton, j ^^' 

do. ('ork, (Faro), do. 

do. Bark, (Tree) , do. 

do. do. (Coppice) do. 

Tierces Beef, 3 cwt. each, do. 

Barrels Pork, 2 cwt. each, do. 

Bags Bread, 1 cwt. each, do. 

Firkins Butter, 70 lbs. each, do. 

Barrels Red Herrings, do. 

do. White do do. 

Hogsheads Copperas, do. 

do. Lamp Black, do. 

Bags do do. 

Tons Soda & other Alkalies, in Casks, do. 

do. do. in Bulk, do. 

Carboy, Oil Vitriol, do. 

Crates Glass, 18 Tables, do. 

do. do. 15 do do. 

Crates Glass, 12 Tables, do. 

Gross of Bottles = 6 per Gallon = 19 lbs. ) , 

Weight per dozen, in Bulk, (Glass), J ^^' 

do. i| Bottles = 12 per Gallon = 11 lbs. ) , 
weight per Dozen, in Bulk, ) 



Tons 


Cub. 


Weight 


Feet. 


8.5 


850 


16. 


do. 


20. 


do. 


16. 


do. 


17. 


do. 


13.75 


do. 


20. 


do. 


8.333 


do. 


9.166 


do. 


4.75 


do. 



9.7 

5. 
10. 
16.5 
14. 
17.25 
18.5 

20. 

10. 

4.5 
10. 

8. 

16.5 
15.5 

6. 

16.5 
11. 
21.5 
17. 

7, 

6, 
16. 
21. 

8. 

4.5 

5. 

5.5 

10. 
11.75 



do. 

do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 

do. 
do. 



106 

ENGLISH FREIGHT TABLE. 



Quantities in 

Numbers & 

Decimals. 



80. 

28. 

22. 

16. 
7000. 
8000. 

26. 

17. 

20. 

21. 

300. 

* 8. 



Articles of Freight. 



Crts. Bottles (Glass) 10% cubic ft. each, equal 

do. Earthenware, small size, do. 

do. do. mixed sorts or middling size, . do. 

do. do. largest size, do, 

Fire Bricks, in Bulk, 

Common do., also Tiles, do. 

Chaldrons Grindstones, do. 

Tons Potatoes,. do. 

do. Oil Cake, do. 

do. Slates, do. 

Pigs of Lead do. 

Wagons of Coal, 53 cwt, each, do. 



i. 
It. 

do. 

% 

do. 



Tons 
Weight, 



10. 

10. 

9. 

7. 
21, 
21. 
21. 
17. 
20. 
21. 
22. 
21.200 



Cub. 
Feet 



850 
do. 
do. 
do. 
638 
do. 
425 
do. 
do, 
567 
283 
850 



* The Contents of each Wagon of Coals is 126 Cubic Feet, 8 Wagons 1008 
Feet, but when stowed in bulk on board a ship, from the spreading out 
and pressure, become closer packed, and are proved, from practice, to 
stow in the space of 850 Cubic Feet. 

Note. —As wheat is the standard equally for weight and measurement, 
it will be necessary to explain how it is so. The imperial corn bushel is 
2218.192 cubic inches : this multiplied by 776 (the number of bushels in 97 
qrs. of wheat), and divided by 1728 (the cubic inches in one foot), gives 
996 cubic feet ; but, when stowed in bulk on board a ship, is reduced in 
measurement nearly 15 per cent., viz., to 850 cubic feet ; 1st, about 8 per 
cent, by the ship stowing it in spaces where no measurement goods can be 
stowed, and the immense pressure on the lower parts of the cargo ; and 
2d, about 7 per cent, difference between the bushel being filled in the 
customary way, and what it can be made actually to hold ; this, by sev- 
eral trials of wheat, 61 lbs. to the bushel, average nearly 5 pints, or 5-64ths, 
making, in all, about 15 per cent, as above. This seeming paradox, wMch 
I have taken some pains to clear up, although well known to exist in 
practice, by me and every one acquainted with the stowage of goods, 
applies to every sort of grain, and in fact, to every thing in bulk, according 
to its weight and elasticity ; and 97 qrs. of wheat, is equal to 850 cubic feet. 



TREENAILS.— 5333 pieces of 9 inches equal 1 load of timber ; 4000 do. 
12 do. do.; 3200 do. 15 do, do. ; 2666 do. do. 18 do. do. ; 2285 do, 21 do, do.; 
2000 do. 24 do. do. ; 1777 do. 27 do. do.; 1600 do. 30 do. do. •, 1454 do. 33 do 
do. ; 1333 do. 36 do. do.; 1142 do. 42 do. do. 

FIR AND OAIC PLANK.— 1200 pieces of 14 inch equal 1 load of timber; 
600 do. 1 do. do. ; 400 do. 11/2 do. do.; 300 do. 2 do. do. ; 240 do. 21/2 do. do.; 
200 do. 3 do, do. ; 150 do. 4 do. do. ; 120 do. 5 do. do. ; lOt) do. 6 do. do. 

Freight Table.— The foregoing Table gives about 100 different de- 
scriptions of goods, proportioned in stowage. 

Rule.— If 97 Quarters of wheat equal a keel (21.2 tons or 850 cubic ft.) 
then how many quarters of Barley, or how many tons of Hemp, Wool, or 
Cotton, or barrels of Flour can be stowed in a vessel whose carrying capa- 
city is 294 tons ? 

Example.— 294 tons multiplied by 40 (the number of cubic feet in a ton) 
equals 11.760 cubic feet, which divided by 850 and the quotient multiplied 
by 140 (the number of barrels which can be stowed in 850 cubic feet, as 
stated in the table) gives 1936 barrels of Flour, as the quantity which sucb 
vessel can carry. 



LIGHTNING CALCULATOR. 



107 



LIGHTNING CALCULATOR FOR MERCHA.NTS, SEAMEN, Con- 
tractors, &c., sliowing the Solid Contents or Cubic Feet of Timber, 
Stones, Boxes, Bales, Barrels, Casks, Hogsheads, &c., according to their 
several lengths, breadths and thicknesses. Condensed from BtunVs Ex- 
peditious Measurer. 

Example. — Required the cubic contents of a Box, Stone, Bale or 
Package, 6 feet long, 36 ins. thick or deep, and 46 ins- broad : turn to 36 
inches thick, among the running titles over the tables, and opposite 6 ft. 
and under 46 ins. (indicated by B, denoting breadth), you will find the an- 
swer 69, the number of cubic feet. 

If there should be a package exceeding the extent of the tables in length, 
breadth or thickness, its solid contents may, however, easily be found by 
halving the dimension so exceeding, and doubling the solid content ; or, 
double any suitable number, add any two together, or subtract, as may be 
required. 

Sizes in feet and inches may be determined by applying the scale for in- 
ches under each table, adding or deductiug as may be required. 

In measuring casks and hogsheads, it is customary to deduct one-fifth on 
account of the bulge. Thus supposing the square or solid contents of 
a cask should be by the table 20 cubic ft, the 5th off would leave it but 16 ft. 



Length 


5 Inches Thick,— 


-By 




ft. 


m. 


5 B| 


6B 7B 


8B 


9B 


10 B 


11 B 
5 


12 B 


13 B 

5 


14 B 


15 B 


1 


2 


3 3 


3 


4 


4 


5 


6 


6 


2 





4 


5 6 


7 


8 


8 


9 


10 


11 


1 


1 1 


3 


— 


6 


8 


9 


10 


11 


1 1 


1 2 


1 3 


1 4 


1 6 


1 7 


4 


— 


8 


10 


1 


1 1 


1 3 


1 5 


1 6 


1 8 


1 10 


1 11 


2 1 


5 


— 


10 


1 1 


1 3 


1 5 


1 7 


1 9 


1 11 


2 1 


2 3 


2 5 


2 7 


6 


— 


1 1 


1 3 


1 6 


1 8 


1 11 


2 1 


2 4 



2 6 


2 9 


2 11 



3 2 





1 
































2 











1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


— 


3 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


— 


6 


1 


1 11 


2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


4 


Length 


6 . 


Inches Thick,— B 


Y 




ft. 


in. 


6B 


7B 


8B 
4 


9B 


10 B 
5 


11 B 
6 


12 B 


13 B 

7 


14 B 


15 B 


16 B 


1 





3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


8 


2 


— 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


1 


1 1 


1 2 


1 3 


1 4 


3 


— 


9 


11 


1 


1 2 


1 3 


1 5 


1 6 


1 8 


1 9 


1 11 


2 


4 


— 


1 


1 2 


1 4 


1 6 


1 8 


1 10 


2 


2 2 


2 4 


2 6 


2 8 


5 


— 


1 3 


1 6 


1 8 


1 11 


2 1 


2 4 


2 6 


2 9 


2 11 


3 2 


3 4 


6 


z 

1 


1 6 


1 9 


2 


2 3 


2 6 


2 9 


3 


3 3 


3 6 


3 9 


4 























1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


— 


2 


1 


1 


1 


3 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


— 


3 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


— 


6 


2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


3 


4 


4 4 


LengtSj 


7 Inches Thick, 


^^By~ 




ft. 


in. 


7B 


8B 


9B 


10 B 


11 B 


12 B 


13 B 


14 B 


15 B 


16 B 


17 B 


1 


— 


4 


5 


5 


6 


6 


7 


8 


8 


9 


9 


9 


2 


— 


8 


9 


11 


1 


1 3 


1 2 


1 3 


1 4 


1 6 


1 7 


1 8 


3 


— 


1 


1 2 


1 4 


1 6 


1 7 


1 9 


1 11 


2 1 


2 2 


2 4 


2 6 


4 


— - 


1 4 


1 7 


1 9 


1 11 


2 2 


2 4 


2 6 


2 9 


2 11 


3 1 


3 4 


5 


— 


1 8 


1 11 


2 2 


2 5 


2 8 


2 11 


3 2 


3 5 


3 8 


3 11 


4 2 


6 


— 


2 1 


2 4 


3 8 


2 11 


3 3 


3 6 
1 


3 10 


4 1 


4 5 


4 8 


5 





1 














1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


— 


2 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


2 


2 


— 


3 


1 


1 


] 


1 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


— 


6 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


4 


4 


4 


5 


5 


5 



108 



LIGHTNING CALCULATOR. 



LengtliE 8 Inc 


ties Thick,- 


-By 


»_ 




■""—" 


ft. 


in. 8 B 


9B 


10 B 


11 B 


12 B 


13 B 


14 B 


15 B 


16 B 


17 B 


18 B 


1 





5 


6 


7 


7 


8 


9 


9 


10 


11 


11 


1 


2 




11 


1 


1 1 


1 3 


1 4 


1 5 


1 7 


1 8 


1 9 


1 11 


2 


3 




1 4 


1 6 


1 8 


1 10 


2 


2 2 


2 4 


2 6 


2 8 


2 10 


3 


4 




1 9 


2 


2 3 


2 5 


2 8 


2 11 


3 1 


3 4 


3 7 


3 9 


4 


5 


2 3 


2 6 


2 9 


3 1 


3 4 


3 7 


3 11 


4 2 


4 6 


4 9 


5 


6 


— 28 


3 


3 4 


3 8 


4 


4 4 


4 8 


5 


5 4 


5 8 


. 6 


_ 


10 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


— 


2 1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 





3 1 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


3 


— 


6 3 


3 


3 


4 


4 


4 


5 


5 


5 


6 


6 



Leiigtli 








9 Inches Thick,- 


-By 








/^. 


in. 


9B 


10 B 


11 B 


12 B 


13 B 


14 B 


15 B 


16 B 


17 B 


18 B 


19 B 


1 


__ 


7 


8 


8 


9 


10 


11 


11 


1 


1 1 


1 2 


1 3 


2 





1 2 


1 3 


1 6 


1 6 


1 8 


1 9 


1 11 


2 


2 2 


2 3 


2 5 


3 


— 


1 8 


1 11 


2 1 


2 3 


2 5 


2 8 


2 10 


3 


3 2 


3 5 


3 7 


4 





2 3 


2 6 


2 9 


3 


3 3 


3 6 


3 9 


4 


4 3 


4 6 


4 9 


5 





2 10 


3 2 


3 6 


3 9 


4 1 


4 5 


4 8 


5 


5 4 


5 8 


5 11 


6 


1 


3 5 


3 9 


4 2 


4 6 


4 11 


5 3 


5 8 


6 


6 5 


6 9 


7 2 


__ 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 





2 


1 


1 


1 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


_ 


3 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


— 


6 


3 


4 


4 5 


5 


5 


6 


6 


6 


7 


7 



Length 










10 Inches Thick, 


-By 








^<. 


^?^. 


10 B 


11 B 


12 B 


13 B 


14 B 


15 B 


16 B 


17 B 


18 B 


19 B 


20 B 


1 


__ 


8 


9 


10 


11 


1 


1 1 


1 1 


1 2 


1 3 


1 4 


1 5 


2 





1 5 


1 6 


1 8 


1 10 


1 11 


2 1 


2 3 


2 4 


2 6 


2 8 


2 9 


3 





2 1 


2 4 


2 6 


2 9 


2 11 


3 2 


3 4 


3 7 


3 9 


4 


4 2 


4 


— 


2 9 


3 1 


3 4 


3 7 


3 11 


4 2 


4 5 


4 9 


5 


5 3 


5 7 


5 





3 6 


3 10 


4 2 


4 6 


4 10 


5 3 


5 7 


5 11 


6 3 


6 7 


6 11 


6 


— 


4 2 


4 7 


5 


5 5 


5 10 


6 3 


6 8 


7 1 


7 6 


7 11 


8 4 





1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 





2 


1 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


— 


3 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


4 


4 


4 


4 


— 


6 


4 


6 


5 


5 


6 


6 


7 


7 


8 


8 


9 


LergthI 


11 Inclies 


Thick, 


-Bv 






ft- 


m. 


11 B 


12 B 


13 B 


14 B 


15 B 


16 B 


17 B 


18 B 


19 B 


20 B 


21 B 


1 





10 


11 


1 


1 1 


1 2 


1 3 


1 4 


1 5 


1 5 


1 6 


1 6 


2 





1 8 


1 10 


2 


2 2 


2 4 


2 5 


2 7 


2 9 


2 11 


3 1 


3 3 


3 


— 


2 6 


2 9 


3 


3 3 


3 5 


3 8 


3 11 


4 2 


4 4 


4 7 


4 10 


4 


— 


3 4 


3 8 


4 


4 3 


4 7 


4 11 


5 2 


5 6 


5 10 


6 1 


6 5 


5 





4 2 


4 7 


5 


5 4 


5 9 


6 1 


6 6 


6 11 


7 3 


7 8 


8 


6 


— 


5 1 


5 6 
1 


6 
1 


6 5 


6 11 


7 4 


7 10 


8 3 


8 9 


9 2 


9 8 


__ 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


2 


2 





2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


,»_ 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


4 


4 


4 


4 


5 


5 


— 


6 


5 


6 


6 


6 


7 


7 


8 


8 


9 


9 


10 



LIGHTNING CALCULATOR. 



109 



Length g ] 


L2 Inches 


tEic^ 


-By 


fL\bu J12B 


13 B 


14 B 


15 B 


16 B 
1 4 


17 B 


18 B 


19 B 


20 B 


21 B 


22 B 


1 !- 1 1 


1 1 


1 2 


1 3 


1 5 


1 6 


1 7 


1 8 


1 9 


1 10 


2 


— 


2 


2 2 


2 4 


2 6 


2 8 


2 10 


3 


3 2 


3 4 


3 6 


3 8 


3 


— 


3 


3 3 


3 6 


3 9 


4 


4 3 


4 6 


4 9 


5 


5 3 


5 6 


4 


— 


4 


4 4 


4 8 


5 


5 4 


5 8 


6 


6 4 


6 8 


7 


7 4 


5 


— 


5 


5 5 


5 10 


6 3 


6 8 


7 1 


7 6 


7 11 


8 4 


8 9 


9 2 


6 


— 


6 


G 6 


7 


7 6 


8 


8 6 


9 


9 6 


10 


10 6 11 





1 


It 1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


2 


2 


2 


2 


1 


— 


2 


2 2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


4 


2 


— 


3 


3 3 


4 


4 


4 


4 


5 


5 


5 


5 


4 


— 


G 


G 7 7 


8 


8 


9 


9 


10 


10 


11 


15 



Lei 
ft. 


igth 
in. 


13 B 


14 B 


15 B 


1 
16 B 


3 Inc 
17 B 


mes 
18 B 


Thick, 
19 B 


20 B 


21 B 


22 B 


23 B 


1 





1 2 


1 3 


1 


4 


1 5 


1 6 


1 8 


1 9 


1 10 


1 11 


2 


2 1 


2 


— 


2 4 


2 6 


2 


9 


2 11 


3 1 


3 3 


3 5 


3 7 


3 10 


4 


4 2 


3 


— 


3 6 


3 10 


4 


1 


4 4 


4 7 


4 11 


5 2 


5 5 


5 8 


6 


6 3 


4 


— 


4 8 


5 1 


5 


5 


5 9 


G 2 


6 G 


6 10 


7 3 


7 7 


7 11 


8 4 


5 


— 


5 10 


G 4 


6 


9 


7 3 


7 8 


8 2 


8 7 


9 


9 6 


9 11 


10 5 


G 


— 


7 17 7 


8 


2 


8 8 


9 3 


9 9 


10 4 


10 10 


11 5 


11 11 


12 6 





1 


10 1 





1 


i ;j 2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


— 


2 


2 3| 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


4 


4 


4 


4 





3 


4 41 


4 


4 


5 


5 


5 


5 


6 


6 


6 


— 


G 


71 8i 


81 9 


9 


10 


10 


11 


11 


1 


1 



Length 



ft. in. 14 B 15 B 16 B 17 B 18 B 19 B 



14 Inches Thick,— By 




2 

3 

5 

9 



2 



18 B 


19 


B 


20 B 


1 9 


1 


10 


1 11 


3 6 


3 


8 


3 11 


5 3 


5 


7 


5 10 


7 


7 


5 


7 9 


8 9 


9 


3 


9 9 


10 6 


11 


11 


11 8 


2 





2 


2 


4 





4 


4 


5 





6 


6 


11 


1 





1 



21 B 22 B 23 B I 24 B 



2 
4 
6 
8 
10 
12 



2 

4 

6 

1 



2 2 
4 3 
6 5 
8 7 
10 8 
12 10 



21 

4 

6 

1 1 

B 



2 3 
4 6 
6 9 
8 11 
11 2 
13 5 



2 

4 

7 

1 1 



2 4 
5 10 
7 
9 4 
11 8 
14 



2 

5 

7 

1 1 



Lei 


igth 


1 


5 Inches 


Thick, 


-By 




ff. 


.n. 


15 B 


16 B 117 B 


18 B 19 B 


20 B 


21 B 


22 B 


23 B 


24 B 


25 B 


1 




1 7 


1 8 


1 9 


1 11 2 


2 1 


2 2 


2 4 


2 5 


2 


6 


2 7 


2 





3 2 


3 4 


3 7 


3 9 4 


4 2 


4 5 


4 7 


4 10 


5 





5 3 


3 





4 8 


5 


5 4 


5 8 


5 11 


6 3 


6 7 


6 11 


7 2 


7 


6 


7 10 


4 





G 3 


6 8 


7 1 


7 G 


7 11 


8 4 


8 9 


9 2 


9 7 


10 





10 5 


5 





7 10 


8 4 


8 10 


9 5 


9 11 


10 5 


10 11 


11 6 


12 


12 


6 


13 


6 


— 


9 5 


10 


10 8 


11 3 


11 11 


12 6 


13 2 


13 9 


14 5 


15 





15 8 


_ 


1 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 





3 


3 





2 


3 


3 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


5 


5 





5 


5 





3 


5 


5 


5 


6 


6 


6 


7 


7 


7 





8 


8 


—^ 


6 


i 9 


10 


11 


11 


_1 


1 1 


1 2 


1 2 


1 2 


1 


3 


1 3 



110 



LIGHTNING CALCULATOR. 



Length 1 


16 inches Thick,— By 


ft'\ 


in. 


16 B 


17 B 


18 B 


19 B 


20 B 


21 B 


22 B 


23 B 


24 B 


25 B 


26 B 


1 


_ 


1 9 


1 11 


2 


2 1 


2 3 


2 4 


2 5 


2 7 


2 8 


2 9 


2 10 


2 





3 7 


3 9 


4 


4 3 


4 5 


4 8 


4 11 


5 1 


5 4 


5 7 


5 10 


8 





5 4 


5 8 


6 


6 4 


6 8 


7 


7 4 


7 8 


8 


8 4 


8 8 


4 





7 1 


7 7 


8 


8 5 


8 11 


9 4 


9 9 


10 3 


10 8 


11 1 


11 7 


5 





8 11 


9 5 


10 


10 7 


11 1 


11 8 


12 3 


12 9 


13 4 


13 11 


14 5 


6 


— 


10 8 


11 4 


12 


12 8 


13 4 


14 


14 8 


15 4 


16 


16 8 


17 4 


_ 


1 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


3 





2 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


5 


5 


5 


5 


6 


6 


— 


3 


5 


6 


6 


6 


7 


7 


7 


8 


8 


8 


8 


— 


6 


11 


11 


1 


1 1 


1 1 


1 2 


1 3 


1314 


1 5 


1 6 


Length 1 


17 Inches Thick,— By 


ft. 


in. 


17 B 


18 B 


19 B 


20 B 


21 B 


22 B 


23 B 


24 B 


25 B 


26 B 


27 B 


1 





2 


2 2 


2 3 


2 4 


2 6 


2 7 


2 9 


2 10 


2 11 


3 1 


3 2 


2 





4 


4 3 


4 6 


4 9 


5 


5 2 


5 5 


5 8 


5 11 


6 2 


6 5 


3 


— 


6 


6 5 


6 9 


7 1 


7 5 


7 10 


8 2 


8 6 


8 10 


9 3 


9 7 


4 


— 


8 


8 6 


9 


9 5 


9 11 


10 5 


10 10 


11 4 


11 10 


12 3 


12 9 


5 





10 


10 8 


n 3 


11 10 


12 5 


13 


13 7 


14 2 


14 9 


15 4 


15 11 


6 


1 


12 1 


12 9 


13 6 


14 2 


14 11 


15 7 


1G 4 


17 C 


17 9 


18 5 


19 2 





2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


4 


— 


2 


4 


4 


4 


5 


5 


5 


5 


6 


6 


6 


r 6 


— 


3 


6 


6 


7 


7 


7 


8 


8 


9 


9 


9 


10 


— 


6 


1 


1 1 


1 1 


1 2 


1 3 


1 4 


1 4 


1 5 


1 6 


1 6 


1 7 


Sensrtir 


18 Inches Thick —By 


/^. 


in. 


18 B 


19 B 


20 B 


21 B 


22 B 


23 B 


24 B 


25 B 


26 B 


27 B 


28 B 


1 





2 3 


2 5 


2 6 


2 8 


2 9 


2 11 


3 


3 2 


3 3 


3 5 


3 6 


2 





4 6 


4 9 


5 


5 3 


5 6 


5 9 


6 


6 3 


6 6 


6 9 


7 


3 





6 9 


7 2 


7 6 


7 11 


8 3 


8 8 


9 


9 5 


9 9 


10 2 


10 6 


4 


— 


9 


9 6 


10 


10 6 


11 


11 6 


12 


12 6 


13 


13 6 


14 


5 


— 


11 3 


11 11 


12 6 


13 2 


13 9 


14 5 


15 


15 8 


16 3 


16 11 


17 6 


6 


— 


13 6 


14 3 


15 


15 9 


16 6 


17 3 


18 


18 9 


19 6 


20 3 


21 





1 


2 


2 3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


4 


— 


2 


5 


5 5 


5 


6 


6 


6 


6 


7 


7 


r 


— 


3 


7 


71 8 


8 


8 


9 


9 


9 


10 


10 


11 


— 


6 


1 2 


1 21 1 3 


1 4 1 5' 1 5 


1 6 


1 7 


1 8 


1 8 


1 9 


Length |- • 19 Inches Thick,— By 


ft. 


in. |19B 


20 B 


21 B 


22B 


23 B 


24 B 


25 B 


26 B 


27 B 


28 B 


29 B 


1 


— 12 6 


2 8 


2 9 


2 11 


3 


3 2 


3 4 


3 5 


3 7 


3 8 


3 10 


2 


— 


5 


5 3 


5 7 


6 10 


6 1 


6 4 


6 7 


6 10 


7 2 


7 5 


7 8 


o 


. — 


7 6 


7 11 


8 4 


8 9 


9 1 


9 6 


9 11 


10 4 


10 8 


11 1 


11 6 


4 





10 


10 7 


11 1 


11 7 


12 2 


12 8 


13 2 


13 9 


14 3 


14 9 


15 4 


5 





12 6 


13 2 


13 10 


14 6 


15 2 


15 10 


16 6 


17 2 


17 10 


18 6 


19 2 


6 


— 


15 1 


15 10 
3 


16 8 


17 5 


18 3 


19 


19 10 


20 7 


21 5 


22 2 


23 





1 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


4 


4 


4 





2 


5 


5 


6 


6 


6 


6 


7 


7 


7 


7 


8 


— 


3 


8 


8 


8 


9 


9 


10 


10 


10 


11 


11 


1 




6 


1 3 


1 4 


1 5 


1 5 


1 6 


17 18' 


2 9 


1 9 


1 10 


1 11 



LIGHTNIXG CALCULATOR. 



Ill 



Length 


20 Inches Thick,— By 


■""■" 




ft 


in 


20 B 


21 B 


22B 


23 B 


24 B 


25 B 


26 B 


27 B 


28 B 


29 B 


SOB 


1 


— 


2 S 


2 11 


3 1 


3 2 


3 4 


3 6 


3 7 


3 9 


3 11 


4 


4 2 


2 


— 


5 7 


5 10 


6 ] 


6 5 


6 8 


6 11 


7 3 


7 6 


7 9 


8 1 


8 5 


3 


— 


8 4 


8 9 


9 2 


9 7 


10 


10 5 


10 10 


11 3 


11 8 


12 1 


12 6 


4 


— 


11 1 


11 8 


12 3 


12 9 


13 4 


13 11 


14 5 


15 


15 7 


16 1 


16 » 


6 


— 


13 11 


14 7 


15 3 


16 


16 8 


17 4 


18 1 


18 9 


19 5 


20 2 


20 IC) 


6 


— 


16 8 


17 6 


18 4 


19 2|20 


20 10 


21 8 


22 6 


23 4 


24 2 


25 I 





1 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


4 


4 


4 


4 


* 


— 


2 


6 


6 


6 


6 


7 


7 


7 


8 


8 


8 


c s 


— 


3 8 8 
6 1 1 5 


9 


9 


10 


10 


10 


11 


11 


1 


1 


1 3 




1 6 


1 6 


1 7 


1 8 


1 9' 1 10 


1 11 


1 11 


2 


2 1 


Length 


21 Inches Thick.— By 






/^jm. 


21 B 


22 B 


23 B 


24 B 


25 B 


26 B 


27 B 


28 B 


29 B 


30 B 


31 B 


1 





3 1 


3 3 


3 4 


3 6 


3 8 


3 10 


3 11 


4 1 


4 3 


4 5 


4 7 


2 


— 


6 2 


6 6 


6 9 


7 


7 4 


7 7 


7 11 


8 2 


8 6 


8 9 


9 


3 


— 


9 2 


9 8 


10 1 


10 6 


10 11 


11 5 


11 10 


12 3 


12 8 


13 2 


13 7 


4 


— 


12 3 


12 10 


13 5 


14 


14 7 


15 2 


15 9 


16 4 


16 11 


17 6 


18 1 


5 


— 


15 4 


16 1 


16 9 


17 6 


18 3 


19 


19 8 


20 5 


21 2 


21 11 


22 7 


6 


— 


18 5 


19 3 


20 2 


21 


21 11 


22 9 


23 8 


24 6 


25 5 


26 3 


27 2 





1 


3 


3 


3 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


— 


2 jo 6 6 


7 


7 


7 


8 


8 


8 


8 


9 


9 


— 


.3 8 9 10 


10 


11 


11 


11 


1 


1 


1 1 


1 1 


1 2 




6 i 1 6 1 7 


1 8 


1 9 


1 lO! 1 11' 2 


2 1 


2 1 


2 2 


2 3 


Length! 


22 Inches Thick,— By 






ft- 


m. 


22 B 


23 B 


24 B 


25 B 


2GB 


27 B 


28 B 


29 B 1 


30 B 


31 B 


32 B 


1 


^_ 


3 4 


3 6 


3 8 


3 10 


4 


4 2 


4 3 


4 5 


4 7 


4 9 


4 11 


2 


— 


6 9 


7 


7 4 


7 8 


7 11 


8 3 


8 7 


8 10 


9 2 


9 6 


10 


3 


— 


10 1 


10 7 


11 


11 6 


11 11 


12 5 


12 10 


13 4 


13 9 


14 3 


17 1 


4 


— 


13 5 


14 1 


14 8 


15 3 


15 11 


16 6 


17 1 


17 9 


18 4 


18 11 


19 7 


5* 


— 


16 10 


17 7 


18 4 


19 1 


19 10 


20 8 


21 5 


22 2 


22 11 


23 8 


24 5 


6 





20 2 


21 1 


22 


22 11 


23 10 


24 9 


25 8 


26 7 


27 6 


28 5 


29 4 





1 


3 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


6 


5 


5 


— 


2 


7 


7 


7 


8 


8 


8 


9 


9 


9 


9 


10 





3 


10 


11 


11 


11 


1 


1 


1 1 


1 1 


1 2 


1 2 


1 2 


— 


6 


1 8 


1 9 


1 10 


1 111 2 


2 1 


2 2 


2 3 


2 4 


2 4 


2 5 


Length i 


23 Inches Thick,— By 






Jt- 


m. 


23 B 


24 B 


25 B 


26 B 


27 B 


28 B 


29 B 


30 B 


31 B 


32 B 


33 B 


1 


__ 


3 8 


3 10 


4 Q 


4 2 


4 4 


4 6 


4 8 


4 10 


4 11 


5 1 


5 2 


2 





7 4 


7 8 


8 


8 4 


8 S 


8 11 


9 3 


9 7 


9 11 


10 3 


10 7 


3 


— 


11 


U 6 


12 


12 6 


12 11 


13 15 


13 11 


14 5 


14 10 


15 4 


15 10 


4 





14 8 


15 4 


16 


16 7 


17 3 


17 11 


18 6 


19 2 


19 10 


20 5 


21 1 


5 





18 4 


19 2i20 


20 9 


21 7 


22 4 


23 2 


24 


24 9 


25 7 


26 4 


6 


1 


22 1 


23 0,24 


24 11 


25 11 


26 10 


27 10 


28 9 


29 9 


30 8 


31 8 


.^ 


4 


4 


J 
4 


4 


4 


4 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 





2 


7 


8 


8 


8 


9 


9 


9 


10 


10 


10 


11 





3 


11 


1 


1 


1 


1 1 


1 1 


1 2 


1 2 


1 3 


1 3 


1 4 


■"• 


6 


1 10 


1 11 


2 


2 1 


2 2 


2 3 


2 4 


2 5l 


2 6 


2 7 


2 8 



112 



LIGHTNING CALCULATOR. 



Length 


" 24 Inches Thick,— By 


ft. 


m. 


24 B 


25 B 


26 B 


27 B 


28 B 


29 B 


30 B 


31 B 


32 B 


33 B 


34 B 


1 





4 


4 2 


4 4 


4 6 


4 8 


4 10 


5 


5 2 


5 4 


5 6 


5 8 


2 





8 


8 4 


8 8 


9 


9 4 


9 8 


10 


10 4 


10 8 


11 


11 4 


3 





12 


12 6 


13 


13 6 


14 


14 6 


15 


15 6 


16 


16 6 


17 


4 





16 


16 8 


17 4 


18 


18 8 


19 4 


20 


20 8 


21 ^ 


22 


22 8 


5 


— 


20 


20 10 


21 8 


22 6 


23 4 


24 2 


25 


25 10 


26 8 


27 6 


28 4 


6 


— 


24 


25 


26 
4 


27 
5 


28 
! 5 


29 
5 


SO 


31 


32 


S3 


34 





1 


4 


4 


6 


6 


5 


6 


6 





2 


8 


8 


9 


9 


9 


10 


10 


10 


11 


11 


11 


— 


3 


1 


1 1 


1 1 


1 2 


1 2 


1 3 


1 3 


1 4 


1 4 


1 5 


1 5 


— 


6 


2 


2 1 


2 2 


2 3 


2 4 


2 5 


2 6 


2 7 


2 8 


2 9 


2 10 


Length] 


25 Inches Thick,— By 


ft. 


%n. 


25 B 


26 B 

4 6 


27 B 


28 B 


29 B 


30 B 
5 3 


31 B 


32 B 


33 B 


34 B 


35 B 


1 


_ 


4 4 


4 8 


4 10 


5 


5 5 


5 7 


5 9 


5 11 


6 1 


2 


— 


8 8 


9 


9 5 


9 9 


10 1 


10 5 


10 9 


11 1 


11 6 


11 10 


12 2 


3 


— 


13 


13 7 


14 1 


14 7 


15 1 


15 8 


16 2 


16 8 


17 2 


17 9 


18 3 


4 





17 4 


18 1 


18 9 


19 5 


20 2 


20 10 


21 6 


22 3 


22 11 


23 7 


24 4 


5 


— 


21 8 


22 7 


23 5 


24 4 


25 2 


26 1 


26 11 


27 9 


28 8 


29 6 


30 5 


6 


— 


26 1 


27 1 


28 2 


29 2 


30 3 


31 3 


32 4 


33 4 


34 5 


35 6 


36 6 





1 


4 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


6 


6 


6 


6 


— 


2 


9 


9 


9 


10 


10 


10 


11 


11 


11 


1 


1 





3 


1 1 


1 2 


1 2 


1 3 


1 3 


1 4 


1 4 


1 5 


1 5 


1 6 


1 7 


■ 


6 


2 2 


2 3 


3 4' 2 5 


2 6 


2 7 


2 8 


2 9 


2 10 


2 ll' 3 


Length 


26 Inches ' 


Ihick,— By 


ft- 


m. 


26 B 


27 B 


28 B 


29 B 


SOB 


31 B 


32 B 


33 B 


34 B 


35 B 


36 B 


1 





4 8 


4 11 


5 1 


5 3 


5 5 


5 7 


5 9 


6 


6 2 


6 4 


6 6 


2 


— 


9 5 


9 9 


10 1 


10 6 


10 10 


11 2 


11 7 


11 11 


12 3 


12 8 


13 


3 


— 


14 1 


14 8 


15 2 


15 9 


16 3 


16 10 


17 4 


17 11 


18 5 


19 


19 6 


4 





18 9 


19 6 


20 3 


20 11 


21 8 


22 5 


23 1 


23 10 


24 7 


25 3 


26 


5 


— 


23 6 


24 5 


25 3 


26 2 


27 1 


28 


28 11 


29 10 


30 8 


31 7 


32 6 


6 


— 


28 2 


29 3 


30 4 


31 5 


32 6 


33 7 


34 8 


35 9 


36 10 


37 11 


39*0 





1 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


6 


6 


6 


6 


6 


7 


^- 


2 


9 


10 


10 


10 


11 


11 


1 


1 


1 


1 1 


1 1 




3 


1 2 


1 3 


1 3 


1 4 


1 4 


1 5 


1 5 


1 6 


1 6 


1 7 


1 8 


— 


6 


1 4 


2 5 2 6' 2 7 


2 9 


2 10 


2 11 


3 


3 1 


3 2 


3 3 


EengtEi 


27 inches Thick,- By 


ft. 


in. 


27 B 


28 B 


29 B 


30 B 


31 B 


32 B 


33 B 


34 B 


35 B 


36 B 


37 B 


1 





5 1 


5 3 


5 5 


5 8 


5 10 


6 


6 2 


6 5 


6 7 


6 9 


6 11 


2 





10 2 


10 6 


10 11 


11 3 


11 8 


12 


12 5 


12 9 


13 2 


13 6 


13 10 


3 


— 


15 2 


15 9 


16 4 


16 11 


17 5 


18 


18 7 


19 2 


19 8 


20 3 


20 10 


4 





20 3 


21 


21 9 


22 6 


23 3 


24 


24 9 


25 6 


26 3 


27 


27 9 


5 





25 4 


26 3 


27 2 


28 2 29 1| 


30 


30 11 


31 11 


32 10 


33 9 


34 8 


6 


— 


30 5 


31 6 


32 8 


33 9 


34 11 


36 


37 2 


38 3 


39 5 


40 6 


41 8 


__ 


1 


5 


5 


5 


6 


6 


6 


6 


G 


7 


7 


7 





2 


10 


11 


11 


11 


1 


1 


1 


1 1 


1 1 


1 2 


1 2 





3 


1 3 


1 4 


1 4 


1 5 


1 5 


1 6 


1 7 


1 7 


1 8 


1 8 


1 9 


- 6 i 


2 6 2 8' 


2 9 


2 10 2 111 


3 


3 1 


3 2 


3 Sl 3 5l 


3 7 



LIGHTNING CALCULATOR. 



113 



Length 
ft. in 



28 inches Wck,-By 
28B 29B SOB 31B 32B 33B 34 B 35 B 36 B 37 B 38 B 



5 5 
10 11 
16 4 
21 9 

27 3 
32 8 



5 

11 

1 4 

2 9 



5 8 
11 3 
16 11 

22 7 
28 2 
33 10 



6 

11 

1 5 

2 10 



5 10 
11 8 
17 6 



6 

1 

1 6 

2 11 



6 

12 1 

18 1 

24 1 



6 

1 
1 6 
3 



6 3 

12 5 

18 8 

24 11 

31 1 

37 4 

6 

1 
1 7 
3 1 



6 6 
12 10 
19 3 
25 8 
32 1 
38 6 



6 

1 1 
1 7 
3 3 



6 7 
13 3 
19 10 
26 5 
33 1 
39 8 



7 

1 1 
1 8 
3 4 



6 10 
13 7 
20 5 
27 3 
34 
40 10 



7 

1 2 
1 8 
3 4 



7 
14 



21 

28 

35 

42 



7 

1 2 
1 9 
3 6 



7 

14 

21 7 

28 9 

36 

43 2 



7 

1 2 
1 10 
3 7 



7 4 
14 10 
21 11 

29 7 
36 11 
44 4 



7 

1 2 
1 11 
3 8 



Length ^^^^^^^^^^^^2^Inches^Tm^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^"" 
ft. in. 29 B 30 B 31 B 32 B 33 B 34 B 35 B 36 B 37 B 38 B 39 B 



5 10 
11 8 
17 6 
23 4 
29 2 
35 1 



6 3 
12 6 



6 5 
12 11 
19 4 
25 9 
32 3 
38 8 



6 8 
13 4 
19 11 
26 7 
33 3 
39 11 



6 10 
13 8 



1 060606060707 07 07 07 08 08 

2 101010111112 12 13 13 13 14 

3 161617171819 19 110 110 111 111 
6 2 11 3031333435 36 38 39 3 10 3 11 

J^engtn 

ft. in. 30 B 31B132B 33 B 34 B 35 B 36 B 37'B 38 B 39 B 40 B 



7 
14 
21 

28 



35 3 

42 4 



7 3 
14 6 



21 
29 
36 



43 6 



7 5 
14 11 
22 4 
29 10 
37 3 
44 9 



7 
15 

23 



45 11 



7 11 
15 9 
23 8 
31 5 
39 3 
47 2 



6 3 

12 6 

18 9 

25 

31 3 

37 6 



6 

1 1 

1 7 

3 2 



6 6 
12 11 
19 6 
25 10 
32 4 
38 9 



6 

1 1 
1 7 
3 3 



6 8 



26 8 
33 4 
40 



7 

1 1 
1 8 
3 4 



6 11 
13 9 
20 8 
27 6 
34 5 
41 3 



7 

1 2 
1 9 
3 5 



7 

1 2 
1 9 
3 7 



7 4 
14 7 
21 11 
29 2 
36 6 
43 9 



7 

1 3 
1 10 
3 8 



7 6 

15 

22 6 

30 

37 6 

45 



8 

1 3 
1 11 
3 9 



7 9 
15 5 
23 2 
30 10 
38 7 
46 3 



8 

1 3 
1 11 
3 10 



7 11 
15 10 
23 9 
31 8 

39 7 
47 6 



8 

1 4 

2 

4 



8 2 
16 3 



24 

32 



40 8 
48 9 



8 

1 4 

2 
4 1 



8 4 
16 8 



41 8 
50 



5 

1 1 

2 2 
4 9 





fu 


in. 


31 B 


32 B 


33 B 

7 1 


34 B 


35B 


36 B 


37 B 


38 B 


39 B 


40 B 


41 B 


1 


_^ 


6 8 


6 11 


7 4 


7 6 


7 9 


8 


8 2 


8 5 


8 7 


8 8 


2 


__ 


13 4 


13 9 


14 3 


14 8 


15 1 


15 6 


15 11 


16 4 


16 10 


17 3 


17 8 


3 


— 


20 


20 8 


21 4 


22 


22 7 


23 3 


23 11 


24 7 


25 2 


25 10 


26 6 


4 





26 8 


27 7 


28 5 


29 3 


30 2 


31 


31 10 


32 9 


33 7 


34 6 


35 4 


5 





33 4 


34 5 35 6|36 7 


37 8 


38 9 


39 10 


40 11 


42 


43 1 


44 2 


6 


— 


40 1 


41 4 


42 8'43 11 

1 


45 3 


46 6 


47 10 


49 1 


50 5 


51 8 


53 


_ 


1 


7 


7 


7 


7 


8 


8 


8 


8 


8 


9 


9 


_ 


2 


11 


1 2 


1 2 


1 3 


1 3 


1 4 


1 4 


1 4 


1 6 


1 5 


1 5 





3 


1 8 


1 9 


1 13 


1 10 


1 11 


1 11 


2 


2 1 


2 1 


2 2 


2 2 


- 


6 


3 4 


3 5 


3 80 


3 8 3 9 


3 11 4 


4 1 


4 2 


4 4 


4 4 



114 



LIGHTNING CALCULATOR. 



LeiiSth 


32 Inclies Thick,— By 


ft- 


171' 


32 B 


33 B 


34 B 


35 B 


36 B 


37 B 


38 B 


39 B 


40 B 


41 B 


42 B 


1 


__ 


7 1 


7 4 


7 7 


7 9 


8 


8 3 


8 5 


8 8 


8 11 


9 1 


9 4 


2 





14 3 


14 8 


15 1 


15 7 


16 


16 5 


16 11 


17 4 


17 9 


18 3 


18 9 


3 





21 4 


22 


22 8 


23 4j24 


24 8 


25 4 


26 


26 8 


27 4 


28 


4 





28 5 


29 4 


30 3 


31 1 


32 


32 11 


33 9 


34 8 


35 7 


36 5 


37 4 


5 


■ 


35 7 


36 8 


37 9 


38 11 


40 


41 1 


42 3 


43 4 


44 5 


45 7 


46 8 


6 


— 


42 8 


44 


45 4 


46 8 


48 


49 4 


50 8 


52 


53 4 


54 8 


56 


. . 


1 


7 


7 8 


8 


8 


8 


8 


9 


9 


9 


9 


. 


2 


1 2 


1 3 


1 3 


1 4 


1 4 


1 4 


1 5 


1 5 


1 6 


1 6 


1 7 





3 


1 9 


1 10 


1 11 


1 11 


2 


2 1 


2 1 


2 2 


2 3 


2 3 


2 4 


— 


6 


3 7 


3 8 


3 9 


3 11 


4 


4 1 


4 3 


4 4 


4 5 


4 7 


4 8 



Lieii^thi 33 Inclies Thick,— By 


ft. 


m. 


33 B 


34 B 


35B 


36 B 


37 B 

8 6 


38 B 


39 B 


40 B 


41 B 


42 B 


43 B 


1 





7 7 


7 10 


8 


8 3 


8 9 


8 11 


9 2 


9 5 


9 8 


9 11 


2 


— 


15 2 


15 7 


16 1 


16 6 


17 


17 5 


17 11 


18 4 


18 10 


19 3 


19 9 


3 





22 8 


23 6 


24 1 


24 9 


25 5 


26 2 


26 10 


27 6 


28 2 


28 11 


29 7 


4 





30 3 


31 2 


32 1 


33 


33 11 


34 10 


35 9 


36 8 


37 7 


38 6 


39 5 


5 




37 10 


39 


40 1 


41 3 


42 5 


43 7 


44 8 


45 10 


47 


48 2 


49 3 


6 




45 5 


46 9 


48 2 


49 6 


50 11 


52 3 


53 8 


55 


56 5 


57 9 


59 2 





1 


8 


8 


8 


8 


8 


9 


9 


9 


9 


10 


10 


— 


2 


1 3 


1 4 


1 4 


1 5 


1 6 


1 5 


1 6 


1 6 


1 7 


1 7 


1 8 


— 


3 


1 11 


1 11 


2 


2 1 


2 1 


2 2 


2 3 


2 4 


2 4 


2 5 


2 5 


— 


6 


3 9 


3 11 


4 


4 2 


4 3 


4 4 


4 6 


4 7 


4 8 


4 10 


5 



X.ength| 


MSB 




34 Inches Thick,— By 


ft- 


m. 


34B 


35 B 


36 B 


37 B 


38B 


39 B 


40 B 


41 B 


42 B 


43 B 


44 B 


1 


._ 


8 





8 3 


8 


6 


8 9 


9 


9 3 


9 5 


9 8 


9 11 


10 2 


10 4 


2 


— 


16 


1 


16 6 


17 





17 6 


17 11 


18 5 


18 11 


19 4 


19 10 


20 4 


20 10 


3 


— 


24 


1 


24 10 


25 


6 


26 3 


26 11 


27 8 


28 4 


29 1 


29 9 


30 6 


31 2 


4 





32 


1 


33 1 


34 





34 11 


35 11 


36 10 


37 9 


38 9 


39 8 


40 7 


41 7 


5 





40 


2 


41 4 


42 


6 


43 8 


44 10 


46 1 


47 3 


48 5 


49 7 


50 9 


51 11 


6 


— 


48 


2 


49 7 


51 





52 6 


53 10 


55 3 


56 8 


58 1 


59 6 


60 11 


62 4 


__ 


1 





8 


8 





9 


9 


9 


9 


9 


10 


10 


10 


10 


_ 


2 


1 


4 


1 5 


1 


5 


1 5 


1 6 


1 6 


1 7 


1 7 


1 8 


1 8 


1 9 


__ 


3 


2 





2 1 


2 


2 


2 2 


2 3 


2 4 


2 4 


2 5 


2 6 


2 6 


2 7 


— 


6 


4 





4 2 


4 


3 


4 4 


4 6 


4 7 


4 9 


4 10 


5 


6 1 


5 2 



Lengthi 






ft- 


in 


35 B 


36 B 


37 B 


38 B 


39 B 


40 B 


41 B 


42B 


43 B 


44B 


45 B 


1 


__ 


8 6 


8 


9 


9 





9 3 


9 6 


9 9 


10 


10 3 


10 5 


10 8 


10 10 


2 


— 


17 


17 


6 


18 





18 9 


19 


19 5 


19 11 


20 5 


20 11 


21 5 


21 11 


3 


— 


25 6 


26 


3 


27 





27 9 


28 5 


29 2 


29 11 


30 8 


31 4 


32 1 


32 9 


4 


— 


34 


35 





36 





36 11 


37 11 


38 11 


39 10 


40 10 


41 10 


42 9 


43 9 


5 





42 6 


43 


9 


45 





46 2 


47 5 


48 7 


49 10 


51 1 


52 3 


53 6 


54 8 


6 


— 


51 1 


52 


6 


54 





55 5 


56 11 


58 4 


59 10 


61 3 


62 9 


64 2 


65 8 





1 


9 





9 





9 


9 


9 


10 


10 


10 


10 


11 


11 





2 


1 5 


1 


6 


1 


6 


1 6 


1 7 


1 7 


1 8 


1 8 


1 9 


1 9 


1 10 





3 


2 2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


2 4 


2 4 


2 5 


2 6 


2 7 


2 7 


2 8 


2 8 


M 


6 


4 3 


4 


5 


4 


6 


4 7 


4 91 4 lOl 5 


5 1 


5 3 5 4 


5 6 



LIGHTNING CALCULATOR. 



115 



Length 




36 Inches Thickr By 




/^. 


111. 


36 B 


37 B 


38 B 


39 B 


40 B 


41 B 


42B 


43 B 


44 B 


45 B 


46 B 


1 





9 





9 3 


9 6 


9 9 


10 


10 3 


10 6 


10 9 


11 


11 3 


11 6 


2 





18 





18 6 


19 


19 6 


20 


20 6 


21 


21 6 


22 


22 6 


23 


3 


— 


27 





27 9 


28 6 


29 3 


30 


30 9 


31 6 


32 3 


33 


33 9 


3i 6 


4 


— 


36 





37 


38 


39 


40 


41 


42 


43 


44 


45 


46 


5 


— 


45 





46 3 


47 6 


48 9 


50 


51 3 


52 6 


53 9 


55 


56 3 


57 6 


6 


1 


54 





55 6 
9 


57 


58 6;60 

1 


61 6 


63 


64 6 


66 


67 6 


69 








9 


10 


10 


10 


10 


11 


11 


11 


11 


1 





2 


1 


6 


1 7 


1 7 


1 8 


1 8 


1 9 


1 9 


1 10 


1 10 


1 11 


1 11 


— 


3 


2 


3 


2 4 


2 5 


2 5 


2 6 


2 7 


2 8 


2 8 


2 9 


2 10 


2 11 


— 


6 


4 


6 


4 8 


4 9 


4 11 


5 


5 2 


5 3 


5 6 


5 6 


5 8 


5 9 



Length 


37 Inches Thick,— By 


ft- 


m. 


37 B 


38 B 


39 B 


40 B 


41 B 


42B 


43 B 


44B 


45 B 


46 B 


47 B 


1 • 





9 6 


9 9 


10 


10 3 


10 6 


10 10 


11 1 


11 4 


11 7 


11 10 


12 1 


2 


— 


19 


19 6 


20 1 


20 7 


21 1 


21 7 


22 1 


22 7 


23 2 


23 8 


24 2 


3 


— 


28 6 


29 4 


30 1 


30 10 


31 7 


32 5 


33 2 


33 11 


34 8 


35 6 


36 3 


4 


— 


38 


39 1 


40 1 


41 1 


42 2 


43 2 


44 2 


45 3 


46 3 


47 3 


48 4 


6 


— 


47 6 


48 10 


50 1 


51 5 


52 8 


54 


55 3 


56 6 


57 10 


59 1 


60 5 


6 


— 


57 1 


58 7 


60 2 


61 8 


63 3 


64 9 


66 4 


67 10 


69 5 


70 11 


72 6 





1 


10 


10 


10 


10 


11 


11 


11 


11 


1 


1 


1 





2 


1 7 


1 8 


1 8 


1 9 


1 9 


1 10 


1 10 


1 11 


1 11 


2 


2 




3 


2 5 


2 5 


2 6 


2 7 


2 8 


2 8 


2 9 


2 10 


2 11 


2 11 


3 





6 


4 9 


4 11 


5 


5 2 


5 3 


5 5 


5 6 


5 8 


5 9 


5 11 


6 



LeTigthl 


38 Inches Thick,— By 


ft- 


iri' 


38 B 


39 B 


40 B 


41 B 


42B 


43 B 


44B 


45 B 


46 B 


47 B 


48 B 


1 





10 


10 4 


10 7 


10 10 


11 1 


11 4 


11 7 


11 11 


12 2 


12 5 


12 8 


2 


— 


120 1 


20 7 


21 1 


21 8 


22 2 


22 8 


23 3 


23 9 


24 3 


24 10 


25 5 


3 


— 


30 1 


30 11 


31 8 


32 6 


33 3 


34 1 


34 10 


35 8 


36 5 


37 3 


38 


4 


— 


40 1 


41 2 


42 3143 3:44 4 


45 5 


46 5 


47 6 


48 7 


49 7 


50 8 


5 


— 


50 2 


51 6 


52 9 


54 155 5 


56 9 


58 1 


59 6 


60 8 


62 


63 4 


6 


— 


60 2 


61 9 


63 4 


64 11 


66 6 


68 1 


69 8 


71 3 


72 10 


74 5 


76 





1 


10 


10 


11 


11 


11 


11 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 1 





2 


1 8 


1 -9 


1 9 


1 10 


1 10 


1 11 


1 11 


2 


2 


2 1 


2 2 


— 


3 


2 6 


2 7 


2 8 


2 8 


2 9 


2 10 


2 11 


3 


3 


3 1 


3 1 


— • 


6 


5 


5 2 


5 3 


5 5 


5 7 


5 8 


5 10 


5 11 


6 1 


6 2 


6 3 



Length! 








39 Inches Thick,— By 










/f- 


in. 


39 B 


40 B 


41 B 


42B 


43 B 


44 B 


45 B 


16 B 


47 B 


48 B 


49 B 


1 





10 1 


10 10 


11 1 


12 5 


11 8 


11 11 


12 2 


12 5 


12 9 


13 





13 3 


2 





121 2 


21 9 


22 3 


22 9 


23 4 


23 10 


24 6 


24 in 25 6 


26 





26 7 


3 


— 


31 8 


32 6 


33 5 


34 2 


34 11 


36 9 


36 7 


37 5 


37 2 


39 





39 10 


4 





12 3 


43 4 


44 5 


45 6 


46 7 


47 8 


47 9 


49 10 


50 11 


52 





52 


5 





52 10 


.54 2 


55 6 


56 11 


58 3 


59 7 


60 11 


62 4 


63 8 


65 





66 4 


6 


— 


63 5 


65 


66 8 


68 3 


69 11 


71 6 


73 2 


74 9 


76 5 


78 





78 8 





1 


) 11 


11 


11 


11 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 1 


1 


1 


1 1 


— 


2 


I 6 


1 10 


1 10 


1 11 


1 11 


2 


2 


2 1 


2 1 


2 


2 


2 2 





3 


2 8 


2 9 


2 9 


2 10 


2 11 


3 


3 1 


3 1 


3 2 


3 


3 


3 4 


— 


6 


5 3 


5 5 


5 7 


5 8 


5 10 


6 


6 1 


6 3 


6 4 


6 


6 


6 7 



116 SIZE AND COST OF VESSELS, ETC. 

Mr. Moorsom*s Formula to Approximate Register Toxnagb 
UNDER ANY PROPOSED DIMENSIONS.— To Shipbuilders who may wish to 
know, before the construction of an intended design, the approximate 
register tonnage under any proposed principal dimensions, the following 
formula (which has received the approbation of Messrs. Martin and Rit- 
chie, the two chief surveyors at Lloyd's, who, from their great experience 
and intelligence, are authorities on the subject) will be found useful, as it 
gives the tonnage, on an average, generally speaking, within about 2l^ 
per cent. 
Let L represent the inside length on upper deck from plank at bow to 

plank at stern, 
" B represent the inside main breadth from ceiling to ceiling. 
" D represent the inside midship depth from upper deck to ceiling at 
timber strake. 

T X "R X T) 

Then the register tonnage of any ship will be equal to -^ 

multiplied by the decimal factor opposite the class in the following table 
to which she belongs : 

^niii'nn <^Jiin9 f Cottou and Sugar SMps, old form 8 

Aauing ^/iips. | gj^.^^ ^^ ^^^ present usual form 7 

Steam Vessels \ Ships of two Decks 65 

and Clippers. ( Ships of three Decks 68 

Vin-h+a ( Vessels above 60 tons 5 

lacnts. 1 Vessels, small 45 

Cost of E]S"Glish Merchantmen per ton. — 1. Tonnage, 650. 
Material, wood ; date, 1865. Wood in hull, masts and spars, $41 ; 
yellow metal, iron-bolts and labor, $10.30 ; joiner work and labor. 
$5.15 • labor on Imll, $20 ; boats, etc. — outfit, $12.30 ; rope and 
sails, $8 ; anchors, chains and tanks, $4.25 ; yellow metal sheathing, 
$4. Total, $105. 2. Iron Merchantman, of 500 Tons : Cost, $88 per 
ton. 3. Iron-Passenger Ship, or Steamer, 800 Tons : Cost, $125 per 
ton. 4. Another Iron-Steamer, or Ship, of 1500 Tons : Cost, $147 
per ton. 5. Another Iron-Passenger Steamer, of 1500 Tons : Cost, 
$122 per ton, as follows: Material for hull, $29.50; labor, $14.50 ; rent, 
machinery, tools, etc., $14.50 ; fittings and launching, $14.25 ; wood, 
work, $12.25 ; equipment, $17 ; cabins and fitting, $20. Total, as 
above, $122. 

Li the case of steam vessels, the vessel built of iron is more buoy- 
ant than the vessel built of wood by about 16 per cent, of the weight 
of the wood hull, or nearly 9 per cent, of the weight of the cargo. 
In the case of sailing vessels, the iron hull is still more buoyant than 
the wood hull by about 14.9 + 8.33 per cent. = 23.2 per cent., or 
about 23 per cent, of the weight of the wood hull, or 13 per cent, of 
the weight of the cargo. 

To Find the Meridian. — ^Take a piece of board, or any similar 
material, and describe on it a number of concentric circles. Place 
this in the sun, over the centre of a plummet. Observe the short- 
est shadow from the plummet ; the sun will then be on the merid- 
ian ; draw a line to the centre of the circle, and that will be the true 
meridian line. This will do to mark the apparent time, or to correct 
the compass for variation. 

Captain Boyton's New Devices to Save Life from the 
Piers, and to Throw a Line from a Ship. — The following are 
Captain Boyton's statements, as extracted from the New York Sun : 
*' My invention is simply this : Here is a wooden bobbin, to which 60 
feet of the strongest Manilla line is attached by one end, and a 
four-pronged steel grappling iron fits in the hollow part of the 



SCIENTIFIC FACTS, ETC 



117 



wood. The whole is enclosed hi a leather case, and does not weigh 
a pound. If every policeman on daty had one of these, the saving 
of persons from drowning in the rivers would be lessened 80 x^er 
cent. If the person in the water accidentally fell in, the officer 
could hold the grappling iron in his hand, and throw the bobhm, 
which floats, out to the struggling person. If the case was one of 
attempted suicide, or where the person was too drunk to make any 
effort to save himself, he could throw out the grapple, and haul him 
in. I propose to give the police force of this city and Philadelphia 
the right to manufacture these for themselves ; and, I suppose, they 
can make them for fifty cents a piece. 

"My other invention is equally simple : When a ship is driven on 
a lee-shore, and her back is behig broken by the sea beating against 
her, the efforts of the coast-guard to throw a rope on board by 
means of a rocket or mortar frequently fail, owing either to the 
wind coming into the shore blowing the rocket back or to one side. 
Now, here is a box, four feet by three, which can be easilj^ placed 
under the table in the cabin of any vessel. It contains a long, fine, 
strong line attached to a rocket, of peculiar construction. The 
ship is driven on shore, and the coast-guard men are there, un- 
able to establish communication between the vessel and the land. 
The captain brings this box on deck, opens it, and adjusts the 
rocket to the angle of the box-cover, and fires it off. The rocket, 
by its own force, and that of the wind blowing in shore, is carried 
to land. In addition to the tail of fire shown by it passing through 
the air, the rocket on falling on the ground bursts, and bums a 
brilliant red light for ten minutes. This is seen by the coast-guard 
men, who fix the cable to the line, and it is thus hauled aboard, 
and the crew saved." A common felt-hat may be made use of as a 
life-preserver. Place the hat upon the water rim downwards, and 
with the arm around it, pressing it slightly to the breast, the com- 
pressed air within will sustain a man for hours. 

Natural, Mechanical, and Scientific Facts. 

Comparative Yield of Various Vegetables. Productions in 
Pounds Weight Per Acre. 



Hops. . 
Wheat. 
Barley. 
Oats... 

Peas . . , 
Beans . 
Plums. 



Lbs. 


per ac. 


442 


1 260 


1 600 


1 840 


1 920 


2 000 


2 000 



Cherries . 
Onions . . , 

Hay 

Pears 

Grass ... 
Carrots . . 
Potatoes 



Lbs. 


per ac. 


2 000 


2 800 


4 000 


5 000 


7 000 


6 800 


7 500 



Apples 

Turnips 

Cinque-foil grass 
Vetches, Green.. 

Cabbages 

Parsnips 

Mangel Wurzel 



Lbs. 
per ac. 

8 000 

8 420 

9 600 
9 800 

10 900 

11 200 
22 000 



One acre will produce 224 lbs. mutton, 186 lbs. beef, 2900 lbs. 
milk, 300 lbs. butter, and 200 lbs. cheese. A fair crop of potatoes, 
from 16 bushels of seed, is 340 bushels. 

Paris Green, for potato bugs, and other enemies of the farmer, may 
be made as follows: Dissolve 2 lbs. sulphate of copper in 1 gal. hot 
water, in a stone jar. In another jar put 1 lb. of white arsenic and 2 
lbs. pearlash in 44 lbs. hot water, and stir till dissolved. Mix when 
required in the proportion of 1 part of the former to 5 of the latter, and 
use with a sprinkler. It is certain death to vermin. 



118 SCIENTIFIC FACTS, ETC. 

The average growth of trees during 12 years, as determined by a 
committee of the Illinois Horticultural Society, when planted in belts 
and groves, is as follows : White maple, 1 ft. diam. and 30 ft. high ; 
Ash-leaf maple, 1 ft. diam. and 20 ft. high ; White willow, VA ft. diam. 
and 40 ft. high; Yellow willow, V/i ft. diam. and 35 ft. high; Lom- 
bardy poplar, 10 ins. diam. and 40 ft. high; Blue and White Ash, 10 ins. 
diam. and 20 ft. high; Chestnut, 10 ins. diam. and 20 ft. high; Black 
Walnut and Butternut, 10 ins. diam. and 20 ft. high ; Elm, 10 ins. diam. 
and 20 ft. high; Birch (varieties), 10 ins. diam. and 25 ft. high; Larch, 
8 ins. diam. and 24 ft. high. The different varieties of evergreens will 
make an average growth of 18 to 20 ins. in height annually. The long- 
evity of various trees, as estimated by Mr. Don, Secretary and Li- 
brarian of the Linusean Society, are as follows: The Dragon's blood 
tree, 4,000 years; Baobab tree, of Senegal, 5,150 vears; Decidious 
Cypress, 6,000; Ash, 400; Yew, 3,000; Oak, 1,600; Cedar of Lebanon, 
3,000 ; Juniper, 380 ; Lime, 583 ; Olive, 2,500 ; Apple tree, 80 to 175 ; Pear 
tree, 260; Orange, 1,500; Oriental plane, 1,200; Scotch fir, 90 to 12«; 
Larch, 270; olive, 2,500; Ivy, 600; Balm of Gilead, 30 to 50; Brazil vine 
palm, 150; Brazil cabbage palm, 600 to 700; Date palm, 200 to 300; 
Cocoa nut palm, 330; Oriental plane, 1,200. 1 lb. of catechu is equiva- 
lent for tanning purposes to 7 to 8 lbs. of oak bark. Terra japonica is 
mimosa catechu. 

Relative Hardness of Woods. — Taking shell bark hickory as 
the highest standard of our forest trees, and calling that 100, other 
trees will compare with it for hardness as follows : — 



Shell bark Hickory 


100 


Red Oak, 


69 


Wild Cherry, 


55 


Pignut Hickory, 


96 


White Beech, 


65 


Yellow Pine, 


54 


White Oak, 


84 


Black Walnut, 


65 


Chestnut, 


52 


White Ash, 


77 


Black Birch, 


62 


Yellow Poplar, 


51 


Dogwood, 


75 


Yellow Oak, 


60 


Butternut, 


43 


Scrub Oak, 


73 


Hard Maple, 


56 


White Birch, 


43 


White Hazel, 


72 


White Elm, 


58 


White Pine, 


30 


Apple Tree, 


70 


Red Cedar, 


56 







Timber intended for posts, is rendered almost proof against rot by 
thorough seasoning, charring, and immersion in hot coal tar. 

The slide of Alpnach, extending from Mount Pilatus to Lake 
Lucerne, a distance of 8 miles, is composed of 25,000 trees, stripped of 
their bark, and la,id at an inclination of 10° to 18°. Trees placed in 
the slide rush from the mountain into the lake in 6 minutes. 

The Alps comprise about 180 mountains, from 4000 to 15,732 feet 
high, the latter being the height of Mont Blanc, the highest spot in 
Europe. The summit is a sharp ridge, like the roof of a house, con- 
sisting of nearly vertical granite rocks. The ascent requires 2 days, 
6 or 8 guides are required, and each guide is paid 100 francs (£4). It 
was ascended by 2 natives, Jacques Belmat and Dr. Packard, Aug. 
8, 1786, at 6 a.m. They staid up 30 minutes, with the thermometer 
at 14° below the freezing point. The provisions froze in their pockets ; 
their faces were frostbitten, lips swollen, and their sight much weak- 
ened, but they soon recovered on their descent. De Saussure records 
in his ascent, August 2, 1760, that the color of the sky was deep blue; 
the stars ^.vere visible in the shade ; the barometer sunk to 16.08 inches 
(being 27.08 in Geneva); the thermometer was 26M °, in the sun, 29° 
(being 87° at Geneva). The thin air works the blood into a high fever; 



SCIENTIFIC FACTS, ETC. 119 

you feel as if you hardly touched the ground, and you can scarcely 
make yourself heard. A Frenchwoman, Mademoiselle d'Angeville, 
ascended in September, 18i0, being dragged up the last 1200 feet by 
the guides, and crying out, " If I die, carry me to the top." When 
there, she made them lift her up, that she might boast she had been 
higher than any man in Europe. The ascent of these awful soUtudes 
is most perilous, owing to the narrow paths, tremendous ravines, icy 
barriers, precipices, etc. In many places every step has to be cut in 
the ice, the party being tied to each other by ropes, so that if one slips 
he may be held up by the rest, and silence is enforced, lest the noise 
of talking should dislodge the avalanches of the Aiguille du Midi 
The view from the momitain is inexpressibly grand. On the Alps, 
the limit of the vine is an elevation of 1600 feet; below 1000 feet, figs, 
oranges, and olives, are produced. The limit of the oak is 3800 ft., of 
the chestnut 2800 ft., of the pine 6500 feet, of heaths and furze to 8700 
and 9700 ft. ; and perpetual snow exists at an elevation of 8200 feet. 

On the Andes, in lat. 2°, the limit of perpetual snow is 14,760 ft. In 
Mexico, lat. 19°, the limit is 13,800 ft. ; on the peak of Teneriffe, 11,454 
ft. ; on Mount Etna, 9000 ft. ; on Caucasus, 9900 ft. ; on the Pyre- 
nees, 8400 ft. ; m Lapland, 3100 ft. ; in Iceland, 2890 ft. The walnut 
ceases to grow at an elevation of 3600 ft. ; the yellow pine at 6200 
ft.; the Ash at 4800 ft. ; and the Fir at 6700 ft. The loftiest inhabited 
spot on the globe is the Port House of Ancomarca, on the Andes, in 
Peru, 16,000 feet above the level of the sea. The 14th peak of the 
Himalayas, in Asia, 25,659 feet high, is the loftiest mountain in the 
world. 

Lauterbrunnen is a deep part of an Alpine pass, where the sim 
hardly sliines in winter. It abounds with falls, the most remarkable 
of which is the Staubbach, which falls over the Balm precipice in a 
drizzling spray from a height of 925 feet ; best viewed in the morning 
sun or by moonlight. In general it is like a gauze veil, with rain- 
bows dancing up and down it, and when clouds hide the top of the 
mountain, it seems as if poured out of the sky. 

In Canada, the falls of Montmorenci are 250 feet high, the falls of 
Niagara (the Horse Shoe Falls) are 158 feet high and 2000 feet wide, 
the American F'alls are 164 feet high and 900 feet wide. The Yose- 
mite Valley Falls are 2600 feet high, and the Ribbon Falls of the 
Yosemite are 3300 feet high. The water-fall of the Arve, in Bavaria, 
is 2000 feet. 

The Periods of Gestation" are the same in the horse and ass, 
or 11 months each ; camel, 12 months ; elephant, 2 years ; lion, 5 
months ; buffalo, 12 months ; in the human female, 9 months ; cow, 

9 months ; sheep, 5 months ; dog, 9 weeks ; cat, 8 weeks ; sow, 16 
weeks ; she wolf, from 90 to 95 days. The goose sits 30 days, swans 
42, hens 21, ducks 30, peahens and turkeys 28, canaries 14, pigeons 
14, parrots 40. 

Ages of Animai^s, &c. — ^Elephant, 100 years and upwards ; 
Rhinoceros, 20 ; Camel, 100 ; Lion, 25 to 70 ; Tigers, Leopards, 
Jaguars, and Hyenas (in confinement), about 25 years ; Beaver, 50 
years ; Deer, 20 ; Wolf, 20 ; Fox, 14 to 16 ; Llamas," 15 ; Chamois, 25 ; 
ikonkeys and Baboons, 16 to 18 years ; Hare, 8 ; Squirrel, 7 ; Rab- 
bit, 7 ; Swine, 25 ; Stag, under 50 ; Horse, 30 ; Ass, 30 ; Sheep, mider 

10 ; Cow, 20 ; Ox, 30 ; Swans, Parrots and Ravens, 200 ; Eagle, 100 ; 
Geese, 80 ; Hens and Pigeons, 10 to 16 ; Hawks, 30 to 40 ; Crane, 24 ; 



120 SCIENTIFIC FACTS, ETC. 

Blackbird, 10 to 12 ; Peacock, 20 ; Pelican, 40 to 50 ; Thrusli, 8 to 10 ; 
Wren, 2 to 3 ; Nightingale, 15 ; Blackcap, 15 ; Linnet, 14 to 23 ; Gold- 
finch, 20 to 24 ; Redbreast, 10 to 12 ; Skylark, 10 to 30 ; Titlark, 5 to 
6 ; Chaffinch, 20 to 24 ; Starling, 10 to 12 ; Carp, 70 to 150 ; Pike, 30 
to 40 ; Salmon, 16 ; Codfish, 14 to 17 ; Eel, 10 ; Crocodile, 100 ; Tor- 
toise, 100 to 200 ; Whale, estimated, 1,000 ; Queen Bees live 4 years ; 
Drones, 4 months ; Worker Bees, 6 months. 

The melody of singing birds ranks as follows : The nightingale 
first, then the linnet, titlark, sky lark, and wood lark. The jnocking 
bird has the greatest powers of imitation ; the robin and goldfinch 
are superior in vigorous notes. Gardner's notation of the music of 
birds affords conclusive proof that most of the best ideas of the great 
composers were derived from these melodious warblers. One well 
known bird in the Canadian woods takes great delight in callmg out, 
Whip poor Willf Whip poor Will ; the red-eyed fly-catcher seems to 
say, Tom Kelly ! Whip ! Tom Kelly 1 

The condor of Peru has spread wings 40 feet, feathers 20 feet, 
quills 8 inches round. 

In England, a quarter of wheat, comprising 8 bushels, yields 14 
bushels 2| pecks, divided into seven distinct lands of flour, as fol- 
lows : Fine flour, 5 bushels 3 pecks ; bran, 3 bushels ; twenty-penny, 
3 bushels ; seconds, 2 pecks ; pollard, 2 bushels ; fine middlings, 1 
peck ; coarse ditto, 1 peck. 

Fourteen pounds of oats produce 8 lbs. of oatmeal. 
In America, 1 bushel of buckwheat, or 50 lbs., will produce 25 
lbs. of buckwheat meal ; more may be obtamed, but the quality will 
be impaired. 

A 20-inch Harrison light vertical burr-mill will grind 54 bushels 
of corn per hour. Revolutions per minute^ 1300 ; 20 horse power 
will drive two such run of stones. 

In England, 2 bushels of seed will produce 18 of wheat in fair 
crops. 

The ancient Greek phalanx comprised 8000 men, forming a square 
battalion, with spears crossing each other, and shields united. 

The Roman legion was composed of 6000 men, comprising 10 
cohorts of 600 men each, with 300 horsemen. 

The ancient battering ram was of massive timber, 60 to 100 feet 
long, fitted with an iron head. It was erected under shelter to pro- 
tect the 60 or 100 men required to work it. The largest was equal in 
force to a 36-lb. shot from a cannon. 
3 Pile Driving on Sandy Soils. — The greatest force will not 
effect a penetration exceeding 15 feet. 

Various Sizes of Type. — It requires 205 lines of Diamond type 
to make 12 inches ; of Pearl, 178 ; of Ruby, 166 ; of Nonpareil, 143 ; 
of Minion, 128 ; of Brevier, 112^ ; of Bourgeois, 102^ ; of Long 
Primer, 89 ; of Small Pica, 83 ; of "Pica, 71i ; of English, 64. 

To supply a population estimated at over 40,000,000, there were in 
existence in the United States and Territories during July, 1876, the 
enormous number of 8129 newspapers and periodicals, embracing 
738 daily, 70 tri-weekly, 121 semi-weekly, 6235 weekly, 33 bi-weekly, 
105 semi-monthly, 714 monthly, 13 bi-monthly, and 67 quarterly pub* 
lications. Of these, the New York Sun has the largest circulation, 
having circulated 46,799,769 copies during the year ending March, 
1876 ; Aveight of white paper consumed, 3,426,610 pounds. Its daily 



SCIENTIFIC FACTS, ETC. 121 

circulation is over 138,000, weekly 85,000. To supply this demand 
it requires the combined results of the labor and brains of 249 men, 
a weekly expenditure of about $16,000, and the services of seven 
ponderous Bullock printing presses, having a capacity of 1400 copies 
per minute. Another press, of double size, with a capacity of 50,000 
copies per hour, has been ordered. Each press prints two complete 
copies at one impression, not from type, but from cylindrical stereo- 
type plates which revolve with the press cyliuder. 

Wire ropes for the transmission of power vary in size from f to J 
inch diam. for from 3 to 300 horse power ; to promote flexibility, the 
rope, made of iron, steel, or copper wire, as may be preferred, is 
provided with a core of hemp, ahd the speed is 1 mile per minute, 
more or less, as desired. The rope should run on a well-balanced, 
grooved, cast iron wheel, of from 4 to 15 feet diam., according as the 
transmitted power ranges from 3 to 300 horse ; the groove should be 
well cushioned vtith soft material, as ]eather or rubber, for the forma- 
tion of a durable bed for the rope. With good care the rope wiU 
last from 3 to 5 years. 

In paper making, 10 cylinders for preparing the pulp, making 200 
revolutions per minute, 1 paper making machine, cutting machines, 
pump and accessories, consumed 50 horse power. The machine made 
13 yards of paper per minute, and the produce was 1 ton of paper 
per day of 24 hours. In another instance, 28 pulping cylinders and 3 
paper making machines produced 2 to 3 tons of paper per day of 24 
hours, and consumed 113 horse-power. A Leffel Turbine Wheel, 10 
ins. in diameter, strongly built of fine brass and steel, with German 
silver buckets, is now performing the work of a 120 horse power 
engine which it superseded ; it has a head of 228 feet. 

The St. Gothard Tunnel, under the Helvitic Alps, will be, when 
finished, 9.3 miles long, and will cost 289,000,000 francs. 

CoATHUPES Rule for Length of Gun Babrels. For the best 
shooting, the length of the barrel, measured from the vent hole, should 
be not less than 43 times the diameter of its bore, nor more than 47. 

Proportions of Gunpowder as made by the English Government, is, 
nitre, 75; charcoal, 15; sulphur, 10. That of the French, nitre, 77; 
charcoal, 14, sulphur, 9. A 13 inch Armstrong gun, with a charge of 
90 lbs., ball 344.5 lbs., velocity 1760 ft. per second, penetrated 11 inches 
of solid iron plates at a range of 200 ft. No field piece should be load- 
ed with more powder than a fifth or sixth of the weight of its baU. 
A 32 pounder with a charge of 8 lbs. will penetrate 15.25 ins. of hard 
brick, or 12 ins. of hard freestone, or 3*5 ins. of granite, at a range of 
200 feet. 

Cannon balls go furthest at an elevation of 30°, and less as the balls 
are less ; the range is furthest when fired from west to east in the 
direction of tlie earth's motion, which for the diurnal rotation on its 
axis, is at the rate of 1037 miles per hour, and in its orbit, 66,092 miles. 

The air's resistance is such, than a cannon baU of 3 lbs. weight, 
diameter, 2.78 ins. moving with a velocity of 1800 ft. per second, is 
resisted by a force equal to 156 lbs. 

Estimated Thrust of Screw Propeller with engines op 
1000 Horse Power, 20,000 lbs. 

Brick-layers ascend ladders with loads of 90 lbs., 1 foot per seoDnd. 
There are 484 bricks in a cubic yard, and 4356 in a rod. 

A power of 250 tons is necessary to start a vessel weighing 3000 tons 



122 SCIENTIFIC FACTS, ETC. 

over greased slides on a marine railway, when in motion, 150 tons only 
is required. 

A modem dredging machine, 123 ft long, beam 26 ft., breadth over 
all, 11 ft., will raise 180 tons of mud and clay per hour, 11 feet from 
water-line. 

In tanning, 4 lbs. of oak bark make 1 lb. of leather. 

Flame is quenched in air containing 3 per cent, of carbonic acid ; the 
same per centage is fatal to animal life. 

100 parts of oak make nearly 23 of charcoal; beech, 21; deal, 19; 
apple, 23.7; elm 23; ash, 25; birch, 24; maple, 22.8; willow, 18; pop- 
lar, 20 ; red pine, 22.10 ; white pine, 23. The charcoal used in gun- 
powder is made from willow, alder, and a few other woods. The 
charred timber found in the ruins of Herculaneum has under- 
gone no change in 1800 years. 

Four volumes of nitrogen, and one of oxygen compose atmospheric 
air in all localities on the globe. 

Air extracted from pure water, under an air pump, contains 34.8 
per cent, of oxygen. Fish breathe this air, respiring about 35 times 
per minute. The oxyhydrogen lime light may be seen from moun- 
tains at the distance of 200 miles round. 

Lightning is reflected 150 to 200 miles. 

1000 cubic feet of 13 candle gas is equivalent to over 7 gals, of sperm 
oil; 52.9 lbs. of tallow candles; and over 44 lbs. of sperm caudles. 

The time occupied by gas in travelling from a gas well (in Penn- 
sylvania) through 32 miles of pipe was 22 minutes, pressure at the 
well was 55 lbs. per inch, pressure at discharge 49 lbs. 

The flight of wild ducks is estimated at 90 miles per hour, that of 
the swift at 200 miles, carrier pigeons 38 miles, swallows 60 miles, 
migratory birds have crossed the Mediterranean at a speed of 120 
miles per hour. 

Were it not for dry rot, ships would last on the average about 30 
years, as it is their average duration, when built of ordinary timber, 
is 7, 8 and 9 years. 

Calomel is composed of 50 grs. of mercury and lOg of chlorine 
gas. 

Carbon is the base of organic structures, and Silica of mineral. 

At birth, the beats of the pulse are from 165 to 104, and the inspira- 
tions of breath, from 70 to 23. From 15 to 20, the pulsations are from 
90 to 57, the inspirations, from 24 to 16, from 29 to 50, the pulsations 
are 112 to 56, the inspirations, 23 to 11. In usual states it is 4 to 1. 
The action of the heart distributes 2 ozs. of blood from 70 to 80 times 
in a minute. 

Daniell makes the heat in a common parlor fire 1141°. Solids be- 
come incandescent in the dark, at 600° or 700°, but not in daylight 
tm800Oorl000o. 

Sea water is seldom below 40°, springs about 45° ; and pools and 
small rivers are as the atmosphere. The lowest heat for fermenta- 
tion is 57.5, the highest 77°. The lowest for drying herbs, etc., 77^ 
and the highest 122°. 

The mean heat of the human body is 98^ and of the skin 90°. 
Tea and coffee are usually drank at 110°. 

The explosion of nitro-glycerine is so sudden that it acts against 
the air as against a solid body, thu.s forming a deep chasm in the 
earth. 



SCIENTIFIC FACTS, ETC. 



123 



Decimal Notation, &c.— The. /frs^ figure to the right of the point is 
always tenths^ the secoiid figure from the point is always hundredths, the 
third is thousandths, &c., thus 4.5, is 4 units and 5 tenths; 9.24 is 9 units 
and 24hundreths; or 8.610 is 8 units and 610 thousandths. Again, .1 is 
1-10, .01 is 1-100, and .001 is 1-1000. The Arithmetical Signs and their 
signification can be formed by consulting the Tabular part of this work. 

Value of Metals. — The following table, transcribed from the 
Iron Age, may be considered as showing the value of 44 different 
kinds of metal during July, 1876. The prices of the rarer metals have 
been taken from Trommsdorff's and Schuehardt's last price list, and 
the initials indicate the authorities consulted. The avordupois lb. is 
assumed as being equal to 453 grammes, and the mark to 24c. gold : — 



Metal. 



Vanadium, cryst. fused. . . 

Rubidium, wire 

Calcium, electrolytic 

Tantalum, pure 

Cerium, fused globules. . . . 

Lithium globules 

Lithium, wire 

Erbium, fused 

Didgmium, fused 

Strontium, electrolytic . . . 

Indium, pure . .-. 

Ruthenium, pure 

Columbium, fused 

Rhodium 

Barium, electrolytic 

Thallium 

Osmium 

Palladium 

Iridium 

Urarium 

Gold 

Titanium, fused 

Tellurium, fused 

Chromium, fused 

Platinum, fused 

Manganese, fused 

Molybdenum 

Magnesium, wire and tape 

Potassium, globules 

Silver 

Aluminum, bar 

Cobalt, cubes 

Nickel, cubes 

Cadmium 

Sodium , 

Bismuth, crude ^ . . . 

Mercury 

Antimony 

Tin 

Copper 

Arsenic 

Zinc 

Lead 

Iron 



Value in Pr 


Ice in 


Au- 


gold per lb. gold 


per 


thor- 


Avord. gran 


ame. 


ity. 


$4,792.40 §1 


0.8O 


S 


3,261.60 


7.20 


S 


2,466.20 


5.40 


S 


2,446.20 


5.40 


s 


2,446.20 


5.40 


s 


2,228.76 


1.92 


s 


2,935.44 


B.48 


s 


1,671.57 


3.96 


s 


1,630.08 


3.60 


s 


1,576.44 


3.48 


s 


1,522.08 


3.36 


T 


1,304.61 


2.88 


T 


1,250.28 


2.76 


S 


1,032.84 


2.28 


T 


924.12 


2.04 


S 


738.39 


1.63 


T 


652.32 


1.44 


T 


498.30 


1.10 


T 


466.59 


L.03 


T 


434.88 


96 


T 


299.72 






239.80 


52 


, . 


196.20 


43 


. . 


196.20 


43 


,, 


122.31 


27 


, . 


108.72 


24 


T 


54..34 


12 


T 


45.30 


10 


T 


22.65 


05 


T 


18.60 




, , 


16.30 


036 


S 


12.68 


028 


s 


3.80 


008 


T 


3.26 


007 


T 


3.26 


007 


T 


1.95 ( 


)043 


S 


1.00 




. , 


36 




T 


25 


. . . . 




22 


.. .. 


Prices 


15 


... 


taken 


10 




from 


6 

iy2 


. . . . 


recent 


.... 


quota- 


.. .• 


tiOQB 



124 SCIENTIFIC FACTS, ETC. 

Arsenical Soap for the Skins of Wild Animals.— The skins 
must be well scraped and divested of all fat, and well rubbed with the 
following soap. Lime, 1 oz. ; camphor, 1 oz. ; arsenic, 1 oz. ; alum, 1 oz. 
Mix all thoroughly with 1 lb. of yellow soap. This will prove a good 
preservative. 

Positive Cure for Foot Rot in Sheep.— This is caused by 
exposure to bad weather, more especially to wit pasturage, etc. When 
lame, pass them througli a trough containing a warm solution of 
arsenic, of nearly the following strength: 4 ozs. arsenic, 4 ozs. of 
soda ash or portash, 1 gal. of water. Boil till dissolved; keep it 
about three inches deep, so as to cover the foot as the sheep walk 
through; the trough should be about 20 feet long, and just wide 
enough to admit one sheep walking after the other. 

A 74 gun ship consumes 2000 tons or trees, the produce of 57 acres 
for a century. 

The deepest coal mine in England is, or was, at Killingworth, 
near Newcastle, and the mean annual temperature, at 400 yards be- 
low the surface, is 77°, and at 300 yards, 70°, while at the surface it 
is but 48°, being 1° of mcrease for every 15 yards. This explains 
the origin of hot springs, for, at 3300 yards, the heat would be equal 
to boiling water, taking 20 yards to a degree. The heat of the Bath 
waters is 116°, hence they would appear to rise 1,320 yards. 

Peron relates, that at the depth of 2144 feet in the sea, the ther- 
mometer falls to 45°, when it is 86° at the surface. 

Swemberg and Fourier calculate the temperature of the celestial 
spaces at 50 deg. centigrade below freezing. 

In Northern Siberia, the ground is frozen permanently to the 
depth of 660 feet, and only thaws to the extent of 3 or 4 feet in sum- 
mer. Below 660 feet mternal heat begins. 

River water contains about 30 grs. of solid matter in every cubic 
foot. Fresh water springs of great size abound under the sea. Per- 
haps the most remarkable springs exist in California, where they are 
noted for producing sulphuric acid, ink, and other remarkable pro- 
ducts. 

St. Winifred's Well, in England, evolves 120 tons of water per 
minute, furnishing abundant water power to drive 11 mills within 
little more than a mile. 

The Nile has a fall of 6 ins. in 1000 miles. The rise of the river 
commences in June, continuing until the middle of August, attaining 
an elevation of from 24 to 26 ft. and flowing the valley of Egypt, 12 
miles wide. In 1829 it rose to 26 cubits, by which 30,000 persons 
were drowned. It is a terrible climate to live in, owing to the fester- 
ing heat, and detestable exhalations from the mud, etc., left on the 
retiring of the Nile, which adds about 4 inches to the soil in a cen- 
tury, and enroaches on the sea 16 feet every year. Bricks have been 
found at a depth of 60 feet, showing the vast antiquity of the coun- 
try. In productiveness of soil it is excelled by no ocher in the world. 

Belzoni considered the tract between the first and second cata- 
racts of the Nile, as the hottest on the globe, owing to there being no 
rain. The natives do not credit the phenomenon of water falling 
from above. Hence it is, that all monuments are so nicely preserved. 
Buckingham found a building left unfinished about 4000 years ago 
and the chalk marks on the stones were still perfect. 

Pompey's Pillar is 92 ft. high, and 27^ round at the base. 



SCIENTIFIC FACTS, ETC. 125 

The French removed a red g^ranite column 95 ft. high, weighing 
210 tons, from Thebes and carried it to Paris. The display of costly 
architectural ruins at Thebes is one of the most astonishing to be 
seen anywhere in the world. The ruins and costly buildings, in old 
Eastern countries, are so vast in their proportions and so many in 
number, that it Avould require volumes to describe them. 

Babel, noAV called Birs Nimroud, built at Babylon by Belus, was 
used as an observatory, and as a temple of the Sun. It was com- 
posed of 8 square towers, one over the other, in all 670 ft. high, and 
the same dimensions on eacli side, on the ground . 

The Coliseum at Rome, built hj Vespasian for 100,000 spectators, 
was in its longest diameter 615.5 feet, and in the shortest 510, em- 
braced 5 J acres, and was 120 feet high. 

Eight aqueducts supplied ancient Rome with water, delivering 40 
millions of cubic feet daily. That of Claudia Avas 47 miles long, and 
100 feet high, so as to furnish the hills. Martia was 41 miles, of 
which 37 were on 7000 arches, 70 feet high. These vast erections would 
never have been built had the Romans known that water always rises 
to its own level. 

The Temi>le of Diana, at Ephesus, was 425 feet long, and 225 
broad, with 127 colunms, 60 feet high, to sux)port the roof. It was 
•220 years in building. 

Solomon's Temple, built B. C. 1014, was 60 cubits, or 107 feet in 
length, the breadth, 20 cubits, or 36 feet, and the height, 30 cubits, 
or 54 feet. The porch was 36 feet long and 18 feet wide. 

The largest of the Egyptian pyramids is 543 feet high, 693 feet on 
the sides, and its base covers 11 acres. The layers of stones are 208 
in number ; many stones are over 30 feet long, 4 broad, and 3 thick. 
The Temple of Ypsambul, in Nubia, is enormously massive, and 
cut out of the solid rock. Belzoni f oimd in it 4 immense figures 65 ft. 
high, 25 ft. over the shoulders, with a face of 7 ft. and the ears over 
3 ft. 

Sesostris erected in the temple in Memphis, immense statues of him- 
self and his wife, 50 ft. high, and of his children, 28 ft. 

In the Temple of the Sun, at Baalbec, are stones more than 60 ft. 
long, 24 ft. thick, and 16 broad, each embracing 23,000 cubic feet, cut, 
squared, sculptured, and transported from neighboring quarries. Six 
enormous columns are each 72 ft. high, composed of 3 stones, 7 ft. in 
diameter. Sesostris is credited with having transported from the 
mountains of Arabia, a rock 32 feet wide, and 240 ft. long. 

The engineering appliances used by the ancients in the movement 
of these immense masses are but imperfectly understood at the 
present day. 

During modem times, a block of granite weighing 1217 tons, now 
used as the pedestal of the equestrian statute of Peter the Great, at 
St. Petersburg, was transported 4 miles by land over a railway and 13 
miles in a vast caisson by water. The railway consisted of two lines 
of timber furnished with hard metal grooves ; between these grooves 
were placed spheres of hard brass about 6 ins. diameter. On these 
spheres the frame with its massive load was easil}^ moved by 60 men 
working at capstans with treble-purchase block. 

In 1716, while yet but 28, the illustrious Swedenborg contrived to 
transport (on rolling machines of his own invention), over vaUeys and 
mountiiins, 2 galleys, 5 large boats, and 1 sloop, from Stromsta4t to 



126 FRENCH MEASURES, ETC. 

Iderf jol (which divides Sweden from Norway on the South), a distance 
of 14 miles ; by which means, Charles XII. was able to carry on his 
plans, and, uiider cover of the galleys and boats, to transport on pon- 
toons, his heavy artillery to the very walls of Frederickshall. 

As an exponent of the laws of friction, it may be stated that a square 
stone, weighing 1080 lbs. which required a force of 758 lbs. to drag it 
along the Moor of a quarry, roughly chiselled, required only a force of 
22 lbs. to move it when mounted on a platform and rollers over a x)lank 
floor. 

Water is the absolute master, former, and secondary agent of the 
power of motion in every thing terrestrial. It is the irresistible power 
which elaborates everything, and the waters contain more organized 
beings than the land. 

Rivers hold in suspension 100th of their volume (more or less) of 
mad, so that if 36 cubic miles of water (the estimated quantity) flow 
daily into the sea, 0.36 cubic miles of soil are daily displaced. The 
Rhine carries to the sea every day 145.980 cubic feet of mud. The 
Po carries out the land 228 ft. per annum, consequently Adria, which 
2500 years ago, was on the sea, is now over 20 miles from it. 

The enormous amount of alluvium deposited by the Mississippi is 
almost incalculable, and renders necessary the extensive engineering 
operations, which are now (1876) being prosecuted in order to remove 
the impediments to navigation. 

French Measures with the English Equivalents. Measures 
OF Length. — Myrimeter, equivalent to 10,000 meters, or to 6 miles, 1 fur- 
long, 28^4 poles. Kilometer^ 1,000 meters, or to 3,280 ft. and 10 ins. 
Hectometer, 100 meters, 328 ft. and 1 inch. Decameter, 10 meters, equal 
to 32 and 4-5ths ft. Meter, the unit of the French measure of length, 
equal to 39.36 inches. Decimeter, 1-10 of a meter, equal to 3.97 inches. 
Centimeter, 1-100 of a meter, or .39371 inch (nearly 2-5ths inch). Millimeter y 
1-lOOOth of a meter, or .039i inch. 

Surface Measures.— Af^/^'i^^^* 100,000 square meters, equal to 246 
acres, 3 roods, and 20 poles. Hectare, 10,000 square meters, equal to 
11.960 English square yards, or to 2.471 acres. Are, 100 square meters, or 
119.6 square yards. Centare, 1 square meter, or 1550 square inches. 

Measures of Volume. — Kiloliter or Steere, the unit of measure for solid 
bodies, 1,000 liters, or 1 cubic meter, equal to 35.3171 cubic ft., or to 1-308 cubic 
yards, or to 264.17 gallons. Hectoliter, 100 liters, or 1-lOth cubic meter, equal 
to 2 bush,, and 3.35 pecks, or 26.417 gals. Decaliter, 10 liters, or 10 cubic deci- 
meters, equal to 610.28 cubic inches, or to 9.08 qts., or to 2 and 1-5 Imperial 
gals. Liter, 1 cubic decimeter, a unit of capacity, equal to a little less than 
an English quart, or precisely .908 qt. Deciliter, 1-lOth liter, or 1 cubic deci- 
meter, 6.1022 cubic inches, equal to 0.176 pint, or .845 gill. Centilliter, 
1-lOOth liter, or 10 cubic decimeters, equal to .6102 cubic inch, or .338 fluid 
oz. Milliliter, 1-lOOOth liter, or 1 cubic centimeter, equal to .061 cubic, 
inch, or .27 fluid drm. i 

Measures of Weight. — Millier or Tonneau, 1,000,000 grains, or 1 
cubic meter of water at its maximum density, equal to 2204.6 lbs. 
avoirdupois. Quintal, 100,000 grains, or 1 hectoliter of water, equal to 
220.46 lbs. avoirdupois. Myrigram, or 10,000 grains, or 10 liters of water, 
equal to 22.046 lbs. avoirdupois. Kilogram or Kilo, 1000 grains, or 1 liter of 
water, equal to 2 lbs. 3 ozs. 65 drs. (2.206 lbs.) avoirdupois. Hectogram, 
100 grains, or 1 deciliter of water, equal to 3.5277 ozs. avoirdupois. 
Gram, the unit of weight, being the weight of 1 cubic centimeter of 
water, or about I514 grains troy. Decigram, 1-10 grain, or 1-10 of a cubic 
centimeter of water, equal to 1.5432 grains troy. Centigram, 100th gram, 
or 10 cubic millimeters of water, or equal to 1.543 grains troy. Milligram, 
1-1000 gram, or 1 cubic millimeter of water, equal to .0154 grains troy. 



WEIGHTS OF METALS, ETC. 127 

For surface measurement, tlie square dekameter is used under the term of 
Abe. 

Number of Cubic Feet ht a Ton (Avoirdupois) of Bifferekt 
Materials.— Cast Iron, 4*98 ; Wrought Iron, 4.59 ; Bar Iron, 4*69 ; Steel, 
Soft, 4-57 ; Steel, Hard, 4*59 ; Copper, Sheet, 4*62 ; Copper, Cast, 4*04 ; Brass, 
4.17 ; Lead, 3-15 ; Tin, Cast, 4'91 ; Zinc, Cast, 49*8 ; Granite, 13-514 ; Marble, 
13-343 ; Paving Stone, 14-83; Millstone, 14-42 ; Grindstones, 17 ; Common 
Stone, 14-22 ; Fire Brick, 16.284 ; Brick, Mean, 21-961 ; Anthracite Coal, 
21-284 and 24-958 ; Cannel Coal, 23-609 ; Cotton Bale, Mean, 154-48 ; Pressed 
ditto, from 89-6 to 1*14 ; Hay, Bale, 23-517 ; Bale, Mean, 154-48 ; Hay,Pressed 
89-6 ; Clay, 158-69; Common Soil, 16*335 ; Mud, 21-987 ; Loose Sand, 23-893 ; 
Earth with Gravel, 16-742 ; India Rubber, 39.69 ; Plaster of Paris, 21'3 ; Glass 
12-44 ; Ice, 38-58 ; Chalk (British), 17-92 ; TaUow, 38 ; Oil, 39 ; Fresh Water, 
35-84 ; Salt Water, 34-931. 

Weight of Various Materials in Lbs. (Avoirdupois) per Cubio 
Foot.— Pure Gold, 1203-6 ; Standard Gold, 1102-9 ; Hammered Gold, 1210*11 ; 
Pure Silver, 654-6 ; Hammered Silver, 656-9 ; Standard Silver, 658-4 ; Cast 
Brass, 524*8 ; Brass Wire, 534; Bismuth, Cast, 613-9; Antimony, 418*9; 
Bronze, 513-4 ,- Cobalt, Cast, 488-2 ; Copper, Cast, 549-3 ; Copper, Sheet, 557*2; 
Copper, Wire, 554*9; Wrought Iron, 486*75 : Iron P'ates, 481*5 ; Cast Iron, 
450-4; Gun Metal, 543-75; Cast Lead. 709-5 ; Rolled do,,7lJ*75; It ed Lead. 
55875 ; Tin, 455-7 ; Platinum, Pure, 1218*8 ; Hammered do., 1271 j Mercury. 
60^^, Fluid, 848 ; mercury, Solid, 977 ; Nickel, Cast, 487*9 ; Steel, Plates, 480*75; 
Steel, Soft, 489*6; Type Metal, 6.53*1; Zinc, Cast, 439; Granite. 165*75; Mill- 
stone, 155*3; Marble, Mean, of nineteen K:inds. 180; Grindstones, 133*9; 
Firebrick, 137*5; Tile, 114*44; Brick. Mean, 102; Clay, 120; Limestone, Mean, 
of seven sorts, 184*1; Loose Eartn or Sand, 95; Coai-se Sand, 112*5; Ordi- 
nary Soil, 124; Mud, 102; Clay and Stones, 160; Slate, 167 to 181*25; Plaster 
of Paris, 73-5; Plumbago, 131-35; Anthracite Coal, from 89*75 to 102-5; Can- 
nel Coal, from 77-33 to 82-33; Charcoal from Hard Wood, 18*5; ditto from 
Softwood, 18; Port Wine, 62-31 ; Fresh Water, 62-5; Sea Water, 64*3; Dead 
Sea Water, 77*5; Vinegar, 67-5 ; Alum, 107*10; Asbestos, Starry, 192-1; Ice at 
32°, 57*5; Sulphur, 127*1; Peat, 375 to 83*1; Marl, Mean, 109*33; Hydraulic 
Lime, 171-60; quartz, 16625 ; Rock Crystal, 170*94; Salt, Common, 133.12 ; 
Lard, 59-20; Whale Oil, 57*70; Olive Oil, 57*19. 

Weight of a Cubic Inch of Various Metals in Pounds.— 
Hammered Gold, .701 lbs : Cast do. (pure), .698 ; 20 Carats Fine do., .567'; 
Hammered Silver, .382 ; Pure do., .378 ; Cast Steel, .387 ; Cast Iron, .363 ; 
Sheet Iron, .279 ; Rolled Platinum, .797; Wire do., .762; Hammered do, .735;; 
Sheet Copper, .323 ; Sheet Brass, .304 ; Lead, .410 ; Cast Tin, .264 ; Cast 
Zinc, .245. 

Sundry Commercial Weights.— A ton of wool is 2 stones of 14 lbs. 
each, A pack of wool is 240 lbs. A sack of wool is 22 stone of 14 lbs., or 
308 lbs. In Scotland, it is 24 of 16 lbs. A keel of 8 Newcastle chaldrons 
is 151/^ London chaldrons. 56 or 60 lbs. is a truss of hay, 40 lbs. a truss 
of straw ; 36 trusses a load, A bushel of rock salt is 65 lbs. ; of crushed 
salt, 56 lbs.; of foreign salt, 84 lbs. A tierce of beef, in Ireland, is 304 lbs.; 
and of pork, 320 lbs. A fodder of lead is 19i/^ cwt. in London and 21 cwt. 
in the North. A man's load is 5 bushels, a market load 40, or 5 quarters. 
A last is 10 quarters of corn, or 2 cart loads, 12 sacks of wool, 24 barrels 
of gunpowder, 12 barrels of ashes, herring, soap, &c., and 18 barrels of 
salt. A hundred of salt is 126 barrels. 

Sundry Measures of Length — The hair's breadth is the smallest, 
of which 48 are an inch. Four barley-corns laid breadthways, are % of 
an inch, called a digit, and 3 barley-corns lengthways are an inch. An 
inch is divided into 12 lines and by mechanics into 8ths. A nail used in 
cloth measure, is 2% ins. or the 16th of a yard. A palm is 3 ins. and a 
span 9 ins. (See Table of Measures of length, for other designations.) An 
English Statute mile is 1760 yds. or 5280 ft., an Irish mile 2240 yds., a 
Scotch mile 1984 yds. ; 80 Scotch miles being equivalent to 91 English, 
and 11 Irish to 14 English. 



128 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 



MEASURES OF LENGTH. 



4 111. make 1 Hand. 
.92 In. *' 1 Link. 
18 In. " 1 Cubit. 
12 In. " 1 Foot. 

6 Ft. " 1 Fathom 



3 Feet make 1 Yard. 

5l^ Yds. " 1 Rod or Pole. 
40 Poles ** 1 Furlong. 

8 Fur. " IMile. 
69 1-12 Miles make 1 Degree. 

60 GeograpMcal Miles makes 1 Degree. 



MEASURES OF SURFACE. 
144 Square Inches make 1 Square Foot. 
9 Square Feet " 1 Square Yard. 
3OV4 Square Yards *' 1 Rod, Perch or Pole, 
40 Square Rods " 1 Square Rood. 
4 Square Roods '* 1 Square Acre, or 43,560 sq. ft. 
10 Square Chains ** 1 Square Acre. 
640 Square Acres " 1 Square Mile. 

Gunter's Chain equal to 22 Yards or 100 Links. 

MEASURES OF SOLIDITY. 

1728 Cubic Inches make 1 Cubic Foot. 
27 Cubic Feet " 1 Cubie Yard. 



AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT. 

27^4^ Grains make 1 Drachm (dr.) or 2744- Grains. 

16 Drachms " 1 Ounce (oz.) or 43714 " 

16 Ounces ** 1 Pound (lb.) or 7000 <* 

28 Pounds " 1 Quarter (qr.) 

4 Quarters " 1 Hundred- Weight (cwt.) 

20 Cwts. ** ITon. 

TROY WEIGHT. 
24 Grains make 1 Pennyweight, or 24 Grains. 
20 Penny wts *' 1 Ounce, or 480 " 

12 Ounces " 1 Pound, or 5760 " 



APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT. 

20 Grains make 1 Scruple. I 8 Drachms make 1 Ounce. 

3 Scruples " 1 Drachm. j 12 Ounces " 1 Pound. 

45 Drops =1 teaspoonf ul or a fluid Drachm; 2 tablespoonf ul3=l 02. 

DIAMOND WEIGHT. 
16 Parts make 1 Grain (8-lOths Grain, Troy). 
14 Grains '< 1 Carat (3 l-5th Grains, Troy). 



LIQUID MEASURE. 

2 Gallons make 1 Peck. 
311/2 Gallons ** 1 Barrel. 
54 GaUons " IHhd. 



4 Gills make 1 Pint. 
2 Pints *' 1 Quart. 
4 Quarts " 1 Gallon. 

DRY MEASURE. 
8 Quarts make 1 Peck. I 8 Bushels make 1 Quarter. 

4 Pecks " 1 Bushel. | 36 Bushels ** 1 Chaldron. 

1 Bushel equal to 2815^^ cubic in. nearly. 
A bushel of Wheat is on an average 60 lbs.; Barley or Buckwheat, 
46 lbs. ; Indian Corn or Rye, 56 lbs. ; Oats, 30 lbs. ; Salt, 70 lbs. 14 lbs. ol' 
Lead or Iron make 1 Stone ; 21 1^ Stone, 1 Pig. 1 Bbl. of Flour containe 
196 lbs. ; Beef or Pork, 200 lbs. The Imperial Gallon is 10 lbs. avoirdu- 
pois of pure water ; the Pint 1 1-4 lbs. 1 Gal. Sperm Oil weighs, 7V4 
lbs. ; 1 do. of Whale Oil, 7 lbs. 11 ozs. ; 1 do. of Linseed, 7% lbs. ; 1 do. of 
Olive, TY2 lbs. ; 1 do. Spfcs. of Turpentine, 7 lbs. 5 ozs. Proof Spirits 
7 lbs. 15 ozs. ; 1 do. of Ale, 10.5 lbs. 



SCRIPTURE MEASURES, ETC. 



129 



Scripture Measures of Length.— The great Cubit was 21-888 ins. 
"=1.824 ft. and the less 18 ins. A Span the longer=i4 a cubit=10.944 ins^= 
.912 ft. A span the less=i4 of a cubit=7.296 ins. =.608 ft. A hantTs 
breadth=>6 of a cubit=3.684 ins.=.304ft. A finger's breath=1.24 of a 
Cubit=.912 ins.=.076 ft. A fathom=4 cubits=7.296 ft. Ezekiers Reed= 
6 cubits=10.944 ft. The mile=4000 cubits=7296 ft. The Stadium, 1-10 of 
their mile=400 cubits=729.6 ft. The Parasang, 3 of their niiles=12,000 
cubits, or 4 English miles and 580 ft. 33.164 miles -was a day's journey — 
some say 24 miles; and 3500 ft. a Sabbath day's journey; some authorities 
say 3648 ft. 

Scripture Measures of Capacity.— The Chomer or Homer in King 
James' translation was 75.625 gals, liquid, and 32.125 pecks dry. The 
Ephah or Bath was 7 gals. 4 pts., 15 ins. sol. The Seah, % of Ephah, 2 
gals. 4 pts., 3 in. sol. The Hin=i^ of Ephah, 1 gal., 2 pts., 1 in. sol. The 
Omer=l-10 of Ephah, 5 pts., 0.5 ins. sol. The Cab=l-18 of Ephah, 3 pts., 
10 ins. sol. The Log=7-^ of Ephah, 14 pt., 10 ins. sol. The metretes of 
Syria {John ii. 6)=Cong. Rom. 71/3 pts. The Cotyla Eastern=l-100 of 
Ephah, 14 pt. 3 in. sol. This Cotyla contains just 10 ozs. Avordupois of 
rain water. Omer, 100 ; Ephah, 1000 ; Chomer or Homer, 10,000. 

Scripture Weights axd Coins. — The following are the Hebrew 
weights and their equivalents in Troy weight ; also their value in puro 
Gold and Silver:— 



The Gerah=-Jj^ of a 

Shekel. ...^.^..... 
The Bekah = % 

Shekel 

The Shekel 

The Man eh, or 

Mini=60 Shekels 
The Talent = 3000 

Shekels 



lbs. ozs. dwt. gr. 

11 

.. .. 4 131/4 

.... 9 21/2 

2 3 6 IOV4 

113 10 1 103/4 



Pure 
Gold. 



Pure 
Silver. 



cts. j § 
47 



69 

38 



562 84 

28,142 25 



cts. 

03 

30 
59 



35 32 
1,766 23 



English 
Money. 



£ s. d. f. 
11/2+ 
1 21/2+ 

2 41 
7 15 
353,1110 ob. 



s. d. 


far. 


$ 


cts. 





0.75 





00.343 





1.50 





00.687 


7 


2. 





13.75 


2 6 


0. 


13 


75. 



of Scripture Measures, Weights, 



Roman money mentioned in the New Testament reduced to English 
and American Standard: — % 

£ 

A Mite 

A Farthing, about 

A Penny, or Denarius 

A Pound, or Mina 3 

Note — The above determinations 
&c., are principally by the Rt. Rev. Richard, Bishop of Peterborough 

Gutter's Chai2^, Laxd Measurement, &c.— 7*92 inches constitute 
1 link ; 100 links 1 chain, 4 rods or poles, or 66 feet, and 80 chains 1 mile. 
A square chain is 16 square poles, and 10 square chains are 1 acre. Four 
roods are an acre, each containing 1210 square yards, or 34.785 yards, or 
34 yards 28 inches each side. 

Forty poles of 30.25 square yards each is a rood, and a pole is 5l^ yards 
each way. 

An acre is 4840 square yards, or 69 yds. 1 ft., 8^^ ins. each way ; and 2 
acres, or 9680 square yds. are 98 yds. 1 ft., 2 ins. each way ; and 3 acres are 
120^^ yds. each way. A square mile, or a U. S. section of Land, is 640 
acres; being 1060 yds. each way ; half a mile, or 880 yds. each way, is 160 
acres ; a quarter of a mile or 440 yds- each way, is a park or farm of 40 
acres ; and a furlong, or 220 yds. each way, is 10 acres. 

Any length or breadth in yds. which multiplied make 4840 is an acre ; 
any which makes 12*10 is a rood, and 30.25 is a pole. 

An English acre is a square of nearly 70 yds. each way, a Scotch, of 77% 
yds. and an Irish of 88^4 yds. 

9 



130 



STRENGTH OF MATERIALS, ETC. 



Nautical Distances, Log Lines.— A nautical mile, tlie 60th of a 
d^ifree, is 2026.5 yards ; a marine league, or 20 to a degree, is 6079.5 yards. 
Log-lines are divided into spaces of 50 feet, and tlie way measured by a 
half minute sand-glass, which bears nearly the same proportion to an 
hour, which 50 feet bears to a mile, the number of knots which run off 
the reel in half a minute showing the number of miles the vessel sails in 
an hour. The line should be about 150 fathoms long, having 10 fathoms 
between the ship and first knot for stray line. Estimating a mile at 
6139.75 feet, and using a 2>^ff glass, 1 knot=51 ft. 1.95 ins. and 1 fathom, 5 
ft. 1.395 ins. Or if a 28-^^ glass is used, and 8 divisions, the result will be 
thus ; 1 knot=47 ft. 9.024 ins. and 1 fathom=5ft. 11.627 ins. 

BowDiTCH's Navigator computes 6120 ft. to a sea mile, which if 
taken as the length with a 28''^ glass, will make the divisions 47.6 ft. and 
5.95 ft. 

Tensile Strength of Materials, Showing the Strength or 
Force required to Tear Asunder 1 Square Inch. 

Iron Wire, wrought, 
Swedish bar Iron, 
Russian " " 
Mean of English Iron, 
Gun Metal, mean of Iron, 
Clyde, No. 1, ** 

n << 2 ^' 

Stirling, mean of ** 

American, mean of ** 
Low Moor, No. 2, cast ** 
Crank Shaft «' 

American boiler, 

plates. Iron, 
English plates, mean, 
" *' lengthwise, 

** ** crosswise, 

German piano steel Wire, 
Cast Steel, maximum, 

*' '* mean. 
Steel, 100,000 1( 

Chromo Steel, mean, 
Shear <' 
American Tool Co., 

Blistered Steel, soft. 

Razor ♦* 

Steel plates, lengthwise, 

*• " crosswise, 
Yellow metal, 
Cast Copper, 
American Copper, 
Brass Wire, 

Remarks.— Owing to the damage inflicted by the hot tar, tarred ropes 
are 25 per cent, weaker than white ropes. Hemp rope is stronger than 
Manilla, but taiTed hemp and manilla are nearly of equal strength. 
Manilla ropes are from 25 to 30 per cent, weaker than white ropes. 
Twisted hempen cords will sustain the following weights per square 
inch of their section : 1/4 inch to 1 inch thick, 8746 lbs. ; 1 to 3 ins. thick, 
6860 lbs, ; 3 to 5 ins. thick, 5345 lbs. ; 5 to 7 ins. thick, 4,860 lbs. Ropes of 
4 strands up to 8 ins. are about 17 per cent, stronger than those having 
but 3 strands. One-eighth of an inch in diameter of iron will sustain 
more than 1 inch in circumference of hemp rope. In Tredgold's and 
Duleau's experiments, a piece of the best bar iron, 1 inch square, bore a 
weight of 77,373 lbs., while a similar piece of cast iron would be torn 



Lbs. 




Lbs. 


103,000 


Copper Bolts, 


38,000 


72,000 


'' Wire, 


60,000 


59,500 


Brass, 


42,000 


53,900 


Gold, 


20,490 


37,232 


Gold, 5 pts., copper, 


1 pt., 60,000 


16,125 


Silver cast. 


40,997 


23,468 


Bronze, 


17,698 to 56,788 


25,764 


Tin cast, block, 


5,000 


45,970 


" Banca, 


2,122 


14,076 


Platinum Wire, 


5,300 


44,750 


Zinc, 


7,000 


f 48,000 


Sheet Lead, 


3,000 


62,000 


Antimony, 


1,060 


51,000 


Bismuth, cast, 


3,120 


53.800 


Ivory, 


16,070 


48,800 


Manilla Rope, 


9,300 


268,800 


Tarred Hemp Rope, 


15,000 


142,000 


Wire, Rope, 


37,000 


88,000 


Whalebone, 


7,600 


130,000 


Leather Belting, 


333 


170.980 


Gutta-percha, 


8,500 


124,000 


Slate, 


12,000 


179,980 


Well-burned Brick, 


750 


133,000 


Inferior " 


100 to 290 


104,000 


Portland Stone, 


857 to 1,000 


15,000 


Crown Glass, 


42,346 


96,300 


Limestone, 


670 to 2,800 


93,700 


Hydraulic Lime, 


140 


48,700 


Cement, 


234 


19,000 


Portland " 


6 mos. 414 


24,250 


Plaster of Paris, 


72 


50,000 







STRENGTH OF MATEEIALS, ETC. 



131 



asunder by a weight of from 16,243 to 19,464 lbs. , and 1 square inch of iron 
wire would sustain a mean weight of 126,340 lbs. In sixteen experiments 
by Mr. Fairbairn and Mr. Hodgkinson, on cast iron, the average strain 
that one square inch sustained was T^/^ tons, the weakest bearing 6 tons, and 
the strongest 9% tons. Telford's and Brown's experiments show that mal- 
leable iron will bear, on an average, 27 tons, the weakest being 24 and the 
strongest 29 tons. 

Hodgkinson's and Fairbairn' s experiments prove that cast iron can 
sustain a compression of from 36^^ to 60 tons to the square inch. In this 
respect malleable iron is inferior to cast. With 12 tons to the square 
inch it yields, contracts in length, and expands laterally, though it will 
bear 27 tons, or more, without actual fracture. Hennie crushed cast iron 
with a weight of 93,000 lbs. 

Strexgth of Shafts. — 44 lbs., acting at afoot radius, will twist off 
the neck of a shaft of lead 1 inch diam., and the relative strengths of other 
materials, lead being 1, is as follows : — Tin, 1-4 ; copper, 4*3 ; yellow brass, 
4-6 ; gun metal, 5 ; cast iron, 9 ; Swedish iron, 9-5 ; English iron, 10*1 ; 
blistered steel, 16*16 ; shear steel, 17 ; cast steel, 19'5. The strength of a 
shaft increases as the cube of its diameter. 

A weight of 36,000 lbs. attached to a bar of iron 1 inch square and 1,000 
inches in length, will draw it out 1 inch ; 45,000 will stretch it 2 inches ; 
54,000 lbs., 4 inches ; 63,000, 8 inches ; and 72,000, 16 inches, where it will 
finally break. — Prof. Leslie. 

Strength of Cast Iron Beams.— 2?M^e. Multiply the sectional area 
of the bottom flanges in square inches by the depth of the beam in inches, 
and divide the product by the length between the support also in inches. 
Then 514 times the quotient \vill be the breaking weight in pounds. 
Table showing- the Crushing Strength of yariolts materials 

ON A basis of 1 SQUARE INCH- 



Materials. 


Crushing 
Weight. 


Materials. ^^elgj^j' 




Lbs. 




Lbs. 


Quincy Granite, 


15,300 


Marble, Baltimore, small. 


8,057 


Aberdeen *' 


10,360 


Stock Brick, 


2,167 


Arbroath ^' 


7,884 


Portland Cement, 1 sand 1, 


1,280 


Portland Cement, 


15,000 


*' *' 1 sand 4, 


1,244 


" Mean, 


8,300 


Gneiss, 


19,600 


Stourbridge Firebrick, 


1,717 


Good Mortar, 


240 


Hard Brick, 


( 4,368 
2,000 


Common " 
Boman Cement, 


120 
342 




( 4,000 
800 


Sandstone, Seneca, 


10,762 


Common " 


" Acquia Creek, 


5,340 


" " Masonry, 


(800 
500 


'* Adelaide, 
Brick, Sydney, 


2,800 

2,228 


Marble, Lee, Mass., 


22,702 


Clay, fine, roiled and baked, 


400 


<' Italian, 


12,624 


Portland Oolite, 


3,850 


" Baltimore, small 


L, 18,061 







Nearly all granites commence to crumble under a superstructure of 
200 feet elevation. 

1 cask of lime (240 lbs.), will make from 7*8 to 8*15 cubic ft. of stiff paste. 
Bricks should be thoroughly wet previous to use. Brick walls should be 
washed down with diluted sulphuric acid when finished. 

A good Mastic is burnt clay, 93 parts, litharge, 7 parts, all ground very 
fine, and thoroughly dried by artificial heat, mix with linseed oil and 
apply, after giving the surface to which it is to be applied 2 or 3 coats of oil. 

Soot will not adhere to chimneys coated with mortar to which salt has 
been added in the proportion of 1 peck of salt to 3 of mortar while tam- 
pering. 



132 



FACTS FOR BUILDERS, ETC 



TABLE TO FIND THE NUMBER OF BRICK REQUIRED TO CONSTRUCT 

ANY Building, embracing walls, from 4 inches to 20 inches 

THICK, reckoning 7 BRICKS TO EACH SUPERFICIAL FOOT. 

Example.— B^eqiiived the number of bricks in 100 superficial feet of wall 
12 inches thick. Under 12 incb, and opposite 100, you will find the answer, 
2250, the number of bricks required. 



Superficial 
feet of 
Wall. 


Number of Bricks to Thickness of 


4-inch. 


8-inch. 


12-inch. 


16-inch. 


20-inch. | 


24-inch. 


1 


7 


15 


23 


30 


38 


45 


2 


15 


30 


45 


60 


75 


90 


3 


23 


45 


68 


90 


113 


135 


4 


30 


60 


90 


120 


150 


180 


5 


38 


75 


113 


150 


188 


225 


6 


45 


90 


135 


180 


225 


270 


7 


63 


105 


158 


210 


263 


315 


8 


60 


120 


180 


240 


300 


360 


9 


68 


135 


203 


270 


338 


405 


10 


75 


150 


225 


300 


375 


450 


20 


150 


300 


450 


600 


750 


900 


30 


225 


450 


675 


900 


1125 


1350 


40 


300 


600 


900 


1200 


1500 


1800 


50 


375 


750 


1125 


1500 


1875 


2250 


60 


450 


900 


1350 


1800 


2250 


2700 


70 


525 


1050 


1575 


2100 


2625 


3150 


80 


600 


1200 


1800 


2400 


3000 


3600 


90 


675 


1350 


2025 


2700 


3375 


4050 


100 


750 


1500 


2250 


3000 


3750 


4500 


200 


1500 


3000 


4500 


6000 


7500 


9000 


300 


2250 


4500 


6750 


9000 


11250 


13500 


400 


3000 


6000 


9000 


12000 


15000 


18000 


500 


3750 


7500 


11250 


15000 


18750 


22500 


600 


4500 


9000 


13500 


18000 


22500 


27000 


700 


5250 


10500 


15750 


21000 


26250 


31500 


800 


6000 


12000 


18000 


24000 


30000 


36000 


900 


6750 


13500 


20250 


27000 


33750 


45000 


1000 


7500 


15000 


22500 


30000 


37500 


45000 



Facts for Builders. — 1000 shingles, laid 4 ins. to the weather, will 
cover 100 sq. ft. of surface, and 5 lbs. of shingle nails will fasten them on. 

One-fifth more siding and flooring is needed than the number of sq. ft. 
of surface to be covered, because of the lap in the siding and matching. 

1000 laths will cover 70 yards of surface, and 11 lbs. of lath nails will nail 
them on. 8 bushels of good lime, 16 bushels of sand, and 1 bushel of hair, 
will make enough good mortar to plaster 100 sq. yds. 

A cord of stone, 3 bushels of lime, and a cubic yard of sand, will lay 100 
cubic ft. of wall. 

5 courses of brick will lay 1 ft. in height on a chimney, 16 bricks in a 
course will make a flue 4 ins. wide and 12 ins. long, and 8 bricks in a 
course will make a flue 8 ins. wide and 16 ins. long. 

Cement, 1 bush., and sand, 2 bush., will cover 3^ sq. yds. 1 in. thick, 4^^ 
sq. yds. % inch thick, and 6% sq. yds. 14 inch thick. 1 bush, cement and 
1 of sand will cover 2V4 sq, yds. 1 in. thick, 3 sq. yds. % inch thick, and4l^ 
sq. yds. 14 inch thick. 

8 lbs. ot Asphalte Flooring composition will cover 1 superficial ft. scinch 
thick. 308 pounds of finely ground cement will make from 3*7 to 3*8 cubic 
feet of stiff paste. 1 cwt. of mastic and 1 gal. of oil will cover I14 yds. at 
%, or 2l^ at 1/2 inch in thickness. Pointing Mortar consists, by weight, of 
finely ground cement, 1 part to from 3 to 3% parts of fine silicious sand, 
mix under cover, in small quantities at a time. 



EXPANSION OF BODIES, ETC 



133 



ExpAiTSiON AND Coi^TRACTiON OF BODIES.— The following table 
exhibits the linear dilatation of various bodies from 32° to 212o, ac- 
ording to Laplace, Smeaton, Roy, etc. 



Flint glass 

Glass (barometer tubes) 

" solid rod 

*' cast, prism of 

Platinum, per Borda 

Palladium, per Wollaston . . . 

Gold (French standard) 

Silver ( French standard ) . . . . 

Copper 8 parts, tin 1 

Copper 

Copper 2, zinc 1 

Brass 16, tin 1 

Brass wire 

Brass cast 

Solder, tin 1, lead 2 

Bismuth 

Speculum metal 

Iron 

Ste^l (yellow temper) 

Tin, Falmouth 

Lead 

Zinc 

Mercur}^, in volume 

Water 

Alcohol 

All the gases 



I— • 

o 
o 



1 _ 

123" 2 

1__ 

1000 



ttVt 

__1 

1000 

■ee"! 

"524 



584 



TFS 



■FTq" 
•80T 
Teo" 
TsT 



1 

1200 

to 

"9^3" 



100 
5550 



T50 

■58T 
•48T 

T2T 

^1t 

•533 
"S'To 
Tl9 

i¥s 

"SIS" 

1 

340 



TT61 



1131 



■846" 



100 



1 
480 



1 
■F2T 



¥40" 






l^FT 
¥oT 



528 



¥TT 



Mercury freezes at 40° below zero, and melts at 39°. Ether freezes 
at 470 below zero ; wine freezes at 20° ; sea water freezes at 28°3. 
Alcohol has been exposed to 110° and 120° below zero without freez- 
ing. Granite decomposes at a red heat. The second's pendulum, of 
39.139 ins. , is lengthened by 30° of temperature 128th of an inch, or 8 
vibrations in 24 hours. 

The heat conducting powers of metals, etc., are as follows: Gold, 
1000°; platinum, 981°; silver, 973; copper, 898.2; iron, 374.3; zinc, 
363; tin, 303'9; lead, 179.6; marble, 23.6; porcelain, 12.2; fine clay, 11.4. 

1 lb. of coke melts 94 lbs. of ice; 1 lb. of coal, 90 lbs.; 1 lb. of 
wood, 52 lbs. ; 1 lb. of charcoal, 95 lbs. ; 1 lb. of peat, 19 lbs. The 
capacity of the solar heat all over the globe is the ability to melt an 
icy covering 46 feet in thickness. 

G lbs. white lead added to 1 gal. tar varnish, and applied as paint, will 
prevent damp coming through walls. 



134 DYERS AND BLEACHERS' RECEIPTS. 

To Prevent Decay of Faii:m Iiupleivients.— Wlien not in use 
have them sheltered from the sun, wind, rain, and snow. By tliis 
means, sleighs, wagons, carts, ploughs, threshing-machines, har- 
rows, and the like, would last twice as long as they would if left in 
the open air, swelling from moisture one week, and shrinking the 
next from the mfluence of the sun and wind. 

Oiling or Cleaning old Carriage-tops.— Eimmel leather-tops 
should be first washed with Castile soap and warm water, then 
oiled witli neat's-foot oil ; or sweet oil and a coat of enamel varnish 
l^ut on, the leather will look lilve new. Dashes may be cleaned in t'lio 
same manner, but varnish color is not very beneficial to patent 
leather ; however, when old and cracked, it may be colored to 
imj)rove the appearance. 

DYERS, BLEACHERS, AND CLOXmERS' 
DEPARTMENT. 

In accommodation to the requirements of dyers, many of the 
following receipts describe dyes for large quantities of goods, 
but to make them equally adapted for the use of private fam- 
ilies they are usually given in even quantities, so that it is quite 
an easy matter to ascertain the quantity of materials required for 
dyeing, when once the weight of the goods is known ; the quantity 
of materials used being reduced in proportion to the smaller quantity 
of goods. 

Use soft water for all dydng purposes, if it can be procured, 
using 4 gals, water to 1 lb. of goods ; for larger quantities, a little less 
water will do. Let all the implements used in dyeing be kept 
perfectly clean. Prepare the goods by scouring well with soap 
and water, washmg the soap well out and dipping in 
warm water, previous to immersion in the dye or mordant. Goods 
should be well aired, rinsed, and properly hung up after dyeing. 
Silks, and fine goods should be tenderly handled, otherwise injury to 
the fabric will result. 

Saxon Blue. — For 100 lbs. thibet or comb yarn, use alum, 20 lbs., 
cream of tartar 3 lbs., mordant 2 lbs. ; extract of indigo 3 lbs., or 
carmine 1 lb., makes a better color. AVhen all is dissolved cool the 
kettle to 180° Fahr. ; enter and handle quicldy at first, then let it boil 
4 hour, or until even. Long boiling dims the color. Zephyr worsted 
yam ought to be prepared, first by boiling it in a solution of alum 
and sulphuric acid, then the indigo is added afterwards. 

Green Fustic Dye.— For 50 lbs. of goods use 50 lbs. of fustic with 
alum 11 lbs. Soak in water until the strength is extracted, put in the 
goods until of a good yellow color, remove the chips, and add extract 
of indigo in small quantities at a time, until the color is satisfactory. 

Purple Blue on Wool. — 100 lbs. of wool are first dipped in the 
blue vat to a light shade, then boiled in a solution of 15 lbs. of alum, 
and 3 lbs. of half refined tartar, for IJ hours, the wool taken out, 
cooled, and let stand 24 hours. Then "boil in fresh water 8 lbs. of 
powdered cochineal for a few minutes, cool the kettle to 170° Fahr. ; 
handle the prepared wool in this for 1 hour, when it is ready to cool, 
rinse, and dry. By coloring first with cochineal, as aforesaid, and 



DYERS AND BLEACHERS' RECEIPTS. 135 

finishing in the blue Yat, the fast purple or dahlia, so much admired 
in German broadcloths, will be produced. Tin acids must not be used 
in this color. 

Blue Dye for Hosiery.— 100 lbs. of wool are colored with 4 lbs. 
Guatemala or 3 lbs. Bengal indigo, in the soda or wood vat ; then 
boil in a kettle a few minutes, 5 lbs. of cudbear or 8 lbs. of orchil 
paste ; add-1 lb. of soda, or better, 1 pail of urine, then cool the dye 
to about 170° Fahr. ; and enter the wool. Handle weU for about 20 
minutes, then take it out, cool, rinse, and dry. It is aU the same if 
the cudbear is put m before or after the indigo. 3 ozs. of 
analine purple dissolved in alcohol, ^ pt, can be used instead of 
the cudbear. (Wood spirit is cheaper than alcohol, and is much used 
now by dyers for the purpose of dissolving analine colors). It pro- 
duces a very pretty shade, but should never be used on mixed goods 
which have to be bleached. 

Logwood aio) Indigo Blue Dye for Cloth. — 100 lbs. of cloth, 
color the cloth first by one or two dips in the vat of indigo blue, and 
rinse it weU, then boil it in a solution of 20 lbs. of alum, 2 lbs. of half 
refined tartar, and 5 lbs. of mordant, for 2 hours, then take it out and 
cool. In fresh Avater boil 10 lbs. of good logwood for haK an hour 
in a bag or otherwise ; cool off to 170° Fahr. before entering ; 
handle well over a reel, let it boil for half an hour, then take it out, 
cool, and rinse. This is a very firm blue. 

Dye for Wool or Silk. — Color beticeen Purple and Blue, For 
40 lbs. of goods, take bi-chromate of potash 8 ozs., alum 1 lb., dissolve 
all and bring the water to a boil, and put in the goods ; boil 1 hour ; 
then empty the dye, and make a new dye with logwood 8 lbs., or ex- 
tract of logwood 1 lb. 4 ozs., and boil in this 1 hour longer. Grade 
the color by using more or less logwood, as you wish it dark or light 
in the color. 

New Bleach for Wool, Silk, or Straw. — "Mix together 4 lbs. 
oxalic acid, 4 lbs. table salt, water 50 gals. The goods are laid in this 
mixture for 1 hour, they are then generally well bleached, and only 
require to be thoroughly riused and worked. For bleaching straw it 
is best to soak the goods in caustic soda, and afterwards to make use 
of chloride of lime or Javelle water. The excess of chlorine is after- 
wards removed by hjrposulphite of soda. 

To Fix Dyes. — Neio Process. Mr. Kipptug, of Manchester, England, 
has a new process of fixing dyes. He dissolves 20 ozs. of gelatine in 
water, and adds 3 ozs. of bichromate of potash. This is done in a dark 
room. The coloring matter is then added and the goods submitted 
thereto ; after which they are exposed to the action of light ; the 
pigment thus becomes insoluble in water and the color is fast. 

Scarlet with Lac Dye.— For 100 lbs. of flannel or yam, take 25 
lbs. of ground lac dye, 15 lbs. of scarlet spirit (made as per directions 
below), 5 lbs. of tartar, 1 lb. of flavine, or according to shade, 1 lb. of tin 
crystals, 5 lbs. of muriatic acid. BoU all for 15 minutes, then cool the 
dye to 170° Fahr. ; enter the goods, and handle them quickly at first. 
Let them boil 1 hour, rinse them whUe yet hot, before the gum and 
impurities harden. This color stands scouring with soap better than 
cochineal scarlet. To this dye, a small quantity of sulphuric acid may 
be used, as it dissolves the gum. 

Muriate of Tik or Scarlet Spirit.— Take IG lbs. muriatiG 



136 DYEES AND BLEACHEKS RECEIPTS. 

acid, 22° B., 1 lb. feathered tin, water 2 lbs. The acid should be put 
in a stone ware pot, and the tin added, and allow to dissolve ; the 
mixture should be kept a few days before using. The tin is feathered 
or granulated by melting in a suitable vessel, and pourmg it from a 
height of about 5 feet into a pailful of water. This is a most ]X)wer- 
f ul agent in certain colors, such as scarlets, oranges, pinks, &c. 

Scarlet Dye with CocHiNEAii. — ^For 50 lbs. of wool, yam, or 

cloth, use cream of tartar 1 lb. 9 ozs. ; cochineal pulverized, 12J ozs., 

muriate of tin or scarlet spirit 8 lbs. ; after boiling the dye, enter the 

goods, work them well for 15 minutes, then boil them IJ hours, slowly 

I agitating the goods while boiling, wash in clean water, and dry out of 

I the sun. 

\ PtiRPLE Dye. — ^For 40 lbs. of goods, use alum 3 lbs., muriate of tin 
4 tea cups, pulverized cochineal 1 lb., cream of tartar 2 lbs. Boil the 
alum, tin, and cream of tartar, for 20 minutes, add the cochineal and 
boil 5 minutes, immerse the goods 2 hours, remove and enter them in 
a new dye composed of Brazil wood 3 lbs., logwood 7 lbs., alum 4 lbs., 
muriate of tin 8 cupfuls, adding a little extract of indigo, made as 
follows : 

Chemig Blueing or Extract of Indigo.— Take oil of vitriol 2 lbs., 
and stir into it finely, pulverized indigo 8 ozs., stirring briskly for the 
first J hour, then cover it up, and stir 4 or 5 times daily for a few days, 
then add a little pulverized chalk, stirring it up, and keej) adding it 
as long as it foams ; it will neutralize the acid. Keep it closely corked. 

Light Silver Drab. — For 50 lbs. of goods use logwood ^ lb., 
alum, about the same quantity ; boil well, enter the goods, and dip 
them for 1 hour. Grade the color to any desired shade, by using 
equal parta of logwood and alum. 

Chrome Black for Wool. — ^For 40 lbs. of goods, use blue vitriol 
3 lbs. , boil it a short time, then dip the wool or fabric | of an hour, 
airing frequently ; take out the goods, and make a dye with logwood 
24 lbs. ; boil J hour, dip f of an hour, air the goods, and dip J of an 
hour longer, wash in strong soap suds. A good fast color. 

Black Dye on Wool, for Mixtures.— For 50 lbs. of wool tako 
bi-chromate of potash 1 lb. 4 ozs., ground argal 15 ozs., boil together 
and put in the fabric, stirring weU, and let it remain in the dye 5 
hours ; take it out, rinse slightly in clean water, then mak§ a new dye, 
into which put logwood 17 J lbs. Boil IJ hours, adding chamber lye .5 
I)ts. Let the fabric remain in all night, and wash out in clean water. 

Red Madder. — ^This color is mostly used for army uniforms, &c. 
To 100 lbs. of fabric use 20 lbs. of alum, 5 lbs. of tartar, and 5 lbs. of 
muriate of tin. When these are dissolved, enter the goods, and let 
them boil for 2 hours, then take them out, let cool, and lay overnight. 
Into fresh water, stir 75 lbs. of good madder, and enter the fabric at 120^ 
Fahr. and bring it up to 200° in the course of an hour, handle well to 
secure evenness, then rinse and dry. 

Dark Snuff Brown on Wool.— For 50 lbs. of goods, take cam- 
wood 10 lbs., boil for 20 minutes, then dip the goods for g of an hour, 
tlien take them out, and add to the dye, fustic 25 lbs. ; boil 12 minutes 
and dip the goods | of an hour, then add blue vitriol 10 ozs., copperas 
2 lbs. 8 ozs., dip again 40 minutes; add more copperas if the shade is 
required darker. 

Wine Color DYE.-^For 50 lbs. of goods use camwood 10 lbs., boil 



DYERS AND BLEACHERS' RECEIPTS. 137 

20 minutes, dip the goods J hour, boll again, and dip 40 minutes, 
then darken with blue vitriol 15 ozs., and should you wish it darker, 
add 5 lbs. of copperas. 

Pink Dye for Wool.— For 60 lbs. of goods, take alum 5 lbs. 12 
ozs., boil and immerse the goods 50 minutes, then add to the dye 
cochineal well pulverized, 1 lb. 4 ozs., cream of tartar, 5 lbs., boil and 
enter the goods while boiling, until the color is satisfactory. 

Dark Blue Dye= — Suitable for Thibets and Lastings. Boil 100 
lbs. of the fabric for IJ hours in a solution of alum 25 lbs., tartar 4 
lbs., mordant 6 lbs., extract of indigo 6 lbs. ; cool them as usual. Boil 
in freshwater from 8 to 10 lbs. of logwood, in a bag or othervrise, then 
cool the dye to 170^ Fahr. ; reel the fabric quickly at first, then let it 
boil strongly for 1 hour. This is a very good imitation of indigo blue. 

Orange Dye. — ^For 50 lbs. of goods, use argal 3 lbs., muriate of tin 
1 qt, boil and dip 1 hour; then tfdd to the dye, fustic 25 lbs., madder 
2J qts., and dip again 40 minutes. If preferred, cochineal 1 lb. 4 ozs. 
may be used instead of the madder, as a better color is induced by it. 

Sky Blue on Cotton. — 60 lbs. of goods, blue vitriol 5 lbs. Boil 
a short time, then enter the goods, dip 3 hours, and transfer to a balii 
of strong lime water. A fine broion color will be imparted to the goods 
if they are then put through a solution of iDrussiate of potash. 

A Brown Dye on Wool may be induced by a decoction of oak 
bark, with variety of shade according to the quantity employed. If 
the goods be first passed through a mordant of alum the color will be 
brightened. 

Brown on Cotton. — Catechu or terra japonica gives cotton a 
brown color, blue vitriol turns it on the bronze, green copperas darkens 
it, when applied as a mordant and the stuff boiled in the bath boiling 
iiot. Acetate of alumina as a mordant, brightness it. The French 
color named " Carmelite '* is given with catechu lib., verdigris 4 ozs., 
and sal-ammoniac 5 ozs. 

Brown on Wool and Silk. — ^Infusion or decoction of walnut 
peels dyes wool and silk brown color, which is brightened by alum. 
Horse-chestnut peels also impart a brown color ; a mordant of muriate 
of tin turns it on the bronze, and sugar of lead the reddish brown. 

Solitaire. — Sulphate or muriate of manganese dissolved in water 
with a little tartaric acid imparts this beautiful bronze tint. The 
stuff after being put through the solution must be turned through a 
weak lye of potash, and afterwards through another of chloride of 
lime, to brighten and fix it. Prussiate of copper gives a bronze or 
yelloivish brown color to silk. The piece well mordanted with blue 
vitriol, may be passfed through a solution otprussiate of x>otas1i. 

Fuller's Purifier for Cloths.— Dry, pulverize, and sift the 
following ingredients : Fuller's earth 6 lbs., French chalk 4 ozs., pipe 
clay 1 lb. ; make into a paste with rectified oil of turi)entine 1 oz., 
alcohol 2 ozs. , melted oil soap IJ lbs. Compound the mixture into 
cakes of any desired size, for sale if required, keeping them in water, 
or small wooden boxes. 

Green on Cotton. — For 40 lbs. of goods, use fustic 10 lbs., blue 
vitriol 10 ozs. , soft soap 2h qts. , and logwood chips 1 lb. 4 ozs. Soak 
the logwood over night in a brass vessel, put it on the fire in the 
morning adding the other ingredients. When quite hot it is ready for 
dyeing ; enter the goods at once, and handle well. Different shades 



138 DTEKS AND BLEACHEIIS RECEIPTS. 

may be obtained by letting part of the goods remain longer in the 
dye. 

Pink Dye for Cotton.— For 40 lbs. of goods, use redwood 20 
lbs., muriate of tin 2J lbs. ; boil the redwood 1 hour, turn off into a 
large vessel, add the muriate of tin, and put in the goods, let it stand 
a few minutes (5 or 10), and a. nice pink will be produced. It is quite 
a fast color. 

PcTRPLE Dye for Silk.— For 10 lbs. of goods, enter your goods in 
blue dye bath, and secure a light blue color, dry, and dip in a warm 
solution containing alum 2^ lbs. Should a deeper color be required, 
add a little extract of indigo. 

Yellow on Silk. — For 10 lbs. goods, use sugar of lead 7J ozs., 
alum 2 lbs., enter the goods and let them remain 12 hours, remove 
them, drain, and make a new dye with fustic 10 lbs. Immerse until 
the color suits. 

Purple on Cotton. — Get up a tub of hot logwood liquor, enter 3 
pieces, give them 5 ends, hedge out ; enter them into a clean alum 
tub, give them 5 ends, hedge out; get ui? another tub of logwood 
liquor, enter, give them 5 ends, hedge out ; renew your alum tub, 
give them 5 ends in that, and fhiish. 

Black on Cotton. — For 40 lbs. goods, use sumac 30 lbs., boil | 
hour, let the goods steep over night, and immerse them in lime water 
40 minutes, remove, and allow them to drip J hour, now add copperas 
4 lbs. to the sumac liquor, and dip 1 hour more ; next work them 
through lime water for 20 minutes, next make a new dye of logwood 
20 lbs., boil 2 J hours, and enter the goods 3 hours, then add bi-chro- 
mate of potash 1 lb. to the new dye, and dip 1 hour more. Work in 
clean cold water and dry out of the sun. 

Red Dye for Wool. — For 40 lbs. of goods, make a tolerably thick 
paste of lac dye and sulphuric acid, and allow it to stand for a day. 
Now take tartar 4 lbs., tin liquor 2 lbs, 8 ozs., and 3 lbs. of the above 
paste, make a hot bath with sufficient water, and enter the goods for 
I hour, afterwards carefully rinse and dry. 

Yellow on Cotton. — For 40 lbs. goods, use sugar of lead 3 lbs. 
8 ozs., dip the goods 2 hours. Make a new dye with bi-chromate of 
potash 2 lbs., dip until the color suits, wring out and dry, if not yellow 
enough rei)eat the operation. 

Violet Dye on Silk or Wool. — A good violet dye may be given 
by passing the goods first through a solution of verdigris, then through 
a decoction of logwood, and lastly alum water. A fast violet may be 
given by dyeing the goods crimson with cochineal, without alum or 
tartar, and after rinsing, passing them through the mdigo vat. 
Linens or Cottons are first gaUed with 18^ lo of gall nuts, next passed 
through a mordant of alum, iron liquor, and sulphate of copper, 
working them well, then worked m a madder bath made with an 
equal weight of root, and lastly brightened with soap or soda. 

Slate Dye on Silk. — For a small quantity, take a pan of warm 
water, and about a teacupful of logwood liquor, pretty strong, and a 
piece of pearlash the size of a nut ; take gTay colored goods and 
handle a httle in this liquid, and it is finished. If too much logwood 
is used, the color will be too dark. A Straio color on silk. — Use 
smartweed, boil in a brass vessel, and set with alum. 

Lilac Dye on Silk.— For 5 lbs. of silk, use archil 7 J lbs., mix it 



DYERS AND BLEACHEIIS' RECEIPTS. 139 

well with the liquor ; make It boil J hour, dip the sillc quickly, then 
let it cool, and wash it in river water, and a fine half violet, or lilac, 
more or less full, will be obtained. 

GRE3i:N Dye on Silk.— Take green ebony, boil it in water, and 
let it settle ; take the clear liquor as hot as you can bear your hands 
in it and handle your goods in it imtil of a bright yellow ; then take 
water and put in a little sulphate of indigo ; handle your goods in this 
till of the shade desired. The ebony may previously be boiled in a 
bag to prevent it sticking to the sUk. 

Brown on Silk.— Dissolve annatto i lb., pearlash 4 lbs., in boiling 
water, and pass the silk through it for 2 hours, then take it out, 
squeeze it well and dry ; next give it a mordant of alum, and pass it 
first through a bath of Brazil-wood, and afterwards through a bath 
of logwood to which a little green copperas has been added, wring it 
out and dry, afterwards rinse well. 

Brown Drs on Cotton or Linen.— Give the pieces a mixed 
mordant of acetate of alumina and acetate of iron, and then dye them 
in a bath of madder, or madder and fustic, when the acetate of 
alumina predominates the dye has an amaranth tint. A cinnamon 
tint is obtained by first giving a mordant of alum, then a madder 
bath, then a bath of fustic, to which a little green copperas has been 
added. 

Mulberry on Silk. — For 5 lbs. of silk, use alum 1 lb. 4 ozs., dip 
50 mmutes, wash out, and make a dj^e with Brazil-wood 5 ozs., and 
logwood IJ ozs. by boiling together; dip in this J hour, then add more 
Brazil-wood and logwood, equal parts, mitil the color suits. 

Green Dye on Wool and Silk. — Equal quantities of yelloAv oak 
and hickory bark, make a i^trong yellow bath by boiling, shade to the 
desired tint by adding a small quantity of extract of indigo. 

Orange Dye. — ^For401bs of goods, use sugar of lead 2 lbs., boil 
15 minutes, when a little cool, enter the goods,' and dip for 2 hours, 
wring them out, make a fresh dye with bi-chromate of potasli, 4 lbs., 
madder 1 lb., immerse until of the desired color. The shade may be 
varied by dipping in lime water. 

Blue on Cotton. — For 40 lbs. of goods, use copperas 2 lbs., boil 
and dij) 20 minutes, then dip in soap suds, and return to the dye 3 or 
4 times ; then make a new bath with x)russiate of potash J lb., oil of 
vitriol 1^ pts. ; boil % hour, rmse out and dry. 

SOLFERINO AND MAGENTA DyES ON WhITE WOOLLEN, SilK, OR 

Cotton and Woollen Mixtures.— For 1 lb. of woollen goods, 
Magenta shade, 96 grs. apothecaries* weight, of aniline red, will be 
required ; dissolve in a little warm alcohol ; using say 6 fluid ozs. of 
alcohol, or about 6 gills alcohol per oz. of aniline. Many dyers use 
wood spirit because of its cheapness. For a Solferino shade, use 64 
grs. aniline red, dissolved in 4 ozs. alcohol, to each 1 lb. of goods. 
Cold water 1 eft. will dissolve these small quantities of aniline red, 
but the cleanest and quickest way will be foimd by using the alcohol, 
or wood spirit. Clean the cloth and goods by steeping at a gentle 
heat in weak soap suds, rinse in several messes of clean water and lay 
aside moist. The alcoholic solution of aniline is to be added from time 
to time to the warm or hot dye bath, till the color on the goods is of 
the desired shade. The goods are to be removed from the dye bath 
before each addition of the alcoholic solution, and the bath is to be 



140 DYERS AND BLEACHERS' RECEIPTS. 

well stirred before the goods are returned. The alcoholic solution 
should be first dropped iuto a little water, and well mixed, and tlio 
mixture should then be strained into the dye bath. If the color is 
not dark enough after working from 20 to 30 minutes, repeat the re- 
moval of tlie goods from the bath, and the addition of the solution, 
and the re-immersion of the goods from 15 to 30 minutes more, or un- 
til suited, then remove from the bath, and rinse in several messes of 
clean water, and dry in the shade. Use about 4 gals, water for dye- 
bath for 1 lb. of goods ; less water- for larger quantities. 

LiQTJiD Dye Coloks. — 1. Blue, Dilute S-axon blue or sulphate of 
indigo with water. If required for delicate work, neutralize with 
chalk. 2. Purple, Add a little alum to a stramed decoction of log- 
wood. 3. Green. Dissolve sap green in water and add a little alum. 
4. Yellow. Dissolve annatto in a weak lye of subcarbonate of soda or 
potash. 5. Golden color. Steep French berries in hot water, strain, 
and add a little gum and alum. 6. lied. Dissolve carmine in am- 
monia, or in weak carbonate of potash water, or infuse powdered 
cochineal m water, strain, and add a little gum in water. The pre- 
ceding colors, thickened with a little gum, may be used as inks in 
writing, or as colors to tint maps, foils, artificial flowers, &c., or to 
paint on velvet. 

To Cleakse Wool. — Make a hot bath composed of water 4 parts, 
urine 1 pait, enter the wool, teasing and openmg it out to admit the 
full action of the liquid ; after 20 minutes' immersion, remove from 
the liquid and allow it to drain, then rinse it in clean running water, 
and spread out to dry. The Liquid is good for subsequent operations, 
only keep' up the proportions, and use no soap. 

Stabch Lustre. — A portion of stearine, the size of an old-fashioned 
cent, added to starch h, half lb., and boiled with it for 2 or 3 minutes 
will add greatly to the beauty of linen, to which it may be applied. 
See also Starch Polish under "the Grocers* Department. 

To Dye Hats.— The hats should be at first strongly galled bv 
boiling them a long time in a decoction of galls with a little logwood, 
that the dye may penetrate the better into their substance ; after 
which a proper quantity of vitriol and decoction of logw^ood, with a 
little yerdigris, are added, and the hats continued in this mixture for 
a considerable time. They are afterwards put into a fresh liquor of 
logwood, galls, vitriol, and verdigris, and, when the hats are of great 
price, or of a hair which with difficulty takes the dye, the same pro- 
cess is repeated a third time. For obtaining the most perfect color, 
the hair or wool is dyed blue previously to its being formed into 
hats. 

Chestj^ut Brown on Straw Bonnets.— For 25 hats, use groimd 
Sanders IJ lbs., ground curcuma 2 lbs., powdered gall nuts, or sumac 2 
lb., rasped logwood ^L. Yo. Boil all together with the hats in a large 
kettle (so as not to crowd), for 2 hours, then withdraw the hats, rinse, 
and let them remain over night in a bath of nitrate of 4° Baume, when 
they are washed. A darker brown may be obtamed by increasing the 
quantity of sanders. To give the hats the desired lustre, they are 
brushed with a brush of dog's (couch) grass, when dry. 

Violet Dye on Straw Bonnets. — Take alum 4 lbs., tartaric 
acid 1 lb., chloride of tin 1 lb. Dissolve and boil, allow the hats to 



DYERS AND BLEACHERS' RECEIPTS. 141 

remain in tlie boiling solution 2 hours, then add as much of a decoction 
of logwood and carmine of indigo as is requisite to induce the desired 
shade, and lastly, rinse finally in water in which some alum has been 
dissolved. 

Silver Grey Dye on Straw.— For 25 hats, select your whitest hats 
and soften them in a bath of crystallized soda to which some clean 
lime water has been added. See " Lime water ** below. BoU for 2 
hours in a large vessel, using for a bath a decoction of the following, 
Tiz. : alum 4 lbs., tartaric acid § lb., some ammoniacal cochineal, and 
carmine of indigo ; a little sulphuric acid may be necessary in order to 
neutralize the all?:aii of the cochineal dye. If the last-mentioned 
ingredients are used, let the hats remain for an hour longer in the 
boiling bath, then rinse in slightly acidulated water. 

Levie Water For Dyers' Use.— Put stone lime 1 lb., and strong 
lime water IJ lbs. into a pail of water ; rummage well for 7 or 8 
minutes, thenlet it rest until the lime is precipitated and the water 
clear ; add this quantity to a tubf ul of clear water. 

Dark Steel Color. — Mix black and white wool together in the 
proportion of 50 lbs. of black wool to 7J lbs. of white. For large or 
small quantities keep the same proportion, mixing carefully and 
thoroughly. 

To Render Aniline Colo:;^ Soluble in Water.— A solution of 
gelatine in acetic acid of almost the consistence of syrups is first made, 
and the anilme in fine powder is gradually added, stirring all the time 
so as to make a homogeneous paste. The mixture is then to be heated 
over a water bath to the temperature of boHing water and kept at 
that heat for some time. 

Aniline Green on Silk.— Iodine green or night green dissolves 
easily in warm water. For a liquid dye, 1 lb. may be dissolved isa 1 
gal. alcohol, and mixed with 2 gals, water, containing 1 oz. sulphurie 
acid. 

To Dye Aniline Scarlet.— For every 40 lbs. of goods, dissolve 
5 lbs. white vitriol (sulphate of zinc) at 180^ Fah., place the goods 
into this bath for 10 minutes, then add the color, prepared by boiling 
for a few minutes, 1 lb. aniline scarlet in 3 gals, water, stirring the 
same continually. This solution has to be filtered before being add- 
ed to the bath. The goods remain in the latter for 15 minutes, when 
they have become browned and must be boiled for another half hour 
in the same bath after the addition of sal-ammoniac. The more of 
this is added the deeper will be the shade. 

Bismarck Brown for dyeing. — Mix together 1 lb. Bismarck, 5 

gals, water, and | lb. sulphuric acid. This paste dissolves easily in 
ot water and may be used directly for dyeing. A liquid dye may 
be prepared by making the bulk of the above mixture, to 2 gals, with 
alcohol. To dye vTith the above mixture, sour with sulphuric acid ; 
add a quantity of sulphate of soda, immerse the wool, and add the 
color by small portions, keeping the temperature under 212^ Fah. 
Very interesting shades may be developed by combining the color 
with indigo paste or picric acid. 

To Dye Wool with Aniline Green.— For wool, prepare two 
baths, one containing the dissolved dye and a quantity of carbonate 
of soda or borax. iS this the wool is placed, and the temperature is 
raised to 212° Fah. A greyish green is produced, which must be 



142 DYERS AND BLEACHERS' RECEIPTS. 

briglitened and fixed in a second "batli of water 100° Fah., to which 
some acetic acid lias "been added. Cotton requires prex^aration by 
sumac. 

Aniline Blue. — To 100 lbs. of fabric dissolve IJ lbs. aniline 
blue in 3 qts. hot alcohol ; strain through a filter and add it to a 
bath of 130° Fah. ; also 10 lbs. glauber salts, and 5 lbs. acetic acid. 
Enter the goods and handle them well for 20 minutes ; next heat it 
slowly to 200° Fah. ; then add 5 lbs. sulphuric acid diluted with water. 
Let tiie whole boil 20 minutes longer ; then rinse and dry. If the 
aniline be added in two or three proportions during the process of 
coloring, it will facilitate the evenness of the color. 

Aniline Red. — ^Enclose the aniline in a small muslin bag ; have a 
kettle (tin or brass) filled with moderately hot water and rub the sub- 
stance out. Then immerse the goods to be colored, and in a short 
time they are done. It improves the color to wring the goods out of 
strong soap suds before putting them in the dye. This is a permanent 
color on wool or silk. J 

Aniline Violet ant) PcnsrLE. — Acidulate the bath by sulphuric 
acid, or use sulphate of soda ; both these substances render the shade 
bluish. Dye at 212° Fah. To give a fair middle shade to 10 lbs. of 
wool, a quantity of solution equal to J to f ozs. of the solid dye will be 
requh-ed. The color of the dyed fabric is improved by washing in soap 
and water, and then passing through a bath soured by sulphuric acid. 

Aniline Black for Dyeing. — ^AVater 20 to 30 parts, chlorate of 
potassa 1 part ; sal-ammoniac 1 part ; chloride of copper 1 part ; 
aniline hydrochloric acid, of each 1 part, previously mixed together. 
It is essential that the preparation should be acid, and the more acid 
it is the more rapid will be the production of the blacks ; if too much 
so, it may injure the fabric. 

New Mordant for Aniline Colors.— Immerse the goods for 
some hours in a bath of cold Avater in which chloride or acetate of 
zinc has been dissolved imtil the solution shows 2° Baume ; for the 
wool the mordanting bath should be at a boiling heat, and the goods 
should also be placed in a warm bath of tannin, 90° Fah., for half an 
hour. In dyehig, a hot solution of the color must be used to which 
should be added, in the case of the cotton, some chloride of zinc, 
and, in the case of the wool, a certain amount of tannin solution. 

To Dye Aniline Yellow. — This color is slightly soluble in 
water, and for dyers' use may be used directly for the prei^ayation of 
the bath dye, but is best used by dissolving' 1 lb. of dye in 2 gals, 
alcohol. Temperature of bath should be under 200° Fah. The color 
is much improved and brightened by a trace of sulphuric acid. 

To Dye with Alkali Blue and Nicholson's Blue. — Dissolve 1 
lb. of the dye in 10 gals, boiling water, add this by small portions to 
the dye bath, which should be rendered alkaline by borax. The 
fabric should be well worked about between each addition of the 
color. The temperature must be kept imder 212° Fah. To develop 
the color, wash Avith water and pass through a bath containing sul- 
I)huric acid. t- ^ 

Aniline Brown Dy'e. — ^Dissolve 1 lb. of the brown m 2 gals, of 
spirit, specific gravity 8200, add a sufficient quantity to the dye bath, 
and immerse the fabric. Wool possesses a very strong affinity for 
this color and no mordant is required. 



DYERS AND BLEACHEKS' RECEIPTS. 143 

To Extract Oil SroTS fkom FI^^:sHED Goods. — Saturate tne spot 
with Lenzine, then place two pieces of very soft blotting paper under 
and two upon it, press avcU witli a hot iron, and the grease will he 
absorbed. 

To Preserve Goods ai^d Clothing from MiiiDEW. — Alum, 2 lbs. , 
dissolved in 60 lbs. water ; blue vitriol, 2 lbs., dissolved in 8 lbs. of 
water ; to which is added gelatine 1 lb., dissolved in 30 lbs. of water ; 
acetate of lead, J lb. dissolved m 30 lbs. of water. The solutions are 
all hot, and separately mixed, with the exception of the vitriol, w^hich 
is added. 

To Bleach Feathers. — Place the feathers from 3 to 4 hours in a 
tepid dilute solution of bi-chromate of potassa, to which, cautiously, 
some nitric acid has been added (a small quantity only). To remove 
a greenish hue induced by this solution, place them in a dilute so- 
lution of sulphuric acid, in water, whereby the feathers become 
perfectly white and bleached. 

To Clean Stratt Bonnets. — First, brush them with soap and 
water, then with a solution of oxalic acid. 

Crimson. — For 1 lb. of silk, alum, 3 oz. ; dip at hand-heat, 1 hour; 
take out and drain, while making a new dye, by boiling, 10 minutes, 
cochineal, 3 oz. ; brused nut-galls, 2 oz. ; and cream of tartar, J oz., in 
one pail of water; when a little cool, begin to dip, raising the heat to 
a boil, continuing, to dip 1 hour ; wash, and dry. 

CINNA3I0N OR Brown ON CoTTON AND SiLK. — Give the goods as 
much color, from a solution of blue vitriol, 2 oz., to water, one gal., as 
it will take up in dippmglo minutes; then run it through lime-water; 
this will make a beautiful sky-blue of miich durability ; it has now 
to be run through a solution of i)russiate of potash, 1 oz., to water, 
Igal. 

Aniline Black on Silk or Cotton. — ^Water, 20 to 30 parts, 
chlorate of potassa, 1 pait; sal-apamoniac, 1 part; chloride of copper, 
1 part; aniline, 1 part; and hydrocloric, 1 part; previously mixed 
together. The fabric or yarn is dried in ageing rooms at a low tem- 
perature for 24 hours, and washed afterwards. 

To Color Straw Hats or Bonnets a Beautiful Slate. — 
First, soak the bonnet in rather strong warm suds for 15 minutes to 
remove sizing or stiffening; then rinse in warm water, to get out the 
soap ; now scald cudbear, 1 oz. , in sufficient water to cover the hat or 
bonnet; work the bonnet in this dye, at 180° of heat, until you get a 
light-purple, now have a bucket of cold-water, blued witli the extract 
of indigo, Joz., and work or stir the bonnet m this, until the tmt 
pleases ; dry, then rinse out with cold water, and dry again in the 
shade. If you get the purple too deei> in shade the final slate will be 
too dark. 

To Clean Ostrich Feathers. — Cut some white curd soap in 
small pieces, pour boiling water on tliem and add a little pearl ash. 
When the soap is quite dissolved, and the mixture cool enough for 
the hand to bear, phmge the feathers into it, and draw them through 
the hand till the dirt appears squeezed out of them, pass them through 
a clean lather with some blue in it, then rinse them in cold water with 
blue to give them a good color. Beat them against the hand to shake 
off the water, and dry by shaking them near a fire. When perfectly 
dry, coil each fibre separately with a blunt knife, or ivory folder. 



144 DTEK3 AND BLEACHEKS' KECEIPTS. 

To Clean Fcks. — For dark furs; warm a quantity of new bran in 
a pan, taldng care that it does not burn, to prevent which, it must be 
briskly stirred. When well warmed rub it thoroughly into the fur 
with the hand. Repeat this two or three times, then shake the fur, 
and give it another sharp brushing until free from dust. For white 
furs; lay them on a table, and rub well with bran made moist with 
warm water, rub until quite dry, and afterwards with dry bran. The 
wet bran should be put on with flannel, then dry with book muslin. 
Light furs, in addition to the above, should be well rubbed with mag- 
nesia or a piece of book muslin, after the bran process, against tho 
way of the fur. 

Washing Fluid.— Take 1 lb. sal soda, -J lb. good stone lime, and 5 
qts. of water; boil a short time, let it settle, and pour oE the clear 
fluid into a stone jug, and cork for use; soak your white clothes over 
night in simple water, wring out and soap wristbands, collars, and 
diity or stained places ; have your boiler half filled with water just 
beginning to boil, then put in one common teacupf ul of fluid, stir and 
put in your clothes, and boil for half an hour, then rub lightly thi'ough 
one suds only, and aU is complete. 

Chip or Straw Hats or Bonnets may be dyed black by boiling 
them three or four hours in a strong liquor of logwood, adding a little 
copperas occasionally. Let the bonnets remain in the liquor all night ; 
then take out to dry in the air. If the black is not satisfactory, dye 
again after drying. Rub inside and out with a sponge moistened in 
fine oil; then block. Bed Dye. — Boil ground Brazil-wood in a ley of 
potash, and boil your straw hats, &c., in it. Blue Dye. — ^Take a suffi- 
cient quantity of potash ley, 1 lb. of litmus or lacmus, ground ; make 
a decoction and then put in the straw, and boil it. 

DrES FOR IL^TS. — ^The ordinary bath for dyemg hats, employed by 
the London manufactures, consists, for twelve dozen, of 144 lbs. of 
logwood ; 12 lbs. of green sulphate of iron or copperas ; 7J lbs. verdi- 
gris. The logwood having been introduced into the copper, and 
digested for some time, the copperas and verdigris are added in suc- 
cessive quantities, and in the above proportions, along with every 
successive two or three dozens of hats suspended npon the dripping 
machine. Each set of hats, after being exposed to the bath with 
occasional airings during forty minutes, is taken off the pegs, and laid 
out upon the ground to be more completely blackened by the peroxy- 
dizement of the iron with the atmospheric oxygen. In three or four 
hours, the dyeing is completed. When fully dyed, the hats are well 
washed in rmming water. 

Waterproof Stiffening for Hats. — Whl 18 lbs. of shellac with 
IJ lb. of salt of tartar (carbonate of potash), and 5^ gals, water. These 
materials are to be put in a kettle, and made to boil gradually till 
the lac is dissolved, when the liquid will become as clear as water, 
without any scum upon the top, and if left to cool, will have a thin 
crust upon the surface, of whitish cast, mixed with the light impuri- 
ties of the gum. When this skin is taken off, tho hat body is to bo 
dipped into the mixture in a cold state, so as to absorb as much as 
possible of it; or it may be applied with a brush or sponge. The hat 
body , being thus stiffened, may stand tni it becomes dry, or nearlyso ; and 
after it has been brushed, it must be immersed in very dilute sulphuric 
or acetic acid, in order to neutralize the potash, and cause the shellac 



DYERS AND BLEACHERS* RECEIPTSL 145 

to set. If the hats areiiot to bo napped immediately, they may be 
thrown into a cistern of pure water, and taken out as wanted. 

Method of Bleaching Stkaw. — Dip the straw in a solution of 
oxygenated muriatic acid, saturated with potash. (Oxygenated 
muriate of lime is much cheaper). The straw is thus rendered very 
Avhite, and its flexibility is increased. 

Bleaching Stkaw Goods.— Straw is bleached by simply exposmg 
it in a closed chamber to the fumes of burning sulx^hur, an old flour 
barrel is the apparatus most used for the purpose by milliners, a flat 
stone being laid on the ground, the sulphur ignited thereon, and the 
barrel confciining the goods to be bleached turned over it. The goods 
should be previously washed in pure water. 

Vakkish for faded Rubber Goods. — Black Japan varnish dilu- 
ted with a little linseed oil. 

To Bleach Linen. — Mix common bleaching-powder, in the pro- 
portion of 1 lb. to a gallon of water; stir it occasionally for three days, 
let it settle, and pour it off clear. Then make a ley of 1 lb. of soda to 
1 gallon of boiling soft water, in which soak the linen for 12 hours, 
and boil it half an hour ; next soak it in the bleaching liquor, made as 
above; and lastly, wash it in. the usual manner. Discolored linen or 
muslin may be restored by putting a portion of bleachmg liquor into 
the tub wherein the articles are soakmg. 

Dye for Feathers.— --S^acA; .* Immerse for 2 or 3 days in a bath, 
at first hot, of logwood, 8 parts, and copperas or acetate of iron, 
1 part. Blue : with the indigo vat. Broxon : by using any of the 
brown dyes for silk or woollen. Crimson : a mordant of alum, fol- 
lowed by a hot bath of Brazil wood, afterwards by a weak dye of 
cudbear. Pinlc or Rose: with saf-flower or lemon juice. Plum: 
with the red dye, followed by an alka,line bath. Bed : a mordant of 
alum, followed by a bath of Brazil-wood. Yelloiv : a mordant of 
alum, followed by a bath of turmeric or weld. Green Bye. Take of 
verdigris and verditer, of each 1 oz. ; gum water, 1 pt. ; mix them 
weU and dip the feathers, they having been first soaked in hot water, 
into the said mixture. For Purple, use lake and indigo. For Car- 
nation, vermilion and smalt. Thin gum or starch water should be 
used in dying feathers. 

Colors for Artu^icial Flowers. — The French employ velvet, 
fine cambric and Md for the petals, and taffeta for the leaves. Yery 
recently thin plates of bleached whalebone have been used for some 
portions of the artificial flowers. Colors and Stains. Blue. — Indigo 
dissolved in oil of vitriol, and the acid partly neutralized with salt of 
tartar or whiting. Green. — A solution of distilled verdigris. Lilac. — 
Liquid archil. Red. — Carmine dissolved in a solution of salt of tar- 
tT,r, or in spirits of hartshorn. Violet. — Liquid archil mixed with a 
little salt of tartar. Yelloio. — Tincture of turmeric, "^he colors are 
generally applied with the fingers. 

Black Varnish for Chip and Straw Hats. — Best alcohol, 
4 oz. ; pulverized black sealing-wax, 1 oz. ; put them into a phial, 
and i3ut the j^hial into a warm place, stirring or shaking occasionally 
until the wax is dissolved. Apply it when warm before the fire or 
in the sun. This makes a beautiful gloss. 

Easy jMethod of preventing Moths in Furs or Woollens. 
—Sprinkle the furs or woollen stuffs, as well as the drawers or boxes 

10 



146 DYERS AND BLEACHERS' RECEIPTS. 

in wliicli they are kept, with spirits of turpentine, the unpleasant 
scent of which will speedily evaporate on exposure of the stuffs to 
the air. Some persons place sheets of pai^er moistened with spirits 
of turpentine, over, under, or between pieces of cloth, &c., and find 
it a very effectual method. IMany woollen drapers put bits of cam- 
phor, the size of a nutmeg, in papers, on different i)arts of the shelves 
in their shops, and as they brush their cloths every two, three or four 
months, this keeps them free from moths : and this should be done 
in boxes where the furs, &c., are put. A tallow candle is frequently 
put within each muff when laid by. Snuff or pepper is very good. 

Clothing Renovator. — Soft water, 1 gal. ; make a strong decoc- 
tion of logwood by boiling the extract with the water. Strain, when 
cool, add 2 oz. gum arable in jDowder ; bottle, cork well, and set aside 
for use ; clean the coat well from grease and dirt, and apply the 
above liquid with a sponge evenly. Dilute to suit the color, and 
hang in the shade to dry ; afterwards brush the nap smooth, and it 
will look like new. 

Waterproof for Porous Cloth. — ^Dissolve % lbs. alum in 
4 gals, water ; dissolve also in a separate vessel the "same weight of 
acetate of lead in the same quantity of water. When both are well 
dissolved, mix the solutions together ; and, when the sulphate of lead 
resulting from this mixture has been precipitated to the bottom of 
the vessel in the form of a powder, pour off the solution, and plunge 
into it the fabric to be rendered waterproof. Wash and rub it well 
during a few minutes, and hang it in the air to dry. 

To Remove Grease. — Aqua ammonia, 2 oz. ; soft water, 1 quart ; 
saltpetre, 1 teaspoonful ; shaving soaj) in shavings, 1 oz. ; mix 
altogether ; dissolve the soap well, and auy grease or dirt that cannot 
be removed with this preparation, nothing else need be tried for it. 

Waterproofing for Clothing. — Boiled oil, 15 lbs. ; bees-wax, 

1 lb. ; ground litharge, 13 lbs. ; mix and ai^ply with a brush to the 
article, previously stretched against a wall or a table, previously well 
washing and drying each article before applying the composition. 

To Renew Old Silks. — Unravel and put them in a tub, cover 
theoi with cold water, let them remain one hour ; dip them up and 
down, but do not wring ; hang up to dram, and iron while very 
damp, and they will look beautiful. 

Dyes for Furs. — For hlacJc, use the iiair dye described in these 
receipts. Brown, use tincture of logwood. Eed^ ground Brazil- 
wood, J lb. ; water, IJ quarts ; cochineal, J oz. ; boil the Brazil-wood 
in the water one hour ; strain and add the cochineal ; boil fifteen 
minutes. Scarlet color, boil -J oz. saffron in J pint of water, and pass 
over the work before applying the red. Blue, logwood, 7 oz. ; blue 
vitriol, 1 oz. ; water, 22 oz. ; boil. Purple, logwood, 11 oz. ; alum, 
G oz. ; water, 29 oz. Green, strong vinegar, IJ pints ; best verdigris, 

2 oz. ; ground fine ; sap green, J oz. ; mix all together and boil. 
Potter's Invisible Waterproofing. — Imbue the cloth on the 

wrong side with a solution of isinglass, alum, and soap dissolved in 
water, forming an emulsion of a milky thickness ; apply with a 
brush, rubbing in well. When dry, it is brushed on the wrong side 
against the grain, and then gone over with a brush dipped in water • 
afterwards brushed down smooth. 
To raise a Nap on Cloth. — Clean the article weU : soak it in 



MEDICAL DEPARTMENT. 147 

cold water for half an hour ; put it on a board, and rub the thread- 
bare parts with a half -worn hatter's card filled with flocks, or with a 
teazle or a prickly thistle until a nap is raised ; then lay the nap the 
right way with a hatter's brush, and hang up to dry. 

Black Reviver for Cloth. — Bruised galls, 1 lb. ; logwood, 
2 lbs. ; green vitriol, J lb. ; water, 5 quarts ; boil two hours ; strain, 
and it is ready for use. 



MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, &c. 

Rules for Action, very Short but very Safe.— In health 
and disease endeavor always to live on the sunny side. Sir James 
Wylie, late physician to the Emperor of Russia, remarked during 
long observation in the hospitals of that country, that the cases of death 
occarring in rooms averted from the light of the sun, were four times 
more numerous than the fatal cases in the rooms exposed to the di- 
rect action of the solar rays. When poison is swallowed, a good off- 
hand remedy* is to mix salt and mustard, 1 heaped teaspoonful of 
each, in a glass of water and drink immediately. It is quick in its 
operation. Then give the whites of 2 eggs in a cup of coffee, or the 
eggs alone if coffee cannot be had. For acid poisons give acids. In 
cases of opium poisoning, give strong coffee and keep moving. 
For light bums or scalds, &p the part m cold water or in flour, if the 
skm is destroyed, cover with varnish. If you fall into the water, float 
on the back, with the nose and mouth projecting. For apoplexy, 
raise the head and body ; for fainting, lay the person flat. Suck iDois- 
oned wounds, unless your mouth is sore, Enlarge the wound, or better 
cut out the part without delay, cauterize it with caustic, the end of a 
cigar or a hot coal. If an artery is cut, compress above the wound; if 
a vein is cut, compress below. If choked, get upon all-fours and 
cough. Before passiug through smoke take a full breath, stoop low, 
then go ahead ; but if you fear carbonic acid gas, walk erect and be 
careful. Smother a fire with blankets or carpets ; water tends to spread 
burning oil and increase the danger. Remove dust from the eyes 
by dashing water mto them, and avoid rubbing. Remove cinders, &c., 
with a soft, smooth wooden point. Preserve health and avoid catching 
cold, by regular diet, healthy food and cleanliness. Sir Astley Cooper 
said: " The methods by which I have preserved my own health, are 
temperance, early rising, and sponging the body every morning with 
cold water, immediately after getting out of bed ; a practice which I 
have adopted for 30 years Avithout ever catchiug cold." Water di^ 
luted with 2 per cent, of carbolic acid will disinfect any room or build- 
ing, if liberally used as a sprinkle. Diphtheria can be cured by a gar- 
gle of lemon juice, swallowing a little so as to reach all the affected 
parts. To avert cold from the feet, wear two pairs of stockings made 
from different fabrics, one pair of cotton or silk, the other of wool, and 
the natural heat of the feet will be preserved if the feet are kept clean. 
In arranging sleeping rooms the soundest and most refreshing slum- 
ber will be enjoyed when the head is towards the north. Late lioura 



148 MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. 

and anxious pursuits exhaust vitality, producing disease and i)rem- 
ature death, therefore the hours of labour and study should be short. 
Take abundant exercise and recreation. Be moderate in eating and 
drinking, using simple and plain diet avoiding strong drink, tobacco, 
snuff, opium and every excess. Keep the body warm, the temper 
calm, serene and placid ; shim idleness ; if your hands cannot be Use- 
fully employed, attend to the cultivation of your minds. ¥ov pure 
health givmg fresh air, go to the country. Dr. Stockton Hough as- 
serts that if all the inliabitants of the world were living in cities of the 
magnitude of London, the human race would become extinct m a 
century or two. The mean average of human life in the United States 
is 39^ years, while in New York and Philadelphia it is only 23 years ; 
about 50 per cent, of the deaths in these cities being of children un- 
der five years of age. A great percentage of this excessive mortality 
is caused by bad air and bad food. 

To ASCEKTAiN THE State OF TiiE LuNGS. — ^Draw in as mucli 
breath as you conveniently can, then count as long as possible m a 
slow and audible voice without drawing in more breath. The number 
of seconds must be carefully noted. In a consumptive the time does 
not exceed 10, and is frequently less than G seconds ; in pleurisy and 
imeumonia it ranges from 9 to 4 seconds. When the lungs are somid 
the time wiU range as high as from 20 to 35 seconds. To exx^and 
the lungs, go into the air, stand erect, throw back the head and 
shoulders, and draw in the air through the nostrils as much as possible. 

After having then filled the lungs, raise your arms, still extended, 
and suck in the air. When you have thus forced the arms backward, 
with the chest open, change the process by which you draw in your 
breath, till tlie lungs are emptied. Go through the process several 
times a day, and it will enlarge the chest, give the lungs better play, 
and serve very much to Avard off consumption. 

Remedy for Neuralgia. — Hypophosphite of soda taken in 1 
dram doses 3 times per day in beef tea is a good remedy for this 
painful affection. So is the application of bruised horse-radish, or 
the application of oil of peppermint applied lightly with a camel hair 
pencil. 

Remedy for Headache. — A Parisian physician has published a 
new remedy for headaches. He uses a mixture of ice and salt, in 
proportion of one to one-half, as a cold mixture, and this he appUes 
by means of a little purse of silk gauze, with a rim of gutta percha, to 
limited spots on the head, when rheumatic headaches are felt. It 
gives instantaneous relief. The application is from J minute to IJ 
minu tes, and the skin is rendered white and hard by the app lications. 

To Cure a Cold. — Before retiring soak the feet in mustard water 
as hot as can be endured, the feet should at first be plunged in a pail 
half full of lukewarm water, adding by degrees very hot wAter until 
the desired heat is attained, protecting the body and knees with 
blankets so to direct the vapor from the water as to induce a good 
sweat. Next, to 2 table spoonfuls of boihng water, add 1 table spoonful 
of white sugar and 14 drops of strong spirits of camphor. Drink the 
whole and cuddle in bed under x)lenty of bedclothes and sleep it off. 

Remedy for Consuiviption. — The following is said to be an effectual 
rem.edy, and will in time completely cure the disorder. Live temper- 
ately, avoid spirituous liquors, wear flannel next the skin, and take, 



MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. 149 

every morning, half a pint of new milk, mixed with a wine glassful 
of the expressed juice of green horehound. One who has tried it says, 
*' Four weeks' use of the horehound and milk relieved thei^ains of my 
breast, gave me ability to breathe deep, long and free, strengthened 
and harmonized my voice and restored ine to a better state of health 
than I had enjoyed for years." 

Trichina is the term ai^plied to a minute, slender, and transparent 
worm, scarcely l-20th of an inch in length, which has recently been 
discovered to exist naturally in the muscles of swine, and is frequently 
transferred to the human stomach when pork is used as food. Enough 
of these filthy parasites have been detected in half a pound of pork 
to engender 30,000,000 more, the females bemg very prolific, each giv- 
ing birth to from 60 to 100 young, and dying soon after. The young 
thread-like worm at first ranges freely through the stomach and in- 
testines, remaining for a short time within the lining membrane of the 
intestines, causing irritation, diarrhoea, and sometimes death, if 
present in sufficient numbers. As they become stronger, they begin 
to penetrate the walls of the intestines in order to effect a lodgment in 
the voluntary muscles, causing intense muscular pain and severe en- 
during cramps, and sometimes tetanic symptons. After 4 weeks migra- 
tion they encyst themselves permanently on the muscular fibre, and 
begin to secrete a dehcate sac which gradually becomes calcareous. 
In'this torpid state they remain during the person's lifetime. 

Remedy for Diththeria. — The treatment consists in thoroughly 
swabbing the back of the mouth and throat with a wash made thus : 
Table salt, 2 drams ; black pepper, golden seal, nitrate of potash, 
alum, 1 dram each ; mix and pulverize ; put into a teacup half full of 
water ; stir well, and then fill up with good vinegar. Use every half 
hour, one, two, and four hours, as recovery i:)rogresses. The patient 
may swallow a httle each time. Apply 1 oz. each of spirits turpentine, 
sweet oil, and aqua-ammonia, mixed, every hour to the whole of the 
throat, and to the breast bone every four hours, keeping flannel to 
the part. 

Hollo way's Ointiment and PrLiiS. — Butter, 22 oz. ; beeswax, 3 
oz. ; yellow rosin, 3 oz. ; melt ; add vinegar of cantharides, 1 oz. ; 
evaporate ; and add Canada balsam, 1 oz. ; oil of mace, J dram ; 
balsam of Peru, 15 drops. Pills : Aloes, 4 parts ; myrrh, jalap, and 
ginger, of each 2 parts ; mucilage to mix. 

Abernethy's PiiiLS. — Each pill contains 2 grains of blue piU and 
3 grains compound extract of colocynth. 

Worm Lozenges. — Powdered lump sugar, 10 oz. ; starcn 5 oz. ; 
mix with mucilage ; and to every ounce add 12 grains calomel ; 
divide in 20 grain lozenges. Dose, two to six. 

Soothing Syrup. — Alcohol, oil of i^eppermint, castor oil, of each, 
1 oz. ; mix ; add oil of anise, ^ dram ; magnesia, 60 grains ; pulve- 
rized ginger, 40 grains ; water, 2 oz. ; white sugar to form a syrup. 

Soothing Syrup. — Take 1 lb. of honey ; add 2 tablespoonfuls of 
])aregoric, and the same of oil of anise seed ; add enough water to 
make a thick syrup, and bottle. For children teething, dose, tea- 
spoonful occasionally. 

Infant's Syrup.— The syrup is made thus : 1 lb. best box raisins ; 
\ ounce of anise seed ; two sticks licorice ; spUt the raisins, pound the 
anise seed, and cut the licorice fine ; add to it 3 quarts of rain water, 



150 MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. 

and boil down to 2 quarts. Feed three or four times a day, as much 
as the child will willingly drink. The raisins strengthen, the anise 
expels the wind, and the licorice is a physic. 

Brandreth's Pills. — Take 2 lbs. of aloes, 1 lb. of gamboge, 4 oz. 
of extract of colocynth, J lb. of Castile soap, 3 fluid drams of oU of 
peppermint, and 1 fluid dram of cinnamon. Mix, and form into 
pills. 

Davis' Pain Killer I^iproved.— Powdered guaiac 20 lbs. ; cam- 
phor, 2 lbs. ; powdered cayenne pepper, 6 lbs. ; caustic liquor of 
ammonia, 1 lb. ; powdered opium, J lb. ; digest these ingredients in 
32 gals, alcohol for two weete, and filter. 

CoiviPOUND Syrup of Hypophosphites and Iron. — Dissolve 25G 
grs. each of hypophosphites of soda, lime and potassa, and 126 grs. 
hj^opliosphite of iron, in 12 oz. water, by a water bath. Filter and 
add sufficient water to make up for the evaporation. Add 18 ozs. 
sugar by gentle heat, to make 21 fluid ozs. syrup. Each fluid oz. con- 
tains 12 grs. each of the hypophosphites of soda, lime and potassa, and 
six grs. hypophosphite of iron. 

CcTEE YOB. Drunkenness. — Warranted a certain Remedy. Confine 
the patient to his room, furnish him with his favorite liquor of dis- 
cretion, diluted with § of water, as much wine, beer, coffee and tea as 
he desires, but containing J of spirit ; aU the food — the bread, meat 
and vegetables steeped in spirit and water. On the fifth day of this 
treatment he has an extreme disgust for spirit, being continually 
drunk. Keep up this treatment tUl he no longer desires to eat or 
drink, and the cure is certain. 

Fahnestock's VER^^FUGE. — Castor oil, oil of worm seed, each 1 
oz. ; oil anise, J oz. ; tincture myrrh, ^ dram ; oil turpentine, 10 
minims. Mix. 

Swaum's Vermifuge. — ^Wormseed, 2 oz. ; valerian, rhubarb, pink- 
root, white agaric, of each 1 J oz. ; boil in suflicient water to yield 3 
quarts of decoction ; and add to it 10 drops of oil of tansy and 45 
drops of oil of cloves, dissolved in a quart of rectified spirits. Dose, 

1 tablespoonful at niglit. 

Ayer's Cherry Pectoral. — Take 4 grains of acetate of morphia ; 

2 fluid drams of tincture of bloodroot ; 3 fluid drams each of anti- 
monial wine and wine of ipecacuanha, and 3 fluid oz. of syrup of 
wild cherry. Mix. 

Spasms. — Acetate of morphia, 1 gr. spirit of sal volatile, 1 oz. sul- 
phuric ether, 1 oz. camphor julep, 4 ozs. Mix. Dose, 1 teaspoonful 
in a glass of cold water, or wine, as required. Keep closely corked, 
and shake well before using. 

Rad way's Ready Relief. — According to Peckolt, is an ethereal 
tmcture of capsicum, with alcohol and camphor. 

Radway's Renovating Resolvent. — A vinous tincture of ginger 
and cardamon, sweetened with sugar. 

Ayer's Sarsaparilla. — Take 3 fluid ozs. each of alcohol, fluid 
extracts of sarsparilla and of stillingia ; 2 fluid ozs. each, extract of 
yeUow-dock and of podophyllin, 1 oz. sugar, 90 grs. iodide of 
potassium, and 10 grs. iodide of iron. 

Brown's Bronchial Troches.— Take 1 lb. of pulverized extract 
of licorice : IJ lb. of pulverized sugar ; 4 oz. of pulverized cubebs ; 
4 oz. pulverized gum arable ; 1 oz. of pulverized extract conium. Mix. 



MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. 151 

Russia Salve.— Take equal parts of yellow wax and sweet oil ; 
melt slowly, carefully stirriug ; when cooling, stir in a small quantity 
of glycerine. Good for all kinds of wounds, &c. 

Dentists' Coiviposition for Filling Decayed Teeth.— Gold, 1 
part ; mercury, 8 parts ; incorporated by heating together ; when 
mixed pour them into cold water. Or, tinfoil and quicksilver ; melt 
together in a convenient vessel, take a small quantity, koead it in the 
palm of the hand, and apply quick. Or, mix a little finely-powdered 
glass with some mineral succedaneum ; apply as usual. Or, take 
some mineral succedaneum, and add some steel dust. Or, mineral 
succedaneum mixed with levigated porcelain or china. Or, gypsum, 
1 part ; levigated porcelain, 1 part ; levigated iron filings, 1 part ; 
make into a paste with equal parts of quick-drying copal and mastic 
varnish. Or, quicksilver, 40 grains ; steel filings, 26 grains. Or, sil- 
ver, 72 parts ; tin, 20 parts ; zinc, 6 parts. Better than any, pure 
gold, 1 part ; silver, 3 parts ; tin, 2 parts ; melt the first two, add the 
tin, reduce aU to a fine powder, use with an equal quantity of pure 
mercury. 

Gutta-percha, softened by heat, is recommended. Dr. RoUfs ad- 
vises melting a piece of caoutchouc at the end of a wire, and intro- 
ducing it while warm. 

Amalgams for the teeth are made with gold or silver, and quick- 
silver, the excess of the latter being squeezed out, and the stiff amal- 
gam used warm. Inferior kinds are made with quicksilver and tin, 
or zinc. A popular nostrum of this kind consists of 40 grains of 
quicksilver and 20 of fine zinc filmgs, mixed at the time of using. 
The following is said to be the most lasting and least objectionable 
amalgam : Melt 2 parts of tin with 1 of cadmium, run it into an in- 
got, and reduce it to filings. Form these into a fluid amalgam with 
mercury, and squeeze out the excess of mercury through leather. 
Work up the solid residue in the hand, and press it into the tooth. 
Another cement consists of about 73 parts of silver, 21 of tin, and 6 
of zinc, amalgamated with quicksilver. Beyond all doubt, gold foil 
is the best filling in use. 

Poudre Metallique. — The article sold under this name in Paris 
appears to be an amalgam of silver, mercury, and ammonium, with 
an excess of mercury, which is pressed out before using it. 

To Extract Teeth with little or no Pain. — Tincture of aco- 
nite, chloroform, and alcohol, of each 1 oz. ; mix ; moisten two pled- 
gets of cotton with the liquid, and apply to the gums on each side of 
Sie tooth to be extracted, holding them in their place with pliers or 
other instruments for from five to ten minutes, rubbing the giim free- 
ly inside and out. 

Tooth Wash— To Remove Blackness.— Pure muriatic acid, 1 oz. ; 
water, 1 oz. ; honey, 2 oz. ; mis. Take a tooth-brush, and wet it 
freely with this i^reparation, and briskly rub the black teeth, and in 
a moment's time they wUl be perfectly white ; then immediately 
wash out the mouth with water, that the acid may not act upon the 
enamel of tlie teeth. 

Dentists* Nerve Paste. — Arsenic, 1 part; rose pink, 2 parts. To 
destroy the nerve, apply this preparation on a pledget of cotton, pre- 
viously moistened with creosote, to the cavity of the tooth, let it re- 
main 4 hours, then wash out thoroughly with water. AnotJier,-^ 



152 MEDICAL DErARTMENT, ETC. 

Arsenous acid, 30 grs. ; acetate of morpMa, 20 grs. ; creosote, q. s. for 
paste. Mix. 

Alloys fob Dentist' s Moulds and Dies. — 1. Tin, very hard. — ^Tiii, 
16 parts; antimony, 1 part; zinc, 1 part; 2. Tin, softer than the last. 
Tin, 8 parts; zinc, 1 part; antimony, 1 part; 3. Copper Alloy, very 
hard. — Tin, 12 parts; antimony, 2 parts; copper, 1 part; 4. Cadmium 
Alloy, about the hardness of zinc. — Tin, 10 parts; antimony, 1 part; 
cadmium, 1 i)art. 

De^s^tists' Emery Wheels. — ^Emery, 4 lbs. ; shellac, \ lb. ; melt 
the shellac over a slow fire ; stir in the emery, and ponr into a mould 
of plaster of Paris. When cold it is ready for use. 

Base for Artificial Teeth. — Proportions. — ^India-rubber, 1 
lb. ; sulphur, | lb. ; yermillion, 1 lb. 4 oz. 

Nitrous Oxide, or Laughing Gas. — Take two or three ounces of 
nitrate of ammonia in crystals and put it into a retort, taking cara 
that the heat does not exceed 500° ; when the crystals begin to melt, 
the gas wiU be produced in considerable quantities. The gas may 
also be procured, though not so pure, by pouring nitric acid, diluted 
with five or six times its weight of water, on copper filuigs or smaU 
pieces of tin. The gas is given out till the acid begins to turn brown ; 
the process must then be stopped 

To Inhale the Laughing Gas. — Procure an oiled or varnished 
silk bag, or a bladder, furnished with a stop-cock, into the mouth, and 
at the same time hold the nostrils, and the sensation produced will be 
of a highly pleasing nature ; a great propensity to laughter, a rapid 
flow of vivid ideas, and an unusual fitness for muscular exertion, are 
the ordinary feelings which it produces. The sensations, produced by 
breathing this gas, are not the same m all persons, but they are of an 
agreeable nature, and not followed by any depression of spirits like 
those occasioned by fermented liquors. 

Magnetic Pain Killer, for Toothache and Acute Pain.— Lau- 
dnum 1 dr. gum camphor 4 drs. oil of cloves J dr. oil of lavender 1 dr. 
add then to 1 oz. alcohol, 6 drs. sulphuric ether, and 5 fluid drs. 
chloroform. Apply with Unt, or for toothache rub on the gums, and 
upon the face against the teeth. 

Cure for Lock Jaw, said to be positiv^e. — Let any one who has 
an attack of lock jaw take a small quantity of spirits of turpentine, 
warm it, and pour it on the wound — ^no matter where the womid is, or 
what its nature is — ^and relief will follow in less than one minute. 
Turpentine is also a sovereign remedy for croup. Saturate a piece of 
flannel with it, and place the flannel on the throat and chest — and in 
very severe cases three to five drops on a lumx) of sugar may be 
taken internally. 

New Method op Ejubalishng.— Mix together 5 ix>unds diy sul- 
phate of alumine, 1 quart of warm water, and 100 grains of arsenious 
acid. Inject 3 or 4 quarts of this mixture into all the vessels of the 
human body. This applies as weU to all animals, birds, fishes, &c. 
This process supersedes the old and revolting mode, and has been in- 
troduced into the great anatomical schools of Paris. 

Nitrate of Silver. — Pure silver, IJ oz. ; nitric acid, 1 oz. diluted 
with Avater, 2 oz. ; heat by a sand-l3atli until ebullition ceases, and 
the water is expeUed then pour into moulds. This substanee must 
be kept from the light. 



MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC 153 

Clifford's Shampoo Compound.— Mix borax J lb. with salts tar- 
tar I lb. aud dissolve 1 oz. of the mixture in 1 pt. water. 

Clifford's Hair Dye.— No 1. Pyrogallic acid 1 oz. ; water 1 qt. 
No 2. Nitrate of silver 1 oz. ; water 4 ozs. ; ammonia 1 oz. Keep 
your materials free from grease, cool, and m the dark. Apply each 
No. alternately to the hair, first cleaning the hair well. 

Bay Rcnvi. — French proof spirit 1 gal. ext. Bay 6 ozs. Mix and color 
with caramel, needs no filtering. 

Hair Invigorator. — Bay rum, 2 pints ; alcohol, 1 pint ; castoi 
oil, 1 oz. ; carb. ammonia, J oz. ; tincture of cantharides, 1 oz. Mb 
them well. This compound will promote the growth of the hair, 
and prevent it from falling out. 

Razor-Strop Paste.— Wet the strop with a little sweet oil, and 
ax")ply a little flour of emery evenly over the surface. 

Oil of Roses.— Olive oil, 1 lb. ; otto of roses, 50 drops ; oil of 
rosemary, 25 drops; mix. Another, roses (liardly opened) 12 oz.; 
olive oil, 10 oz., beat them together in a mortar ; let them remain 
lor a few days, then express the oil. 

Balm of Beauty.— Pure soft water, 1 qt. ; pulverized Castile 
soap, 4 oz. ; emulsion of bitter almonds, 6 oz. ; rose and orange 
flower water, of each, 8 oz. ; tincture of benzoin, 2 drs. ; borax, 1 
dr. ; add 5 grs. bichloride of mercury to every 8 oz. of the mix- 
ture. To use, apply on a cotton or linen cloth to the face, &c. 

Orie]!^tal Cold Cream. — Oil of almonds, 4 oz, ; white wax and 
spermaceti, of each, 2 drs. ; melt, and add rose water, 4 oz. ; orange 
flower water, 1 oz. ; used to soften the skin, apply as the last. 

Shavijjg Cream.— White wax, spermaceti, almond and oil, of 
each J oz. : melt, and while warm, beat in 2 squares of Windsor 
soai) previously reduced to a paste with rose water. 

Circassian Cream. — Take 2 ounces of perfectly fresh suet, either 
mutton or venison ; 3 oimces of olive oil ; 1 oz. gum benzoine in 
powder, and J oz. of alkanet root. Put the whole into a jam jar, 
which, if without a lid, must be tied over with a bladder, and place 
the jar in a sauce i^an containing boiling water, at the side of the 
fire. Digest for a whole day, then stram away all that is fluid 
through fine muslin, and stir till nearly cold. Add, say 1 dram of 
essence of almonds, roses, bergamot or any other perfume desired. 

Freckle Cure. — Take 2 oz. lemon juice, or half a dram of 
powdered borax, and one dram of sugar ; mix together, and let 
them stand in a glass bottle for a few days, then rub on the face 
occasionally. 

Yankee Shaving Soap. — Take 3 lbs. white bar soap; 1 lb. Castile 
soap; 1 quart rain water; ^ pt. beef's gall; 1 gill spirits of turpen- 
tine. Cut the soap into thin slices, and boil five minutes after the 
soap is dissolved, stir while boiling ; scent with oil of rose or 
almonds. If wished to color it, use J oz vermilion. 

Bloom of Youth. — Boil 1 ounce of Brazil wood in 3 pints of 
water for 15 minutes ; strain. Add | oz. isinglass, J oz. cocld- 
neal, 1 oz. alum, J oz. borax. Dissolve by heat, and strain. 

Cologne Water. — Oils of rosemary and lemon, of each J oz. ; 
oils of bergamot and lavender, each | oz. ; oil cinnamon, 8 drops ; 
oils of cloves and rose, each 15 drops ; best deodorized alcohol, 2 qts. ; 
shake two or three times per day for a week. 



154: MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC 

We propose to give the formula for the following preparations, 
and shall commence with what is said to be 

BoGLE*s Hyperion Fluid. — To 8 oz. of 90 or 95 per cent, alcohol, 
colored red with allfanet, add 1 oz. of castor oil ; perfume witii 
geranium and verbena. 

Lyon's Kathairon. — To 8 oz. of 80 per cent, alcohol, colored 
yellow by a few drops extract of annatto, add 2 oz. castor oil, and 
perfume with a little bergamot. 

Phalon's Haik Restorative.— To 8 oz. of 90 per cent, alcohol, 
colored by a few drops tincture of alkanet root, add 1 oz. of cas- 
tor oil, and perfume with a compound of bergamot, neroli, verbena, 
and orange. 

Mrs. Allen's. — To 16 oz. of rose water, diluted with an equal 
part of salt water, add ^ oz. of sulphur and i oz. of sugar of lead ; 
let the compound stand five days before using. 

Batchelor's Hair-Dye. — No. 1. Tol oz. of i:>yro-gallic acid, dis- 
solved in 1 oz. alcoliol, add 1 qt. of soft water. No. 2. To 1 oz. nitrate 
of silver, dissolved in 1 oz. of concentrated ammonia, add 4 oz. of 
soft water. Apply each No. alternately, with separate brushes, to the 
liair. 

Christadoro's Hair-Dye. — No. 1. To 1 oz. of pyro-gallic acid, dis- 
solved in 1 oz. alcohol, add 1 qt. soft water. No. 2. To 1 oz. crj's- 
tallized nitrate of silver, dissolved in 1 oz. concentrated aqua- 
ammonia and 1 oz. soft water, add J oz. gum arable and 3 oz. soft 
Tvater. Keep covered from the light 

Phalon's Instantaneous Hair-Dye. — No. 1. To 1. oz. pyro- 
gallic acid, and J oz. of tannia, dissolved in 2 oz. of alcohol, add 1 qt. 
of soft water. No. 2. To 1 oz. crystallized nitrate of silver, dissolved 
in 1 oz. concentrated aqua-ammonia, add 1 oz. gum arable, and 11 
©z. soft water. Keep in the dark. 

Harrison's. — No. 1. To 1 oz. pyro-gallic acid, 1 oz. of tannia dis- 
solved in 2 oz. alcohol, add 1 qt. soft water. No. 2. To 1 oz. crys- 
tallized nitrate of silver, dissolved in 1 oz. of concentrated aqua- 
ammonia, add 5 oz. soft water and J oz. gum arable. No. 3. 1 oz. 
liydro-sulphate of potassa, dissolved in 1 qt. of soft water. This 
last ingredient is intended to produce a deep black color if the 
others should fail. Keep away from the light. 

Phalon's (One Preparation.) — To 1 oz. crystallized nitrate of 
silver, dissolved in 2 oz. of aqua-ammonia, add 5 oz. soft water. 
Tills is not an instantaneous dye ; but after exposure to the light 
and air, a dark color is i^roduced upon the surface to which it 
is applied. Remember to remove all grease, &c., from the hair before 
applj'ing these dyes. 

Professor Wood's. — To 8 oz. vinegar, diluted with an equal 
X)art of soft water, add 2 drs. sulphur, and 2 drs. sugar of lead. 

Alpine Hair-Balm. — To 16 oz. of soft water add 8 oz. of alcohol 
and 4 oz. spirits turpentine, J oz. sulphur, and J oz, sugar of lead. 

Glycerine Preparation. — New rum, 1 qt. ; concentrated spirits 
of ammonia, 15 drops ; glycerine oil, 1 oz. ; lac sulphur, 5^ drs. ; 
sugar of lead, 5^ drs. ; put the liquor into a bottle, add the ammonia, 
then the other components. Shake the compound occasionally for 
lour or five days. 

Crystalline Cre^ui.— Oil of almonds, 8 oz. ; spermaceti, 1 oz. ; 



MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. 155 

melt together. "When a little cooled, add J oz. or less of essence of 
bergamot or other perfume ; put into wide-mouthed bottles, and let 
it stand till cold. Camphorated crystalline cream may be made by 
using camphorated oil (i, CamphorcB) instead of oil of almonds. 

Macassar Oil. — Olive oil, 1 qt. ; alcohol, 2^ oz. ; rose oil, IJ oz. ; 
then tie 1 oz. of chiiDjped alkanet root in a muslin bag, and put it in 
the oil, let it alone for some days till it turns the color of a pretty 
red, then remove to other oils. Do not press it. 

Ox Marrow.— Melt 4 oz. ox tallow ; white wax, 1 oz. ; fresh lard, 
C oz. ; when cold, add IJ oz. oil of bergamot. 

Bears' Oil. — ^tjse good sweet lard oil, 1 qt. ; oil bergamot, IJ oz. 

Extract of Patchouli. — Mix IJ oz. ottur of Patchouli, and i oz. 
otto of rose, with 1 gal. rectified spirits. 

Sea Foam for Barbers. — Alcohol, 4 oz. ; castor oil, 1 oz. ; am- 
monia, J oz. ; water, 1 pt. Dissolve the castor oil and ammoma in 
the alcohol, then add the alcohol mixture to the water. 

Pyrogallic Hair Dye. — Pyrogallic acid, J oz. ; dissolve it m liot 
distilled water 1 J oz. ; when the solution cools add gradually rectified 
spirit, J fluid oz. 

Fene'Shaimpoo Liquid. — ^Dissolve J oz. carb. of ammonia and 1 oz, 
of borax in 1 qt. water, then add 2 oz. glycerine, 3 qts. of New Eng- 
land rum, and 1 qt. of bay rum ; moisten the hair with this liquor, 
shampoo with the hands until a slight lather is formed, then wash 
off with clean water. 

Barber's Sh.uipoo Mixture. — Soft water, 1 pt. ; sal soda, 1 oz. ; 
cream tartar, i oz. Apply thoroughly to the hair. 

Cheap Bay Ruivl— Saturate a i lb. block of carb. of magnesia 
with oil of Bay ; pulverize the m.agnesia, place it m a filter, and pour 
water through it until the desired quantity is obtained, then add 
alcohol. The quantity of water and alcohol employed depends on 
the desired strength and quantity of the Bay rum. Another — Oil of 
Bay, 10 fluid drs. ; oil of pimento, 1 fluid dr. ; acetic ether, 2 fluid 
di's. ; alcohol 3 gals. ; water, 2h gals. Mix, and after 2 weeks' repose, 
filter. 

Liquid forForcixg the Beard. — Cologne, 2 oz. ; liquid hartshorn, 
1 dr. ; tinct. cantharides, 2 drs. ; oil rosemary, 12 drops ; lavender, 
12 drops. Apply to the face daily and await results. Said to be 
reliable. 

Court Plaster. — Brush silk over with a solution of isinglass, in 
spirits or warm water, dry and repeat several times. For the last 
application apply several coats of balsam of Peru. Used to close 
cuts or wounds j by warming it and ai)plyuig. It does not wash 
off until the skin partially heals. 

Balm of a Thousand Flowers. — Deodorized alcohol, Ipt. ; nice 
white bar soap, 4 oz. ; shave the soap when put in, stand in a warm 
place till dissolved ; then add oil of citronella, 1 dr., and oils of 
neroli and rosemary, of each J dr. 

New York Barbers' Star Hair Oil.— Caster oilG^ pts. ; alcohol, 
IJ pts. ; citronella and lavender oil, each J oz. 

"Frangipanxi. — Spirits, 1 gal. ; oil bergamot, 1 oz. ; oil of lemon, 
1 oz. ; macerate for 4 days, frequently shaking ; then add water, 1 
gal. ; orange-flower water, 1 pint, essence of vanilla, 2 oz. Mix. 

Jockey Club.— Spirits of wine, 5 gaL ; orange-flower water, 1 



156 MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. 

gaL ; "balsam of Peru, 4 oz. ; essence of bergamot, 8 oz. ; essence 
of musk, 8 oz. ; essence of cloves, 4 oz. ; essence of neroli, 2 oz. 

Ladies' Own. — Spirits of wine, 1 gal. ; otto of roses, 20 drops ; 
essence of thyme, J oz. ; essence of neroli, J oz. ; essence of vanilla, 
4 oz. ; essence of bergamot, J oz. ; orange-flower water, 6 oz. 

Kiss me Quick. — Spirit, 1 gal. ; essence of thyme, J oz. ; essence 
of orange-flowers, 2 oz. ; essence neroli, J oz. ; otto of roses, SO drops ; 
essence of jasmine, 1 oz. ; essence of balm mint J oz. ; petals of roses. 
4 oz. ; oil lemon, 20 drops ; calorus aromaticus, J oz. ; essence neroli, t 
oz. Mix and strain. 

Upper Tek. — Spirits of wine, 4 qts. ; essence of cedrat, 2 drs. ; 
essence of violets, J oz. ; essence of neroli, J oz. ; otto of roses, 20 
drops ; orange-flower essence, 1 oz. ; oil of rosemary, 30 drops ; oils 
bergamot and neroli, each ^ oz. 

India Chol-agogue. — Qumine, 20 gi's. ; Peruvian bark, pulverized, 

1 oz. ; sulphuric acid, 15 drops, or 1 scruple of tartaric acid is best ; 
brandy, 1 gill ; water to make one pint ; dose, 5 teaspoonf uls every 

2 hours, in the absence of fever ; an excellent remedy. 
Febrifuge Wine. — Quimne, 25 grs. ; water, 1 pint ; sulphuric 

acid, 15 drops ; epsom salts, 2 oz. ; color with tincture of red sanders. 
Dose, a wiae glass 3 times per day. This is a world-renowned med^ 
icine. 

Barrell's Indian Liniment. — Alcohol, 1 qt.; tincture of cap- 
sicum, 1 oz. ; oil of origanum, sassafras, i)ennyroyal, and hemlock, of 
each 4 oz. Mix. 

God Liver Oil, as usually prepared, is notMng more or less than cod 
oil clarified, by which x)rocess it is in fact deprived in a great measure 
of its virture. Cod oil can be purchased from any wholesale oil deal- 
er for one thirtieth part of the price of cod liver oil as usually sold, 
and it is easy to clarify it. Dealers might turn this mformation to 
good account. To make it more palatable and digestible, -put 1 oz. of 
fine table salt to each quart bottle. 

Cod Liver Oil.— The first livers are placed in a jacketed pan 
heated by steam, and when the oil is separated from the scraps it is 
l^assed through felt bags until it is perfectly clear. To remove a por- 
tion of the stearine, it is subjected to refrigerating mixtures in the 
summer, and the iacongealable portion is drawn oft and placed ui 
bottles. 

Paregoric. — Best opium, J dr. ; dissolve in about 2 tablespoonfuls 
of boiling water ; then add benzoic acid ^ dr. ; oil of anise, J a fluid dr. ; 
clarified honey, 1 oz. ; camphor gum, 1 scruple; alcohol, 76 per cent., 
11 fluid oz. ; distilled water, 4 fluid oz. ; macerate (keep warm) for 
two weeks. Dose for children, 5 to 20 drops; adults ; 1 to 2 tea- 
spoonfuls. 

Cough Syrup.— put 1 qt. horehound tea, 1 qt. of water, and boil 
it down to 1 pt. ; add 2 or 3 sticks licorice ; 2 oz. syrup of squills, and 
a tablespoonf ul essence of lemon. Take a tablespoonf ul 3 times a day 
or as the cough requires. 

Cough Syrup. — Syrup of squills, 2 oz. ; tartarized antimony, 8 
grs. ; sulphate of morphine, 5 grs. ; pulverized arable, J oz. ; honey, 
1 oz. ; water, 1 oz. ; mix. Dose for an adult, 1 small teaspoonf ul; re- 
peat iu half an hour if it does not relieve : child in proportion. 

Vegetable Substitute for Calomel.— Jalap, 1 oz. senna, 2 oz. ; 



MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC, 157 

peppermint, 1 oz. (a little cinnamon if desired), all pulverized and sif- 
ted through gauze. Dose, 1 teaspoonful put in a cup with 2 or 3 
spoonfuls of hot water, and a good lump of white sugar ; when cool, 
drinli all ; to be taken fasting in the morning ; drmk freely ; if it does 
not operate in 3 hours, repeat 4 the quantity ; use instead of calomel. 

Dynamic Power of various kinds of Food.— One lb., of oat- 
meal will furnish as much :power as 2 lbs. of bread and more than 
3 lbs of lean veal. One lb., butter gives a working force equal to 
that of 9 lbs. of iwtatoes, 12 lbs. of milk and more than 5 lbs. of 
lean beef. One lb. of lump sugar is equal in force to 2 lbs., of ham, 
or 8 lbs. of cabbage. The habitual use of spirituous liquors is inimical 
to health, and inevitably tends to shorten life. A mechanic or laboring 
man of average size, requires, according to Moleschott, 23 ozs., of dry 
solid matter, daily, one fifth nitro.^euous. Food, as usually prepared, 
contains 50 x^er cent, of water, which would increase the quantity to 46 
ozs. , or 3 lbs. 14 ozs. , with at least an equal weight of water in addition 
daily. The same authority indicates as healthy proportions, of albumi- 
nous matter 4.587 ozs., fatty matter 2. 964, carbo-hydrate 14.250, salts 
1.058, total 22.859 ozs., for daily use. This quantity of food will 
\a,Ty greatly in the requirements of individuals engaged in sedentary 
employments, or of persons with weak constitutions or impaired 
digestion, as also whether employed in the open air or within doors 
much also, depending on the temperature. Preference should be 
given to the food whidi most readily yields the materials required by 
nature in the formation of the human frame. Beef contains about 4 
lbs. of such minerals in every 100 lbs. Dried extract of beef con- 
tains 21 lbs. in each 100 lbs. Bread made from unbolted wheat 
flour is also very rich in such elements, much more so than superfine 
flour ; hence the common use of Graham bread for dyspepsia and 
other ailments. The analysis of Liebig, Johnston, and others give in 
100 parts, the f olio wing*^ proportions of nutritious elements, viz., 
Indian corn, 12.30 barley 14.00, wheat 14,06, oats 19.91. A fish diet 
Is well adapted to sustain intellectual, or brain labor. What is 
required may be best known from the fact that a human body 
weighing 154 lbs., contains, on a rough estimate, of water 14 gals, 
(consisting of oxygen 111 lbs., of hydrogen 14 lbs.), carbon 21 Ibs.^ 
nitrogen 3 lbs. 8 ozs., calcicum 2 lbs., sodium 2J ozs., phosphorus 1^ 
lbs., ixDtassium J oz. sulphur 2 ozs. 219 grs., fluorine 2 ozs., chlorine 
2 ozs. 47 grs., iron 100 grs., magnesium 12 grs., silicon 2 grs. After 
death, the human body is by gradual decay, slowly resolved into 
these its component parts, which elements are again used in the 
complex and wonderful laboratory of nature, to vivify the countless 
forms of vegetable life. These in their turn fulfil their appointed 
law by yielding up their substance for the formation of other bodies. 
What a suggestive comment on mortal ambition to witness the 
present inhabitants of Egypt engaged in what they consider the 
lucrative commerce of quarrying out the bones of the ancient inhab- 
itants from the catacombs where they have been entombed for thou- 
sands of years and transporting them by the ship-load to England, in 
order to fertilize the crops which are destined to assist in forming 
the bone and sinew of the British nation! 

Cure for Snake Bites.— The Inspector of Police in the Bengal 
Government reports that of 939 cases in which ammonia was freely 



158 MEDICAL DEPARTAIEXT, ETC. 

administered 207 victims have recovered, and in tlic cured instances 
tlie remedy was not administered till about o~^ liours after the attiick, 
on the average of the fatal cases the corresi^onding duration of time 
was 4^ hours. 

Remedy For Small Pox. — Sulphate of zinc, 1 gr., foxglove 
[digitalis,] 1 gr., sugar 4 teaspoonf ul, mix witli 2 teaspoonfuls of Avater, 
add 4 oz. of water, Dose 1 spoonful every hour, child in proportion. 
From experience it is known that nothing will break up this frightful 
disease sooner tlian continued and persevering bathing, with the water 
at a comfortable temperature. 

Reliable Small Fox Remedt. — Tested. — A child 9 years old was 
effectually cured of small pox by administering 15 grs. sodiB sulphico 
dissolved ui milk, sweetened, every 3 hours. The entire body was 
oiled with crude potroleum applied by hand. Kext morning the erup- 
tion was killed and dry ; and the disease broken up. To prevent pit- 
ting with small pox, as soon as the disease is distinguished, .apply an 
ointment made of lard and charcoal to the face, neck, hands, &c., 
and continue until all signs of supperative fever has ceased. One 
case is worthy of notice, being that of a gentleman who suffered 
terribly for many days with this dreadful disease. Everything was 
done for him that medical skiU could suggest, without giving the 
filightest relief. Finally, as a last resort, he was removed from the 
bed and placed in a warm bath ; the transition was so soothing and 
delightful that he exclaimed, " Oh, my God, I thank Thee for this 
great relief! " In a short time he fell sound asleep in the bath, and 
continued iu this position for many hours, the water being renewed 
from time to time to keep up the temperature. The cure proved to 
be immediate and permanent. ISTothiug is so conducive to health of 
body, and the eradication of disease therefrom, as the mtelligent use 
of pure water. Sir Astley Cooper, being complimented on one 
occasion for his great skiU, remarked, that he had "made mistakes 
enough to fill a graveyard," but it is scarcely possible to make a mis- 
take with water, as no diseased person can faU to derive benefit from 
its use. 

Portable Bath. — Make a small circular boiler of copper or tin, and 
fit the same iuto an upright tm stand, in which, directly under the 
boiler, you must leave an aperture to contain a small spirit lamp. The 
boiler lid must fit tightly and be provided with three small tubes 
pointing upwards. The boiler being filled with water and the lam^) 
lighted, as soon as the steam gets up, it rushes through these tubes, 
and the patient, seated on a cane cliair, with his or her feet in a pan 
of warm water, with a suitable cloak tightly fastened around the 
neck, is speedily enveloped in a cloud of steam. Ten minutes is the 
time recommended for the duration of the first few baths. It may bo 
afterwards iucreased, but not beyond half an hour. On getting out 
of the cloak, plunge into a cold bath for a few minutes, then rub the 
sldn till it is quite dry and glowing with a coarse towel and a pair of 
good hair-gloves. Persons in health or disease will experience a 
wonderful recuperative power in the frequent use of this bath, and all 
will find it incomparably superior to the use of drugs m any form 
whatever. In this connection a new and very ingenious invention 
called Spongio Piline, is deservmg of favorable mention. It con- 
sists of wool and small particles of sponge felted together, and attached 



MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC 159 

to a Bldii of India-rubber, the whole being about liall an inch in thick- 
ness, and of inestimable value as a means of applying cold or tepid 
water, &c., to such exterior parts of the human frame as may bo 
nearest to the seat of pain or disease. The water is sponged over the 
felted surface, the surplus, if any, wiped off ; it is then placed on the 
skin, and covered over with several folds of bandages, which assist in 
retaining the heat and moisture, thus attracting healthy blood to tlie 
part, from which nature selects such food as is most conducive to ex- 
pel disease and build up healthy tissue. 

Fly Paper. — Coat paper with turpentine varnish, and oil it tokeci> 
the varnish from drying. 

Sweating Drops. — Ipecac, saffron, boneset, and camphor gum, 
of each, 3 oz. ; opium, 1 oz. ; alcohol, 2 qts. Let stand 2 weeks and 
filter. A teaspoonf til in a cup of hot sa^e or catnip tea every hour 
until free perspiration is induced; good in colds, fevers, inflamma- 
tions, &c. Bathe the feet in hot water at the same time. 

Syrup for CoxsuMPTrs^ES. — Oftamaracbark, take from the tree, 
without rossing, 1 peck; spikenard root, J lb.; dandelion root, Jib.; 
hops, 2 oz. Boil these sufficient to get the strength in 2 or 3 gals, 
water; strain, and boil down to 1 gal. ; when blood warm, add 3 lbs. 
best honey, and 3 pints best brandy ; bottle and keep in a cool place. 
Dose, drink freely of it 3 times per day before meals, at least a gill or 
more ; cure very certain. 

C0M3I0N Castor Oil.— Pale vegetable oil, 1 gal. ; castor oil, 3 gals. ; 
mix. 

PuLMOXic Waters. — Lump sugar, licorice, and starch, of each 2 
parts; gnm, 10 parts; squills and ipecacuanha, of each 5 iDarts; lactu- 
carium, 2 parts. Mix, and divide into 8 grain lozenges. 

Sir Ja^ies Clarke's Diarrhcea and Cholera Mixture. — 
Tinct. of opium, thict. of camphor, and spirits of turpentine, of each 3 
drams; oil of peppermint, 30 drops; mix. Dose, 1 teaspoonf ul for 
cholei-a. 

Vegetable or Co:mposition Powder.— Fine bayberry bark, 1 lb ; 
ginger 8 oz., common cayenne, 3 oz., mix. Dose, 1 teasi)Oonful in a 
cup of boiling water, sweeten and add milk. 

Tinctures are made with 1 oz. of gum, root, or bark, &c., dried, 
to each pint of proof spirits ; let it stand one week, and filter. 

Essences are made with 1 oz. of any given oil, added to 1 pint 
alcohol. Peppennints are colored witli tinct. turmeric; cionamon 
with tinct. of red sanders ; wintergreen with tinct. kino. 

Substitute for Arrowroot. — Fmest potato starch, 75 lbs. ; 
lump sugar. 4 lbs. ; finely-ground rice, 21 lbs. Mix, and sift through 
lawn ; yields 100 lbs. excellent arrowroot. 

Certain Cure for Croup.— Goose oil and urine equal parts. 
Dose, 1 tcaspoonful. A certain cure if taken in time. 

Corns and Warts. — Take a small quantity of the potash paste 
recommended for Poll Evil, and apply to the corn or wart. 

Druggist's Colors. — Yellow, take iron filings, hydrochloric acid 
to dissolve, dilute with cold water. Red, solution of sal ammoniac, 
cochineal, to color. Blue, indigo, 1 part, oil of \itnol, 2 parts, dis- 
solve, then dilute with water. '^Green, verdigris, 1 part, acetic acid, 
3 pai-ts, dihite with water, Purple j cochineal, 25 grs., sugar of lead 
1 oz., dissolve. 



160 MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. 

SiviELiiiKG Salts. — Sub-carbonate of ammonia, 8 parts ; put it in 
coarse powder in a bottle, and pour on it oil of lavendar, 1 part. 

TuNBKiDGE Wells Water. — Chloride of sodium, 5 grains ; 
tinct. steel, 20 drops ; distilled water, 1^ pints. 

Mineral Water. — ^Epsom salts, 1 oz. ; cream tartar, J oz. ; tar- 
taric acid, ^ oz. ; loaf sugar, 1 lb. ; oil of birch, 20 drops ; put 1 qt. 
cold water on 2 tablespoonfuls yeast (winter green oil will do), let it 
work 2 hours and then bottle. 

Congress Water for Fountains. — Common salt, 7 J ozs. ; 
hydrate of soda, 20 grs. ; bicarbonate of soda, 20 grs. ; calcined 
magnesia, 1 oz. Add to 10 gal. of water, and then charge with gas. 

KissiNGEN Water for Fountains. — Bicarbonate of soda, 1 dr. ; 
carbonate of lime, 2 drs., and 2 scr. ; precipitate carbonate of lime, 
2 scr. ; common salt, 8 ozs. ; muriate of ammonia, 4 grs ; sulphate 
of soda, 2 drs. and 2 scr. ; sulphate of magnesia, 2 ozs. ; phosphate 
of soda, 13 grs.; phosphate of lime 2 drs. and 2 scr. Mix. Add 
water | of a gal. Let it stand for 6 hours, filter, add carbonate of 
magnesia, 3 drs. and 1 scr., and charge with 10 gals, of water. 

Vichy Water for Fountains. — Sulphate of potass, 2 drs.; 
sulphate of soda, 25 gis. ; common salt, 6 drs. ; bicarbonate of am- 
monia, 10 grs. ]Mix. Add water, 1 gal. Let it stand 1 day, filter 
and then charge w^ith 10 gal. of water. 

Genuine Seidlitz Powders. —Rochelle salts, 2 drs.; bicarb, 
soda, 2 scr. ; put these into a blue paper, and 35 grains tartaric acid 
into a white paper. To use, put each into different tumblers, fill J 
with water, adding a little loaf sugar to the acid, then i^our together 
and drink quick. 

BoTTLEX) Seidlitz Water. — Fill soda-water bottles with clear 
water ; add to each as below ; cork and Avire immediately : RocheUe 
salts, 3 drops ; bicarbonate of soda, 35 grs ; sulphuric acid, 11 drops. 

Excellent Tooth Powder. — Suds of castile soap and spirits of 
camphor, of each an equal quantity ; thicken with equal quantities 
of pulverized chalk and charcoal to a thick i^aste. Apply with the 
finger or brush. 

Rat Exterminator. —Warm water, 1 qt. ; lard, 2 lbs ; phospho- 
rus, 1 oz. ; mix, and thicken with flour ; to be spread on bread and 
covered with sugar. 

Bug Poison.— Alcohol, J pint; turpentine, J pint ; crude sal am- 
moniac, 1 oz. ; ]nix all together, and let it digest in a warm jAslcq for 
a few days, and it is ready for use. 

Medicated Cough Candy.— To 5 lbs. candy just ready to pour 
on the slab, add the following mixture, and form it into sticks to 
correspond with the price asked for them : Tinct. squills, 2 oz. ; cam- 
phorated tinct. of opium and tinct. of tolu, of each J oz. ; wine of 
ipecac, J oz. ; oils of gaultheria, 4 drops ; sassafras, "3 drops ; and 
of anise seed oil, 2 drops, and use this freely in common coughs. 

Ague Pill. — Quuiine, 20 grs.; Dover's powders, 10 grs. ; sub- 
carbonate of iron, 10 grs. ; mix Avith mucilage of gum arable and 
form into 20 pills. Dose, 2 eacli hour, commencing 5 liours before 
the chiU. should set in. Then take 1 niglit and morning until aU are 
taken. 

Age at which Menstruation Commences.— Dr. Walter Rigden 
gives the subjoined statistics obtained from females who were con- 



MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC 



1«1 



fined at University College Hospital, 
occured for the first time : 



In 2, GOG cases menstruation 



At the age of 


At the age of 


9 in 3 cases. 


18 m 


150 cases 


10 " U " 


10 " 


76 " 


11 " GO " 


20 " 


29 " 


12 *' 170 " 


21 " 


7 " 


13 " 353 " 


22 " 


8 " 


14 " 560 " 


23 " 


2 " 


lo " 540 " 


24 " 


" 


IG " 455 " 


25 '' 


" 


17 " 272 " 


2G " 


2 " 



It thus appears that it is most common at 14 years of age, and 
great care should be taken of the health on the occurrence of these 
important periods. 

Atkinson's Infant's Preservatite. — Carbonate of magncsii, 
G drs. ; sugar, 2 oz. ; oil of anise seed, 20 drops ; sal-volatile, 2^ drs. ; 
laudunum, 1 dr. ; syrup of saffron, 1 oz. Make up 1 pint with 
caraway water. 

Pills to tromote Menstrual Secretion, — Take pUls of aloes 
and myrrh, 4 drs. ; compound iron pUIs, 280 grs. ; mix and form 
iuto 100 pills. Dose, 2 twice a day. 

For Obstructed Menstruation. — IMako a strong tea of smart 
weed, covering it to retain the strength, or use the extract of smart 
weed instead, taking 1 teaspooni ul of the latter once every 3 hours, 
(or about 10 teaspoonfuls of the tea) in warm water, sweetened, 
making free use of hot baths for the feet and the lower parts of the 
body. It wUl give great relief. 

Injection for Obstructed Menstruation.— Mix 1 to 2 fluid 
drs. liquor of ammonia with 1 puit milk. Use thrice daily. 

For Obstructed Menstruation. — Sulphate of iron, GO grs.; 
potassa (sub. carb.) GO grs. ; myrrh, 2 drs. ; make them into ^gr. 
pills ; 2 to be taken three times a day, in the absence of fever. For 
Painful Meiistruation, take pulv. rhei., 2 drs. ; pulv. jalap, 2 drs.; 
syrup of poppies to mix. Divide into 200 pUls, and take night and 
morning. 2b check Immoderate Floic — Tinct. of ergot, 1 oz., liquor of 
ammonia, 3 drs. ; mix. Dose, teaspoonf ul in water 3 times a day. 

Stiiniulant.— In Low Fevers, and after Uterine Hemor- 
rhages. — Best brandy and cimiamon water, of each, 4 fluid oz. ; the 
yolks of 2 eggs, well beaten ; loaf sugar Joz. ; oil of cinnamon, 2 
drops ; mix. Dose, from J to 1 (fluid) oz., as often as required. 
This makes both meat and drink. Of course, any other flavoring oils 
can be used, if preferred, in place of tlie cinnamon. 

For Female Coiviplaints. — One of the best laxative pills for 
female complauits is macrotin and rhubarb, each 10 grs. ; extract of 
hyoscyamus 10 grs. ; Castile soap, 40 grs. ; scrape the soap, and mix 
well together, forming into common sized pills with gum solution. 
Dose,l pill at bed time, or sufficiently often to ke*ep the bowels in a 
laxative state. 

For Disease of the Kidneys. — Boil 1 oz. of pareira brava in 3 
piuts of water down to 1 piut. Dose, a wiueglassf ul 3 times per day. 

11 



lyy^ MEDICAL DErARTMENT, ETC. 

To CT7RE VOMITING IN PREGNANCY. — Mix 1 dr. carU)nate of 
magnesia; J oz. tiuct. of Colombo; 5^ oz. peppermint water. Dose, 
1 tablespoonful 3 times a day. 

IlARiiAND's YENEREAii CuRE. — Mix together powdered cnbebs, 
li oz. ; balsam capaiba, ^ oz. ; powdered gum arable, J oz. ; ciima- 
mon water, 3 ozs. A tablespoonful of the mixture to "be taken at 
interv^als 8 times a day. 

Incontinence of Urine op Old People. — The continued use 
of 1 to 6 drops tinct. of iodine has proved a successful remedy. For 
other persons, iDut 4 drops tincture of aconite root in a tumbler of 
Avater, and use a teaspoonful every half hour imtil relieved. 

CoivEPOUND Extract Buchu. — Buchu, in coarse poAvder, 12 ozs. ; 
alcohol, 3 pts. ; water, 6 pts. are sufficient. Treat the leaves by 
maceration and displacement, first with a portion of the alcohol and 
then with the remainder mixed with the water, evaporate the result- 
ing liquid with a gentle heat to three pints, and add 2^ lbs. sugar, 
continue the heat tiU it is dissolved, and after removing from the fire, 
add oil of cubebs, oil of juniper; of each 1 fluid dr.; spirits of 
nitric ether, 12 fluid ozs., previously mixed, stir together. 

Anodyne for Painful Menstruation. — Extract of stramo- 
nium and sulphate of qumine, each IG grs. ; macrotiu, 8 grs. ; mor- 
crotin, 8 grs. ; morphine, 1 gr. ; make into 8 pills. Dose, 1 jiill re- 
peating once or t\vice only, 40 to 50 mmutes apart, if the pain docs 
not subside before this time. Pain imtst subside under the use of 
this pill, and costiveuess is not increased. 

Powder for Excessive Flooding. — Gums kmo and catechu, 
eachlgr. ; sugar of lead and alum, each ^dr. ; pulverize all and 
thoroughly mix, then divide into 7 to 10 gram powders. Dose, one 
every 2 or 3 hours until checked, then less often merely to control the 
flow. 

Injection for Leucorrhcea. — When the glairy mucus discharge 
is present, prepare a tea of hemlock inner bark and witch hazel (often 
called spotted alder) leaves and bark, have a female syringe largo 
enough to fill the vagina, and inject the tea, twice daily ; and occa- 
sionally in bad cases, say twice a week, inject a syringe of the fol- 
lowing composition : For Chronic Female Complaints. AVhite vitriol 
and sugar of lead, each, -J oz. ; common salt, pulverized alum, and 
loaf sugar, each, J dr. ; soft water, 1 pt. Inject as above. 

For Prolapsus" Uteri, or Falling of the Womb.— Xot only 
the cheapest but the best support Avill be foimd to be a piece of fine 
firm sponge, cut to a proper size, to admit when damp of being 
pressed ui) the vagina to hold the womb in its place. The spongo 
fihould have a stout piece o^ small cord sewed 2 or 3 times through 
its centre, up and down, and left sufficiently long to allow its bemg 
taken hold of to remove the sponge, once a day, or every other day 
at the farthest, for the purpose of wasliing, cleaning, and using the 
necessary injections ; and this must be done while the patient is 
lying down, to prevent the womb from again falling or prolapsing. 
After having injected some of the above tea, wet the sponge in the 
same, and introduce it sufficiently high to hold the womb m its place. 
If pain is felt about the head, back, or loins for a few days before the 
menses appear, prepare and use the following : Emmenagogue Tinc- 
ture. Alcohol, 1 pt. ; red oxide of iron, 1 oz. ; oils of juniper and 



MEDICAL DErAKTAIENT, ETC. 163 

savin, each J oz. ; oil of tansey, 1 dr. ; tincture of ergot, 3 di-s. ; 
tincture Spanish flies, J oz. : mix all, and shake when taken. Dose, 
1 teaspoon 3 times daily, to be taken in mucilage of slippery elm or 
gum arable, and drink freely of the mucilage also through the daj", 
or use the following : 

E]M]MENAGOGUE PiiiL. — Precipitated carbonate of iron and gum 
myrrh, of each 2 drs. ; aloes and tincture of Spanish flies, of each 
1 dr. ; and oil of savin, 1 dr. ; all to be i^ulverized, and made into 
100 pills by using thick gum solution. Dose, 1 pill, from 1 to 3 times 
daily, but not to move the bowels too much. 

Utehixe Hemorkhage. — Unfailing cure. Sugar of lead, 10 grs. ; 
ergot, 10 grs. ; opium, 3 grs.; ipecac, 1 gr. ; all pulverized, and 
well mixed. Dose, 10 to 12 grs. ; given in a little honey or syrui). 

In very bad cases after chilbbiilh, it might be repeated in 30 
minutes, or the dose increased to 15 or 18 grs. ; but in cases of rather 
profuse wasting, repeat it once at the end of 3 hours, or as the 
urgency of the case may require. 

Li every case of female debility make a liberal use of iron, as the 
want of iron in the system is often the cause of the trouble. Mis 
fine iron filings with as much ground ginger. Dose, half of a tea- 
spoon 3 times daily in a little honey or molasses, increasing or lessen- 
ing the dose to produce a blackness of the stools. Continue this 
course untn weU. 

IiviPERiAL Drops for Grayel ai<t> Kidney Co:>n>LAiNTS.— Oil 
of origanum, 1 oz., oil of hemlock, J oz., oil of sassafras, J oz., oil of 
anise, Joz., alcohol, 1 pint: mix. Dose, from ^ to 1 teaspoonful 3 
times a day, in sweetened water, will soon give relief when con- 
stant weakness is felt across the small of the back, as well as gravelly 
affections causing i:)ain about the kidneys. 

Positive Cure for Goxorrhcea.— Liquor of potass, J oz., bitter 
apple, J oz., spirits of sweet nitre, J oz., balsam of copaiba, J oz., best 
gum t oz. To use, mix with peppermint water; take J teaspoonful 3 
times per day: cure certain in 9 days. 

Celebrated Pile Ointment. — Take carbonate of lead, Joz., sul- 
phate of morphia, 15 grs. ; stramonium ointment, 1 oz. ; olive oil, 20 
d»rops. Mix and apply 3 times per day, or as the pain may require. 

Another — Powdered nut gall, 2 drs., camphor, 1 dr., melted wax, 
10 oz., tincture of opium, 2 drs., mix. 

Stajnoiering. — Impediments in the speech may be cured, where 
there is no malformation of the organs of articulation, by preseverance, 
for three or four months, in the simple remedy of reading aloud, with 
the teeth closed, for at least 2 hours each day. 

Cold in the Head.— Dr. PoUion, of France, says that cold in the 
head can be cured by inhaling hartshorn. The inhalation by the 
nose should be seven or eight times in five minutes. 

Camphor Ice. — Spermaceti, 1^ oz., gum camphor, 2 oz., oil sweet 
almonds, 4 teaspoonf uls ; set on the stove in an earthen dish till dis- 
solved; heat just enough to dissolve it. While warm pour into small 
moulds, if desired to sell; then paper, and put into tinfoil; used for 
chaps on hands or lips. 

SoiPLE Remedies for Scarlet Fever.— Open the bowels regii- 
larly every day with some mild aperient medicine, such as castor oil, 
senna, etc. ; and keep the patient at rest, and comfortably warm ; 



164 MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC 

sponge the surface with tepid water, two or three times a day ; while 
it is hotter than natural, admit fresh air ; live on a bland diet, such 
as a cupful of arrowroot, several times a day ; toast-water for com- 
mon drink. Gargle made of strong sage tea, honey aud alum, or bor- 
ax, may be used from the commencement, if the throat is affected. 

Nerve and Bone Linimekt. — Beef's gall. 1 qt. ; alcohol, 1 x>t. ; 
volatile liniment, 1 lb.; sirits of turpentine, 1 lb. ; oil organum, 
4 oz. ; aqua ammonia, 4 oz. ; tincture of cayenne, J j)t. ; oil of 
amber, 3 oz. ; tincture Spanish flies, G oz. ; mix well. 

Cephalic Snuff. — Take asarbacca leaves, marjoram, light Scotch 
snuff, equal parts ; grind and sift, use like common snuff. 

Downer's Sai^ve. — Beeswax, 4 oz. ; opium, J oz. ; sugar of lead, 
1 oz. ; melt the beeswax, and rub the lead up in the wax, then the 
opium, then 1 gill of sweet oil, incorporate all thoroughly together, 
spread lightly on cloth ; good for bums, piles, &c. 

Another Salve. — Burgundy pitch, beeswax, white pine pitch, 
and resin, 1 oz. each, mutton tallow, 8 oz. ; goose oil, 1 gill ; tar, 1 
gill ; melt and mix thoroughly. A first-rate salve. 

Whooping Cough SvRUP.—Best rum, 1 pt. ; anise oil, 2 ozs. ; 
hoHcy, 1 pt. ; lemon juice, 4 oz. ; mix. Dose for adults, 1 tablespoon- 
1 ul, 3 or 4 times per day ; children 1 teaspoon, with sugar and water. 

Liquid Opodeldoc. — ^\Varm brandy, 1 qt. ; add to it gum camphor,. 
1 oz. ; sal ammoniac, i oz. ; oils of origanum and rosemary, each ^ 
oz. ; oil wormwood, J oz. ; when the oUs are dissolved, add G oz. soft 
soap. 

Green Mountain Salve. — For rheumatism, bums, pains in the 
back or side, &c., take 2 lbs. resin, burgundy pitch, ^ lb. ; beeswax :^ 
lb. ; mutton tallow, ^ lb. ; melt slowly ; wlien not too warm, add oil 
hemlock, 1 oz. ; balsam fir, 1 oz. ; oil of origanum, 1 oz. oil of red 
cedar, 1 oz. ; Venice turpentine, 1 oz. ; oil of wormwood, 1 oz. ; ver- 
digris, i oz. ^ The verdigris must be finely pulverized and mixed with 
the oils ; then add as above, and work in cold water like wax till cold 
enough to roll ; rolls 5 inches long, 1 inch diameter, sell for 25 cents. 

English Reiviedy for Cancer. — Take chloride of zinc, blood- 
root pulverized, and flour, equal quantities of each, worked into a 
paste and applied. First spread a common sticking-plaster much 
larger than the cancer, cutting a circular piece from the centre of it a 
little larger than the cancer, applying it, which exposes a narrow rim 
of healthy skin ; then apply the cancer plaster, and keep it on 24 
hours. On removing it, the cancer will be found to be burned into, 
and appears the color of an old shoe-sole, and the rim outside will 
appear white and parboiled, as if burned by steam. Dress with 
slippery elm poultice until suppuration takes place, then heal with 
any common salve. 

Chronic Gout— To Cure.— Take hot vinegar, and put into it all 
the table salt which it wiU dissolve, and bathe the parts affected vrith 
a soft piece of flannel. Rub in with the hand and dry the foot, &c., 
by the fire. Repeat this operation four times m 24 hours, 15 minutes 
each time, for four days ; then twice a day for the same period ; then 
once, and follow this rule whenever the syrnj^toms show themselves at 
any future time. 

Gout Tincture. — ^Veratnim viride (swamp hellebore), ^ oz. ; 
opium, i oz. ; wine, ^ pt. ; let them stand for several days. Dose, 15 



MEDICAL DEPARTMEXT, ETC. 165 

to 30 drops, according to the robustness of the patient, at intervals of 
2 to 4 hours. 

Pakalytic Linement.— Sulphuric ether, 6 oz. ; alcohol, 2 oz. ; 
laudanum, 1 oz. ; oil of lavender, 1 oz. ; mix, and cork tightly. In a 
recent case of paralysis let the whole extent of the numb surface bo 
thoroughly bathed and rubbed with this preparation, for several 
minutes, using the hand, at least three times daily ; at the same time 
take internally, 20 drops of the same, in a little SAveetened water. 

Charcoal a cuke for Sick Headache. — It is stated that 2 tea- 
spoons of finely powdered charcoal, drank in J a tumbler of water 
T^ill, in less than fifteen minutes, give relief to the sick headache, 
when caused, as in most cases it is, by superabimdance of acid on 
the stomach. We have frequently tried this remedy, and its elhcacy 
in every instance has been signally satisfactory. 

Cathartic Syrup. — Best senna leaf, 1 oz. ; butternut, the imier 
bark of the root, dried and bruised, 2 oz. ; peppermint leaf, J oz. ; 
fennel seed, J oz. ; alcohol, J pt. ; water, IJ pts. ; sugar, 2 lbs."; put 
all into the spirit and water" except the sugar, and let it stand two 
weeks, then strain, pressmg out from the dregs, adding the sugar and 
simmering a few minutes only, to form the syrup. If it should cause 
griping in any case, increase the fennel seed and peppermint leaf. 
Dose, 1 tablespoon, once a day, or less often if tlie bowels become too 
loose, up to the next period when the headache might have been 
expected, and it will not be forthcoming. 

Chilblains. — To Cure.— Mutton t^illow and lard, of each J lb. ; 
melt in an iron vessel, and add hydrated oxyde of iron, 2 oz. ; stirring 
continually with an iron spoon, until the mass is of a uniform black 
color ; then let it cool, and add Venice turpentine, 2 oz. ; Armenian 
bole, 1 oz. ; oil of bergamot, 1 dr. ; rub up the bole with a little olive 
oil before puttmg it in. 

Feloks.— If recent, to Cure in Six Hours.— Venice turpentme, 
1 oz. ; and put into it half a teaspoon of Avater, and stir with a rough 
stick until the mass looks like candied honey ; then spread a good 
coat on a cloth, and w^rap around the finger. H the case is only 
recent, it will remove the pain in six hours. 

Felon Salve. — A salve made by burning one tablespoon of copper- 
as, then pulverizing it and mixing it with the yolk of an egg, is said 
to relieve the pain, and cure the felon in 24 hours ; then heal with 
cream two parts, and soft soap one i^art. Api:)ly the healing salve 
daily after soaking the part in warm water. 

Felon Ointment. — Take sweet oil, i pt., and stew a 3-cent plug 
of tobacco in it until the tobacco is crisped ; then squeeze it out, and 
add red lead, 1 oz., and boil imtil black ; when a little cool, add pul- 
verized camphor gum, 1 oz. 

Warts and Corns.— To Cure in Ten Minutes.— Take a small 
piece of potash, and let it stand m the open air until it slacks, then 
thicken it to a paste with pulverized gum arable, which prevents it 
from spreading where it is not wanted. 

In^laheviatory Rheujmatism.— Sulphur and saltpetre, of each 1 
oz. ; gum guaiac, J oz. ; colchicum root, or seed, and nutmegs, of each 

1 oz ; all to be pulverized and mixed with simple syrup, or molasses, 

2 oz. Dose, one teaspoon every 2 hours untU it moves the bowels 
rather freely j then 3 or 4 times daily until cured. 



166 MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. 

Tpte Conservation of Health.— This important object, so neces- 
sary to the enjoyment of life, can only be secured by conforming to 
an orderly state of existence. Every man is in duty bound to dis- 
cliarge with fidelity the debt which he owes to that frame, so " fear- 
fully and wonderfully made," and so well adapted by the Divine 
contriver to fulfil the uses of life, by living with regularity and mod- 
eration, abstaining from every excess calculated to induce disease or 
inflict injury either on body or mind. Excessive intellectual labor is 
just as fatal in its degree as violent pliysica,l exertion. We have a 
lamentable proof of the truth of this remark in the sudden termination 
of a most useful life, that of the late Dr. Hall, Editor of Hall's Journal 
of Health. As is well known, the fatal stroke was induced by an 
overworked brain, it being his habit to apply himself ardently to study, 
writing, &c., from 5 in the morning to 10 in the evening, an impru- 
dence all the more reprehensible as it was one which he was continu- 
ally denouncing in others. 

Business men are particularly liable to affections of the heart result- 
ing from trade anxieties, &c., and in the male, the number of deaths 
from enlargement of the heart are as seven compared with five in the 
female. This phase of mortality is caused not only by intranquiility 
and worry of mind occasioned by lack of success in the grand 
struggles of life, but is too frequently brought on by conjugal infe- 
licities and disturbances, which seldom fail to accelerate a crisis which 
terminates in death. Many a well meaning man lays plans which he 
fondly anticipates will result in securing to him and to those depend- 
ent on him, an honestly obtained competence, and confident of pros- 
perity, does his best endeavors, and often risks a great deal, to ensure 
success, little dreaming of the poetic apothegm, that " the best laid 
schemes o' mice and men, gang aft aglee." The result too often is, as 
many know to their sorrow, entire failure, and subsequent reproaches, 
opprobrium, asperities, ascriptions of incapacity, &c., are showered on 
his head, and continued to the end of life, with more frequency and 
greater regularity than the dispensation of his daily bread, by the very 
one who should be all gentleness, all love, and her husband's chief com- 
forter and consoler under misfortune. This is the most fatal kind of 
mental trouble, inasmuch as it involves a grinding grief of mind, which 
dissipates happiness, induces gloom, and tends to destroy life ; whatever 
affects the love, which is the real man, or spirit, reacts upon, and 
affects in an equal degree the body which contains that spirit. That 
this is so, results from the correspondence existing between the soul 
and body, as may be palpably manifest to every one capable of inte- 
rior reflection, and this to such a degree that to obtain convincing proof 
it is not necessary to extend his observations beyond his own experi- 
ence. 

Grief caused by financial loss and the reaction which sets in on re- 
tiring from business, after spending an active life in amassing a for- 
tune, are also pregnant with evil results to health. No man has a 
right to retire from the duty of making himself useful to society, even 
if he has a fortune, and can afford to do so. If he does, this evil, 
like every other, is sure to work out its own retribution with a full 
harvest of unexpected misery. 

Many of the' influences which are patent for evil, and evil only, are 
self inflicted, such as the habitual indulgence in alcoholic drinks. Vine, 
beer, &c., the use of tobacco, opium, and other narcotics. Eighty-seven 



MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. 167 

per cent, of all kidney diseases are induced by alcohol. Its continued 
use curtails vitality, destroys the membranes, generates disease in the 
brain, heart, spinal cord, lungs, liver, muscles and blood vessels ; it 
wrecks the system, impedes the circulation, paralyzes manhood, and 
precipitates premature decay. Tobacco, also, in every form, exercises 
a most baneful effect on the health and mind. 

A distinguished French savant, the Abbe Moigno, increased his 
daily allowance of snuff until in 1861 it was over 20 grammes, and he 
observ^ed a rapid decay of the faculty of memory. He had learned 
some 1500 root words in each of several languages, but found them 
gradually dropping out of his mind, so as to necessitate frequent re- 
ference to dictionaries. At last he summoned resolution to abandon 
its ise, and after 6 years of abstinence writes as follows : 

'•It was for us the commencement of a veritable resurrection of 
health, mind, and memory; our ideas have [become more lucid, our 
imagination more vivid, our work easier, oiir i)en quicker, and we 
have seen gradually return that army of words. Our memory, in a 
word, has recovered all its riches, all its sensibility. That tobacco, 
especially in the form of snuff, is a powerful enemy of memory, 
which it has destroyed little by little, and sometimes very i^romptly, 
cannot be doubted." With these known pernicious effects resulting 
from the use of alcholic drinks and tobacco, abstinence from both 
becomes an imperious necessity. 

Other most imix)rtant auxiliaries to the maintenance of health, are 
pure air, perfev;t ventilation in dwellings, and absolute cleanliness of 
person (See Bathing). Keill estimates the surface of the lungs at 
150 cubic feet, or ten times that of the external body. During ordi- 
nary respiration, 16 or 17 cubic inches of atmospheric air pass into 
flie lungs 20 times in a minute, or a cubic foot every 5.25 minutes ; 
274 cubic feet in 24 hours, or a cube of 6i feet each way. The lungs 
generate 10.7 cubic feet of deadly carbonic acid gas, and remove 
from the atmosphere the same aiiiount of oxygen, every 24 hours. 
The cause of nearly all the headaches in crowded factories, schools 
and work shops, as well as all the sleeping and snoring in churches, 
is due more to vitiated air than to any other cause. To the same 
cause is owing the fearful mortality so prevalent in badly ventilated 
city tenements, boarding houses, cellars, &c., as well as in houses built 
on'^low levels, and boggy land near stagnant pools, inoperative sewers, 
imprisoned springs, &c. Bad air, imperfect ventilation, uncleanness 
and ill health must ever go hand in hand. It is worthy of note that 
while the death rate in the filthy eastern districts of London is nearly 
60 per 1000 of the population, in White Chapel it is 41, in Limehouse it 
rises to 48, in part of the Aldgate district of the White Chapel union, 
it ranges between 58 and 59, or more than double what may be called 
the fair allowance of 25 per cent. Yet it appears from the recent 
statistics of the same citv, that in the Peabody Model Buildings the 
mortality has fallen to 17 per 1000, very near the minimum of the most 
salubrious parts of England. Decaying vegetable and animal matter 
yields various noxious gases, also expired breath, all enter the lungs, 
poison the blood and permeate the system ; therefore all impurities 
should be kept away from our abodes, and every precaution taken to 
secure pure air. Temperature of rooms should be about 60° Fahr. 

As the solar rays exercise a benignant influence on health and 
purify the air in ' dwellinscs, therefore admit the blessed sunlight 
without stint, for good health cannot exist without it. 



168 MEDICAL DEPAKTMENT, ETC. 

As disinfectants, the following may be nsed with gooc^ effect. 
1. Quicklime, to absorb moisture and putrid fluids. Use fresh lime, 
scattering it about, finely powdered, and whitewash with lime. 2. 
Charcoal powder, to absord putrid gases. The coal should be dry, and 
fresh, mixed with lime. 3. Chloride of lime, to gi^ e off chloride to 
absorb putrid effluvia and to stop putrefaction. 4. Sulphate of iron 
(copperas) 1 lb. dissolved in 1 qt. water and poured down a water closet 
will destroy the foulest smells. A quantity in an open pan will purify 
the air in rooms. 5. Fluid carbolic acid dissolved at the rate of 1 part 
to 100 or 150 parts of water is also very good. 

I Among diseases liable to be spread by the distribution of organic, 
poisons, may be mentioned scarlet fever," typhus fever, typhoid fever, 
yellow fever, measles, small-pox, diphtheria, infectious ophthalmia, 
hydrophobia, erysipelas, cholera and glanders. The poisonous par- 
ticles which effect contagion, are in every instance of organic origin, 
and are evolved from matter composing living bodies. They float iii 
the atmosphere, are inhaled by the breath, and are absorbed by the 
walls of dwellings, hospitals, etc., and are liable at any time to enter 
on a career of baneful activity. The walls of hospitals should be 
glass lined, the better to prevent contamination, and means should 
be used to destroj^ the contagious matter by means of chemical 
agents, such as powerful heat, nitrous acid gas, bromine, chlorine, 
iodine, sulphurous acid, etc. Solar light is another powerful disin- 
fectant, and as a means of health has been ranked by Lavoiser as 
superior to pure air. 

Dust is highly inimical to health, and it is everywhere present in 
the air we breathe. Its presence is made manifest in a manner per- 
fectly startling, by admitting a beam of sun-light througli an orifice 
into a dark room. It has a most pernicious effect on the health in 
cities, and indeed everywhere, but the air maj^ be filtered from the 
noxious particles previous to entering the lungs, by the use of a cot- 
ton-wool respirator. Tiiis contrivance possesses the further merit of 
being an effectual barrier to the admission to tlie lungs of those 
germs or poisonous particles whereby contagious disease is propa- 
gated. 

Good health is impossible without pure water. The amount of or- 
ganic and mineral impurities held in solution or suspension by water, 
is perfectly astonishing, and wherever suspicion of such impurities 
exists the water should be filtered. Good reliable filters may be pur- 
chased ready for immediate use, but wherever they cannot be ob- 
tained, an excellent substitute may be made from an oak tub made 
to hold from half to a barrel of water, according to the needs of the 
family. Let it stand on end, with a faucet near the bottom, or pre- 
ferably, a hole through the bottom, near the front side, with a tube 
inserted to prevent the water from rotting the outside of the tub; 
then put clean pebbles 3 or 4 inches in thickness over the bottom of 
the tub. Spread a piece of clean white flannel over the pebbles ; 
now have charcoal, pulverized to the size of small peas (that made 
from hard maple is best), and put in half a bushel or so at a time ; 
pound it down quite firmly, then put in more and pound again until 
the tub is filled to within 8 inches of the top, and again put in 2 
inches more of pebbles, then put a piece of clean white flannel over 
the whole top as a strainer. The flannel may be washed occasion- 



MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. 169 

ally, to remove the impurities collected from the water, and it might 
be well to replenish the tab with fresh charcoal once a year at least. 
The result will be wholesome water. 

Reckless exposure to cold, especially by aged and sensitive per- 
sons, should be carefully guarded against. From returns published 
by the Registrar General in England, it was found that during the 
winter months the body wastes, the loss of weight varying in an in- 
creasing ratio ; that during summer the body gains, the gain varying 
in an increasing ratio, and tliat the changes from gain to loss, and 
from loss to gain, are sudden, and take place, the first at the begin- 
ning of September, and the second at the beginning of April. Deaths 
from pneumonia and bronchitis attain their maximum in the months 
of January, February, and March ; in the succeeding 3 months they 
decline, and in the next quarter reach their minimum, re-commenc- 
ing to increase in October, November, and December. Air saturated 
with moisture tends to develop rheumatic disease, and organic dis- 
eases of the heart which spring from rheumatism. 

During cold raw weather, aged persons should keep close to the 
house in apartments warmed by a cheerful, open, blazing fire, which 
is much preferable to the oppressive heat from a hot air register, 
steam pipes, or close stoves. If called out by business during a cold 
morning, do not go out too early, nor until after a good warm break- 
fast, and be sure to return before the chill of the evening. Add to 
the clothing early in the fall, diminish it very gradually in the 
spring, eat with great moderation and regularity of nourishing diet, 
and take a daily nap on a lounge, or in an armchair for 15 or 20 
minutes after dinner, or during the forenoon. If rest is broken dur- 
ing the night, make it up with prolonged rest during the morning, 
for as a rule, those aged persons will live the longest who take the 
most rest and work the least, except in a very calm, placid, and un- 
excited way. During old age guard against haste, hurry, and excite- 
ment of body and mind, for nothing can be more dangerous to life. 

Authors, clergymen and all others engaged in intense mental 
study, should, whenever they become exhausted by severe brain 
labor, at once cease from further effort, and recuperate their ex- 
pended energies by taking as much sleep as nature requires. Nothing 
soothes, strengthens and invigorates the brain like refreshing sleep. 

Clothing should not be worn in quantity to induce oppression or 
mmecessary smothering, but onh^ enough to re^^el ever}'- feeling re- 
sembling chilliness. Keep a clean skin at all times, and as a safe pre- 
caution wear flannel next to it, as it possesses a powerful influence in 
modifying dangerous extremes of temperature. Dr. Pettenkofer 
states that equal surfaces of various materials are permeated by the 
air as follows, flannel being taken as 100: Linen of medium fineness, 
58; silk, 40; buckskin, 58; chamois leather, 51; tanned leather, 1. 

The dress should fit loosely, should be warm and light throughout, 
and frequently changed to remove the impurities exhaled througli the 
skin. Clothing contaminated with excretory matter is highly inimi- 
cal to health if worn too long. In cases of infectious disease, the suf- 
ferer should be isolated, and the infected clothing and bedding either 
destroyed or purified. 

Sleeping apartments should be elevated, roomy, well ventilated, 
and kept at a temperature of about 60°. They should be free from direct 
draughts on the sleeper. The mattress, should be hard, but may be 



170 MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. 

easy and springy if so desired. Feathers should not be used, the 
emanations from them are most unhealthj^, and they generate an ex- 
cess of lieat which is very enfeebling and unwholesome. The sweet- 
est repose is obtained with the head towards the uorth,-^with the bed 
iusulated by means of glass interposed between the feet and the 
floor, to bar the passage of the electric currents, which are liable to 
leave the body depleted of strength unless ihey are retained. Guard 
against sleeping in new dwellings before the plaster and paint have 
become fully dry. Thousands of deaths, seemhigly very mysterious 
and principally of aged persons, have taken place from neglect of this 
precaution. The natural allowance for sleej) is eight hours out of the 
twenty-four, and the most favorable time is from 10 o'clock until 6. 
Intellectual labor is more exhaustive than physical, consequently per- 
sons thus employed require more rest than working men. The most 
favorable position for sleep is on the right side; the worst is to lie ou 
the back, as it generates a perilous heat over the region of the kid- 
neys and spinal cord. Solitary repose is the most beneficial every 
way; when two parties sleep together, each one inhales a deleterious 
effluvia thrown off by his neighbor, and the weakest is always the 
greatest sufferer, more especiallj^ is this the case with children who 
sleep with aged persons. Add to this, electric changes are continual- 
ly taking place, Avhich frequently cause unrest, disquiet, and exhaus- 
tion, when two sleep together. Refreshing sleep gives rest to the 
brain and the nervous system. The retina is inert, the tjmipanum is 
placid, the nerves of taste, smell, and feeling, are dormant, and all 
the powers of the cerebrum and cerebellum are quiescent. Children 
require more sleep than adults, and they should get all they will take 
of it, with a benediction and kind words to begin Avith. It is atro- 
cious to think of the hard language, maledictions, and downright lies 
addressed to tender hearted children by many parents on putting them 
to bed. They certainlj^ are not aware of the grievous injury the^^ in- 
flict by such irrational conduct. Sleep is an absolute necessity to all 
animal existence, and when we think of its inestimable benefits, and 
wonderful surroundings, we can only stand mute, and with emotions 
inexpresvSible, refer their origin to that Infinite Love which " neith- 
er slumbers nor sleeps." 

In dressing children, use care to keep them warm, Iteeping flannel 
to their skin during the entire year, especially covering the extremi- 
ties well. There is a peculiar fashion most deadly in its effects, which 
lets children run about with bare legs, arms, and necks, with the low- 
er part of the dress expanded away from the person, thus admitting 
the chilling cold to do its worst. Such exposure would prove certain 
death to its parents in less than a month. Keep the extremities warm 
by keeping them well clothed, and thus keep up a free circulation, for 
cold feet and hands prevent health, and are the certain precursors of 
disease and death. Add to this plenty of good food, ripe fruit, and 
out-door exercise ad libitum, and you will have rosy, blooming chil- 
dren, as the result. In the matter of out-door exercise, it might not 
be amiss to use a little wholesome oversight and restraint, let them 
have their full swing in the enjoyment of exercise calculated to de- 
velop the frame, such as running, jumping, playing ball, driving 
hoops, &c., but when it comes to every day sport in the line of firing 
pistols, exploding fire crackers, cracking whips, and an everlasting 
battering of toy drums, &c., then I say, stop it at once, unless 



MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. 171 



you wish to raise a dangerous boy aud a dangerous man, for tliat is 
just the way to do it. 

Children, or others who may be afflicted with impediments of 
speecli, may be cured, if the remedj^ is not organic, by reading aloud 
for an hour or two every day, taking care to inhale air, and well fill 
the lungs, before reading each paragraph, as the cause of stammering 
in niue cases out of ten, is the endeavor to speak when the lungs are 
empty. Dr. Hunt, of Regent street, London, a celebrated and suc- 
cessful stammerers' doctor, charged fifty guineas for effecting cures 
by the method just noted. 

It is only in civilized life that we find the most favorable conditions 
for health and longevity. The poets have expended much rapturous 
sentiment and romance about "the noble red man" in his native 
forest, but a personal investigation of the object of their effusions is 
very apt to cause a sudden revulsion of feeling. A filthy person, 
greasy blankets, rank skins, and other unsavory surroundings, are 
apt to make short work of high-strung ideas in the shape of poetry, 
romance, or sentiment. Of a verity, "cleanliness is next to godli- 
ness," and it is indeed a most auspicious token that the old mediaeval 
ideas regarding the necessary connection between filth, poverty, and 
piety, are notions belonging to the past. Human life has been abso- 
lutely lengthened by the addition of several years to a generation, 
compared with what it was a hundred years ago, all owing to the 
observance of sanitary laws, and it will continue to lengthen, just in 
the proportion that these laws are respected. 

Dr. Jarvis intimates that in ancient Rome, in the period of 200 to 
500 years after the Christian era, the average duration of life in the 
most favored class was 30 years, while in the present century the 
average longevity of persons of the same class is 50 years. In the 
16th century, the average longevity in Geneva was 21.21 years; be- 
tween 1814 and 1833 it was 40.68, and as large a proportion now live to 
70 as lived to 43 300 years ago. In 1000, only 228 medical men live 
from 63 to 72, and 328 theologians. lu the last 50 years the mean 
term of life seems to have increased from 33 to 41. In professions, of 
those who attain the age of 66, there are found to be 43 Theologians, 
40 Agriculturists, 35 Men iu office, 32 Military, 32 Clerks, 29 Advo- 
cates, 28 Artists, 27 Professors, and 24 Medical practitioners. 

When man, by an orderly life, passes through the various stages 
of a healthy existence, from childhood to youth, from youth to man- 
hood, and from manhood to old age ; during the decline of life he grad- 
ually approaches the verge of natural decay, and death takes place 
from the gradual effluxion of vitality. Few lives, comparatively 
speaking, terminate in this way, but when this consummation is 
attained, and death, purely natural, takes place, it must be regarded 
as much in the light of a blessing as is natural birth, for it is an orderly 
working out of a most wise and beneficent law, and the nearer advance 
we make to this natural limit of existence the better. Death is usually 
regarded as a curse, and as something very dreadful ; there is a death 
which is hideed terrible bevond all powers of human conception, but 
natural death is not so, and is in no sense a calamity, but a wise pro- 
vision of Infinite Mercy for man's highest good. 

Harassing thoughts, mental anxiety, late hours, and worrnnent, 
are fruitful causes of disease in healthy persons, and of death in cases 
of illness. Use everv possible means to get rid of such feelings, and 



172 MEDICAL DEPAKTMENT, ETC. 

do not scruple to make use of such diversions or amusements as will 
effectually divert an invalid's thoughts from being too much en- 
grossed with self. When nature calls for rest and recreation, do not 
neglect the warning. Guard, against extreme fatigue of either body 
or mind, especially a complication of both together. Keep the pas- 
sions under thorough control; in doing this the good old Quaker's 
rule will be found of great assistance, viz., Never to allow himself to 
speak in a loud tone of voice. Nothing preserves health better than 
a placid temper. Exercise and phj'sical training should not be neg- 
lected ; persons engaged in sedentary emploj^nents should resort to 
exercise, or rest on finding their thoughts become confused, and labor- 
ers should not carry their efforts to the verge of exhaustion ; the 
heart's action is greatly injured thereby, and the bad effects will 
become permanent. 

Of all peoples, the Jews are notably the longest lived race ; the 
reason is because they live orderly lives, they take care of themselves, 
so to speak, use proper food, and abstain from pork, which, from its 
liability to promote diseased conditions of the blood, and thence of the 
whole system, is decidedly injurious as an article of diet. The use of 
immoderate quantities of meat has an unhealthj" influence on the 
body, and induces ferocity of the mind, as in Indians and others who 
subsist on it. Plutarch was astonished to think what appetite first 
induced man to taste of a dead carcase, and Pope said that the horrid 
and shocking sight of one of our modern kitchens gives one the image 
of a giant's den in romance, bestrewed with scattered heads and man- 
gled limbs. Vegetable food is not liable to distend the vessels, load 
the system, or becloud the mind, but the heat, fulness, and weight 
of animal food is unfavorable to its efforts. Cornaro, the dietetic, 
allowanced himself to 12 ozs. of dry food and 14 ozs. of liquids per 
day, from the age of 40 to 100. See JDijnamic Poioer of Food. 

In eating, select good nourishing diet, so as to insure variety with- 
out excess, eat with regularit}^, without long intervals of abstinence, 
and eat leisurely. In drinking, avoid taking large draughts of cold 
water, drink with extreme moderation during meals, and avoid drink- 
ing water which has vstood long in rooms or in lead pipes. Impure 
Avater is liable to produce malarial affections. Tea and coffee, if used 
strong, and in large quantities, are certain to produce nervous irrita- 
bility and brain excitement, but if used in moderation and of mild 
strength, they are most refreshing and pleasant. Nervous persons 
will find coffee more soothing than tea, while persons of a different 
temperament will be better suited with the latter. Beyond all doubt, 
and for almost every purpose, in health and disease, pure water is the 
healthiest beverage, and it certainly is the natural drink of irfan. 
According to Hoffman, "If there be any universal medicine it is 
water ; for, by its assistance, all distempers are alleviated or cured, 
and the body preserved sound and free from corruption, that enemy 
to life." As Dr. Gall said of another subject, so the writer would say 
here, that " This is Truth, though at enmity with the philosophy of 
ages." 

On Bathing. — Nothing is of more transcendant importance to 
the maintenance of health than cleanliness, and this can only be 
obtained by the free use of water, in washing, sponging, and bathing. 
The modes of bathing are various, and, when rightly used, are most 
powerful for good. The rule is, the more robust the constitution of 



MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. 173 

the patient, and higher his exterior temperature, the colder should 
be the water. In bathing it is always well to avoid taking a full bath 
within two hours after a meal, or when exhausted by fatigue, or when 
cooling after perspiration, or when feeling chilly. Do not drink cold 
water^ before bathing, nor eat soon after it. " Females, during the 
menstrual period, should never take cold baths. Never take a cold 
bath while the feet are cold. Never chill the body by standing or sit- 
ting on the banks during out-door bathing ; enter the water while the 
body is warm, and avoid remaining too long in the water, leaving it 
on the first feeling of chilliness. Exercise before and after bathing is 
highly beneficial] Feeble and nervous persons should guard against 
powerful chilling shocks from cold water. The young and vigorous 
may bathe early in the morning on an empty stomach. Persons sub- 
jected to giddiness, faintness, palpitation, or other affections of the 
heart, should use a cold bath with extreme caution. 

The Cold Bath, nsuaUy taken in the sea or in a river, tempera- 
ture from 35° to 65° Fahr., has a most powerful, exhilarating and 
tonic effect on the frame, and imparts a vigorous glow and stimulus 
to the system. It should not be continued longer than two or three 
minutes. 

The TejMperate Bath, rnnging from 65^ to 80° Fahr., is much 
preferable to the last for the u;^o of invalids. Duration of bath should 
not be extended over three minutes, and the whole body should be 
thoroughly rubbed dry with a coarse towel, to induce a glow. 

The Full Warm Bath, taken in the ordinary long bath tubs, 
as arranged by plumbers in dwellin^^s, hotels, &c. , are in the highest 
degree j)romotive of health and comfort. Fitted with hot and cold 
water connections, any desired temperature may be obtained, but for 
the best effect it should range from 90° to 98° ; better under that 
than over it. The benefits will be increased by the use of carbonate 
of soda, 4 ozs. to 30 gals, water. This rids the system of much effete 
matter, promotes the cure of disease, and thoroughly cleanses the 
emunctories. After bathing, rub thoroughly dry. 

The Hot Bath, ranging from 98° to 112°, thoroughly stimulates 
the nervous system, but immersion cannot be prolonged over two or 
three minutes^ without permanent injury. Water scalds at 150°, but 
air heated to 260° is not painful. It is not safe to tamper much with 
such high temperatures, although Berger remained seven minutes in 
an oven, heated to 230°. Bla^gden exceeded this, remaining eight 
minutes in a temperature of from 240° to 260°. Delaroche could not re- 
main more than 10 minutes m a vapor bath at 100°. Berger was obliged 
to get out of a vapor bath at a temperature of 122° in twelve and a 
half minutes . The sensation in hot vapor resembles that of contact 
with boiling water. Fish actually live in hot baths up to 150°. Trees 
also grow in a bath at 170° ; flowers near a volcano, at 210° ; and 
water-plants are fomid in boiling sprinacs. The king's bath at Bath 
is 116°, the hot bath is 117°, at Vichy 120°, at Aix la Chapelle 140°. 
In the hot springs at Leuk, in Switzerland, the temperature of twenty 
springs varies from 95° to 125° ; the baths are given at 98°, and, to 
make it as agreeable as possible, the patients bathe together, both 
men and women, dressed for the occasion. In the Hermbad, you 
may see the curious spectacle of people seated up to their necks in 
the bath, with coffee, books, cards, newspapers, work, &c., before 
them on little floating tables, or gossiping together or with their 



174 



MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC, 



friends, who look on from the wooden gallery which runs around 
the wall. The waters are both drank and bathed in, being considered 
excellent for weak nerves, palsy, diseases of the skin, and many 
chronic complaints. Elevation, 4675 feet above the sea. 

Poor Man's Vapor Bath. Heat two or three bricks and place 
them under the patient's chair, sprinkle some water over the bricks, 
and cover the patient to keep in the steam, or, a large lump of quick 
lime placed in a pan or old iron pot and sprinkled with water, or 
wrapped up in a wet, coarse towel. Neither of these methods, however, 
are at all comx^arable to the efficiency of a properly administered va- 
por bath, either pure or medicated, in which the temperature of the 
steam, &c. , can be regulated as follows : Temperature of tepid vapor 
bath, to be breathed, 90° to 100°, warm ditto 100° to llQo, hot ditto 
llQo to 130O ; not to be breathed, tepid bath, 96o to 106°, warm 106° 
to 120O, hot 120O to 130°. These baths have performed wonders in 
cases of chronic rheumatism, stiffness of joints, indurations, diarrhoea, 
suppressions, &c. 

The Sponge Bath is a means of health of such transcendant im- 
portance, that in the absence of otlier bathing facilities, it should never 
be neglected for a single day. It is a x)owerful conserver of health, 
and affords positive relief in almost r^ery phase of disease. The 
water may be used of sliij desired tempcn-ature. Apply with a towel 
or sponge, and when through polish off with a regular hard finish 
with a coarse towel, or still better, two of tliem, well laid on, the last 
one dry, to induce a glow on the skin by friction. 




Fig. 1. Fig. 2. 

The Sitting or Sitz Bath, Fig. 1, should be arranged to admit 
of the complete immersion of the lower part of the back and abdo- 
minal regions, the thighs, &c., with ample room for laving the water 
and kneading the parts. The cold tonic bath given in this way is ex- 
cellent for diseases of the kidneys, bladder, urino-genital organs, 
piles, constipation, &c. In cases of colic, spasm, griping pains, 
gravel, suppressed or iminful menstruation, inflammation, &c., it 
should be given warm in order to prove effective. Cover the patient, 
if need be, to prevent catching cold. The cuts are borrowed from an 
excellent little work by Dr. Trail, entitled, "The Bath: its History 
and Uses in Health and Disease ;" published by S. R. Wells, New 
York. 



MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. 



175 



The Head Bath, Fig. 2, is taken by placing the patient on his 
back, on a mattress, with his head in a shallow basin (made with a 
depression in the rim to accommodate the neck) with about 3 inchCw^j 
of water, warm or cold, as may be desired. A most excellent cooling 
application for affections of the head, brain, &c. 




Fig. 3. 



Fig. 4. 



The Douche Bath, Fig. 3, consists of a jet of water used as a 
stimulant in lethargic states of the system; also as a remedy for swel- 
lings, sprains, stiff joints, rheumatic affections, &c., applied directly 
to the parts, as shown above. A jet from a hose may be used as a 
substitute for the douche bath in certain cases. 

The Shallow Bath, Fig. 4, may be used with immense advan- 
tage both by invalids and persons in health ; the water maj^ be used 
at any desired temperature, not more than 6 inches deep, contained in 
a spacious tub. The water should be thoroughly applied over the 
breast, abdomen, sides, thighs, and extremities; the head should be 
wet, and water, cold, or otherwise, as desired, poured over the neck 
and shoulders by an assistant. This bath is excellent for brain affec- 
tions, headache, &c. The ba,th may be used for from 5 to 15 minutes ; 
rub thoroughly to dry and induce a healthy glow on the skin. 

The Wet Sheet Pack, Fig. 5. This is a most powerful remedial 
agent for invalids. Immerse a cotton or linen sheet in a pail of cold 
water, remove the bed clothes from the mattress, and on the mattress 
spread a coverlet ; then two or three blankets, next, wrmg out the 
wet sheet in the bucket of water, and spread it over the blankets. The 
patient will now warm his feet, divest himself of clothing, and place 
himself at full length on the cold wet sheet, with his hands placed over 
his breast. The sheet, blankets and coverlets are now tucked in close- 
ly all around his body by an attendant, the head is elevated on pil- 
lows, and covered with a wet cloth. The first sensation is that of a 
chill, which gives place almost immediately to a comfortable glow, 
gradually increasing to a sAveat. The patient should remain in the 
pack from 25 minutes to an hour or more. Some have been known 



176 



MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. 



to fall asleep in it. To receive the fullest benefit, it should be followed 
at once by a plunge bath (See Fig. 6), or thorough ablution in cold 
water previous to dressing. Then rub with friction by means of a 
coarse towel. In cases of severe disease, the benefit of this treat- 
ment is manifest from the very offensive odor imparted by the per- 




FiG. 5. 



Fig. 6. 



spirations to the sheet. Mercury, also, which had lodged in the sys- 
tem for years, having been taken under the guise of calomel, has 
been withdrawn through the pores by the Avet sheet, and detected in 
its woven fabric. The wet sheet pack is of great value in fevers, colds 
chronic diseases, and general derangement of the system. 

Spirit Vapor Bath. The patient divested of all clothing except 
a night shirt, is seated on a wooden bottomed chair, and well covered 
before and behind witli blankets or coverlets reaching from his 
shoulders to the floor. A saucer containing a few spoonfuls of alcho- 
hol, whiskey or any spirit that will burn, is now placed on the floor 
under the chair and ignited. The vapor ascends, and, confined by the 
blankets, it will soon induce a copious perspiration from every pore of 
the body subject to its action. The spirit maybe replenished when it 
burns out, but not while burning or while under the patient, owing 
to the possible resulting danger. The operation is highly beneficial to 
the system, and may last from 10 to 15 minutes, or until a free per- 
spiration is induced. Be careful that no damage results to the patient 
or his clothing from the burning spirit. 

For Spongio Piline, see Portable Bath. 

Sulphur and Medicated Baths.— The former is compounded by 
mixing sulphuret of potassium 4 ozs, and sulphuric acid 1 oz. in 30 
gals, of water. The latter are decoctions of vegetable or other mate- 
rials in water, in which the i)atient is immersed ; or, it can be applied 
with a sponge if so desired, and may be tepid, warm, or hot, as pre- 
ferred. 

The Air Bath, taken by exposing the naked body to the air in a 
cool room, is very salutary and beneficial. When not carried too far, 
it is very soothing in its effects, and, in wakeful states, is promotive 
of sleep. The good effects are greatly enhanced by friction with a 
towel during exposure. The same remarks are eminently true when 



MEDICAL DEPARTMENT. 177 

understood of snn-'batliing , or exposure of the nude body to the sun, 
which, in certain diseased conditions, has a most vivifying and in- 
vigorating effect. 

Galvanic, Electric, and Magnetic Baths. — The first is taken 
by placing the patient in a wooden bath tub (or in a iDainted metallic 
tub), filled with water impregnated with any desired drug. The nega- 
tive pole of the battery is suspended in the water, and a wire con- 
nected with the positive pole, with a sponge attached, communicates 
vrith the body. The electric current from the positive pole enters the 
body and escapes through the pores. The effect is beneficial in the 
highest degree. An electro-positive bath is given while the patient is 
seated on a chair, insulated by placing glass under the feet. While 
the glass plate of the electric machine is being revolved, the patient 
holds the prime conductor, and his body becomes charged with posi- 
tive electricity. The effect is very stimulating to deficient vitality. 

The Acid Bath is higlily beneficial in liver and other complaints, 
and may be compounded with water acidified with vinegar, or with 
water, 30 gals. , muriatic acid, 14 ozs. Use the latter in a wooden tub 
or non-metallic vessel, as the acid is inimical to metals. 

The Shower Bath, with cold water, never fails to produce a 
shock which nervous and weak patients find it very hard to with- 
stand; but, to persons of strong constitution, it cannot fail to prove 
beneficial, for the shock is usually succeeded by a most agreeable re- 
action. This bath may, however, be rendered agreeable, even to the 
feeble, by tlie use of tepid or warm water, applied in the form of a 
delicate spray, passed through minute perforations in a tin vessel 
placed overhead, and fitted with a proper apparatus for regulating the 
descent. 

" The Foot Bath is calculated to produce the most decided benefit 
in correcting cold feet, induced by liver complaint, etc.; also, to relieve 
heat in the "head, caused by fullness of blood on tli^ brain, with cold 
extremities. In such cases, use warm or hot water, with the addition 
of mustard or cayenne pepper. In cases of swelled limbs, ulcers, 
rheumatic pains, etc., great relief will be obtained by extending the 
treatment to the legs, knees, limbs, etc., thoroughly washing and lav- 
ing the parts. 

The Mud Bath, equivocal as it may appear, is nevertheless one 
of the most powerful remedial agents. On the principle that charcoal 
purifies foul water, absorbing its impurities, so mud acts on the body, 
opening the pores, withdrawing effete matter, cooling the skin, and 
curing disease. If any diseased person doubts this, let him put it to 
the test. 

The Iodine Bath, for adults, is compounded of iodme, 1 dr. ; 
iodide of potassium, 2 drs. ; water, 20 gals. For children's use, it 
F.hould be weaker. It is not adapted for indiscriminate use, "but for 
diseases affecting the glands, tubercular troubles, scrofula, etc. 1 he 
iodine vapor bath may be used as described under spirit vapor bath 

The Turkish Bath, by means of dry heated air, is one which 
may be, and often is, productive of much benefit in diseased con- 
ditions of the body, but is most inimical to health when used with 
regularity as a social enjovment or luxury. Wherever it has become 
a national custom, this bath has always proved the principal agency 
in sealing the doom of that nation, as witness the collapsed Rome of 
the past, and the reeling Turkey of the present. In reference to this, 

12 



178 MEDICAL DEPAKTMENT. 

one of the most prominent medical practitioners of the day, Dr. 
Richardson, of London, writes to the British Medical Revieio, as fol- 
lows: " I predict it will be the same here, under the same principles. 
I predict that whenever Englishmen give up the active occupations I 
have named (he had been urging healthy men to spend the time re- 
quired for the bath in digging, walking, rowing, rifle drill, cricketing, 
etc.), and, in slippered pantaloons, luxuriate daily in a bath, to rid 
themselves of the products of excretion, then this country Avill have 
passed its zenith. Then there will be no great hero to bid every man 
do his duty, no man to do the duty, and no England for which the 
duty should be done." 

The foregoing-, presenting a choice of between 20 and 30 different 
methods of bathing, is of great utility to all, but especially so. in the 
prevention and cure of the complex and delicate affections to which 
females are liable, and which call for such careful treatment from 
medical practitioners. There is room for deep regret that this class 
of diseases has opened a wide field for the operations of numerous 
rapacious and incompetent men, who are a disgrace to the profession, 
and whose ravenous proclivities and infamous practices blind them to 
everything but the acquisition of i)lunder. The medical profession, as 
a class, have always been held. in high estimation; so much so, that, 
during tlie reign of the Emperor Augustus, they were exempted from 
the payment of taxes ; and that there should be so many cormorants 
in their ranks, is regretted by none more sincerely than by the respect- 
able members of the profession. The real impostor is generally 
knowai by his resonant i^uffs, in the shape of advertisements, in 
which, while uttering the most savage maledictions against quacks 
and quackery, he almost lays personal claim to the powers of omnipo- 
tence in the cure of disease. These incorrigible rascals generally 
parade a dazzling list of fictitious certificates of cures performed by 
them where everjpother doctor had failed; but they Avill not liesitate 
to act the thief as nearly as the law allows, and strip their victim of 
his or her last dollar, exacted for services fifty times worse than use- 
less. 

Grateful, indeed, should he be who escapes with nothing worse 
than the loss of his money. The advertising quack is generally a 
dead shot, something of the Dr. Hornbook genus, as immortalized by 
Burns, very profuse in his promises to cure disease and conceal in- 
firmities, but like his illustrious prototype, very uncanny, and alto- 
gether too ready to send his patients *' aff to their lang hame, to hide 
them there." 

In England, previous to the advent of the modern newspaper, the 
quack used to transform himself into a living advertisement, by itin- 
erating through the provincial towns in a blazing uniform, dressed 
like a mountebank, with cocked hat and wig. Accompanied by an 
assistant, he would mount a platform, gather an immense crowd, and 
proceed to deliver an extravagant eulogium on his profound skill, pro- 
digious wealth, and the wonderful virtues of his pills, panaceas and 
elixirs, as he offered them for sale. The assistant, who seemed to an- 
swer to the character of a modern clown in a circus, would aid witli 
the sales, and keep up the farce by making witty remarks on the doc- 
tor's wild averments. For example, after listening to the doctor's 
statements regarding his boundless wealth, and great condescension 
in consenting to travel for the purpose of healing the sick, as he was 



MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, 



179 



not obliged to do so for want, the clown would announce to the au- 
dience that " The doctor tells the truth, we doant need to travel for 
want, for we have enoof of that at hoam." The result is a loud 
laugh, the crowd is in good humor, the pills, elixirs, etc., are sold, 
and the buyers are sold at the same time. 




The Lunatic Asylum. — Insanity may be caused by intense 
study, mental exertion, care, business worriment, fright, grief, physi- 
cal injuries to the brain, hard drinking, etc. The children of parents 
who are in a state of intoxication during the period of conception, 
usually become idiots. Knowing these things, it becomes every one 
to use great caution to steer clear of the rocks, or a shattered mind 
may be the fearful penalty of neglect. The engraving presented 
herewith is from the celebrated "Lunatic Asylum" as pamted by 
the eminent German painter, Wilhelm Von Kaulbach, after he had 
witnessed the awful scene. 

Effects of the Solar Light ok Lun^atics. — Dr. Ponza, di- 
rector of the Lunatic Asylum at Alessandria, Piedmont, having con- 
ceived the idea that the solar rays might have some curative power 
in diseases of the brain, the experiment was tried in rooms lighted 
by stained glass, the walls being painted the same color as the wui- 
dows. The patients loassed the night in rooms oriented to the east 
and south, and painted and glazed'as above. One of them, affected 
with morbid taciturnity, became gay and affable after 3 hours stay in 
a red chamber ; another, a maniac who refused all food, asked for 
some breakfast after having stayed 24 hours in the same red cham- 



180 MEDICAL DEPARTMENT. 

ber. lu a blue one, a highly excited madman with a straight waist- 
coat on, was kept all day, an hour after he appeared much calmer. 
The action of blue light is very intense on the optic nerve, and seems 
to cause a sort of oppression. A patient was made to pass the night* 
in a violet chamber ; on the following day he begged Dr. Ponza to 
send him home, because he felt himself cured, and indeed he has 
been well ever since. Dr. Ponza' s conclusions from his experiments, 
are these: " The violet rays, are, of all others, those that possess 
the most intense electro-chemical power. The red light is also very 
rich in calorific rays : blue light, on the contrary, is quite devoid of 
them, as well as of chemical and electric ones. Its beneficent influ- 
ence is hard to explain ; as it is the absolute negation of all excite- 
ment, it succeeds admirably in calming the furious excitement of 
maniacs." 

Weak Back. — Take a beefs gall, panr into it 1 pint alcohol, and 
bathe f requentlj^ It acts like a charm. 

Sprained Ankle. — Wash the ankle frequently with cold salt 
and water, which is far better than warm vinegar or decoctions of 
herbs. Keep your foot as cold as possible to prevent inflammation, 
and sit with it elevated on a cushion. 

Spitting of blood.— Two spoonfuls of sage juice in a little 
honey, will speedily stop either spitting or vomiting blood, or, take 
20 grains in water every two hours. 

Apoplexy. — Occurs only in the corpulent or among high livers. 
To treat — raise the head in a nearly upright position ; unloose all 
tight clothes, strings, etc., and apply cold water to the head, and 
warm water and warm cloths to the feet. Have the apartment cool 
and well ventilated. Give nothing by the mouth until the breathing 
is relieved, and then only draughts of cold water. 

Bright's Disease. — Dr. Arthur Scott Donkin, extols a skim 
milk diet in this disease. "The first appreciable action," he says, 
*' of skim milk taken to the extent of 6 or 7 pts. daily, is that of a 
most energetic diuretic, a profuse flow of urine being rapidly pro- 
duced. The effect of this in Bright's disease, is to flush the urinifer- 
ous tubules, and to dislodge and wash out the concrete casts of dis- 
eased epithelial cells by which they are blocked up and distended. 
The emptying of the tubules relieves their pressure on the surround- 
ing secondary capillaries, the blood begins to flow more freely through 
them, the distension of the primary malpighian capillaries, is re- 
lieved ; less and less albumen escapes through their walls, until the 
renal circulation is gradually restored, when it finally disappears 
from the urine. While this beneficial change is progressing, healthy 
epithelium is developed in the tubules, and the urinary excrement is 
withdrawn from the blood. In short, a healthy nutrition becomes 
re-established in the kidneys through the agency of milk, which, 
above all other substances, seems to exercise a controlling influence 
over this process. 

Remedy for Gout and Rheumatism. — Gum guaiacum, 1 oz. ; 
rhubarb in powder, 2 drs. ; flour of sulphur, 2 ozs. ; cream of tartar, 
1 oz., ginger poAvder 1 oz.; make into an electuary with molasses. 
Dose :' 2 teaspoOnfuls, night and morning. Rheumatic Plaster, resin J 
lb., sulphur 5 lb., melt them by a slow fire ; then add cayenne i3epper 
1 oz., camphor gum J oz. Stir well till mixed, and temper with neats- 
f oot oil. To guard against rheumatism, adhere to a regular diet, 
breath pure air, and avoid exposure. 



MEDICAL DEPARTMENT. 



181 




INDUSTRY PROMOTES BODII.Y HEALTH A:N^D MENTAL ACTIVITY. 

Every true man will most willingly concur in the roj^al assevera- 
tion of old king Solomon, that the price of a wise, virtuous, and 
good woman, "is far above rubies." Poets of every age and race, 
have sung her praises, and many a man has had abundant reason to 



182 MEDICAL DEPARTMENT. 

thank his Maker for an inestimable blessing in the companionship of 
a virtuous, loving, devoted and affectionate wife. What earthly- 
prize can for a moment be compared with this. In her person we see 
the perfection of loveliness — modesty, grace, and beauty ; in her 
voice we hear the sweetest music ; in her mind we see a fragrant 
blending of the most attractive attributes, and the nearest created 
approximation to that Love which is Infinite. Sherlock avers that 
*' The perception of woman is as quick as lightning. Her j)enetra- 
tion is intuition : almost instinct. By a glance she will draw a deep 
and just conclusion. Ask her how"^she formed it, and she cannot 
answer the question. While she trusts her instinct she is scarcely 
ever deceived, but she is generally lost when she commences to rea- 
son." 

Every one knows that this is true, but very few know the reason 
why it is so. This we find unfolded in the following quotation from 
the illumined Swedenborg : " The man is born to be intellectual, 
thus to think from the understanding, but the woman is born to be 
voluntary, thus to think from the will; which also is evident from the 
inclination or connate disposition of each, as also from their form. 
From the disposition, in that the man acts from reason, but the 
woman from affection. From the form, in that the man has a 
rougher and less beautiful face, a heavier speech, and a harder body, 
but the woman has a smoother and more beautiful face, a more ten- 
der speech, and a softer body. Similar is the distinction between 
the understanding and the will, or between thought and affection." 
Again, "The male is born into the affection of knowing, of under- 
standing, and of being wise, and the female is born into the love of 
conjoining herself with that affection in the male." The special at- 
tributes of the will principle are perception, affection, and every re- 
sultant feminine grace, or in one word — Love. 

The question which eclipses all others in importance is, How shall 
this most precious quality be trained and cultivated ? Or, into what 
channels should its course be guided and directed ? On this subject, 
hear Swedenborg once more : " Love truly conjugal, considered in 
its origin, and its correspondence, is heavenly, spiritual, pure, and 
clean, above every love which is with the angels of heaven and the 
men of the church." Again, "I Imow that few will acknowledge, 
that all joys and delights, from first to last, are gathered into conju- 
gal love, because that love truly conjugal, is at this day so rare, that 
what it is is not known, and scarcely that it is." ^ We may learn 
from this, that love is of heavenly origin, and was given that it might 
be used for heavenly ends and purposes. - It follows from this there- 
fore, that in order to attain to a full and healthy mental and physical 
development, it is imperiously necessary that immorality and un- 
chastity in every form, should be discountenanced and shunned, for 
it is only in total abstinence from impurity and illicit pleasures, that 
Ave can find immunity from ruin, degradation, and death. This is 
true in the case of man, and it is still more so in the case of woman, 
for in almost every case after the first false step, she is led on to 
swift destruction by the ascendancy of her affections, without being 
arrested in her career by the wholesome restraint of the reflective or 
reasoning faculties Avhich operate so powerfully in man. Every 
means should be employed that will operate to prevent such a baleful 
consummation. All obscene, immoral, and impure books, everything 



MEDICAL DEPARTMENT. 183 

we can find immunity from ruiu, degradation, and death. This is 
true in the case of man, and it is still more so in the case of woman, 
for in almost every case after the first false step, she is led on to 
swift destruction by the ascendancy of her affections, without being 
arrested in her career by the wholesome restraint of the reflective or 
reasoning faculties which operate so powerfully in man. Every 
means should be employed that will operate to prevent such a baleful 
consummation. All obscene, immoral, and impure books, everything 
in the shape of literature which tends to inflame the passions, pro- 
mote licentiousness, and corrode purity of mind, should be at once 
dex)osited in the only place where they will prove innocuous — in the 
fire. Labor to elevate and train the faculties of the soul in the love 
and practise of what is good and true ; rule the propensities, and 
hold them in abeyance, remembering that no victory is at all com- 
parable with that obtained over self. 

Perhaps the intensest longing of which a good woman's heart is 
suscei^tible, is after union and intimate conjunction with a worthy 
husband. It may be no news to inform such women, that nothing 
attracts the opposite sex to them compared with a tender and win- 
ning manner, blended with feminine sweetness of temper. The 
sweet temper is a crowning charm together, with the female grace 
Avhich seems to solicit and invite, while at the same time it modestly 
repels. Men never respect boldness or audacity in women. What 
they most desire to see m them is something in which they are de- 
cidedly deficient themselves. Prof. Tyndall, the scientist, a man of 
great scientific attainments, is now fifty-six years of age, and but 
lately married. On being interrogated by a friend previous to his 
marriage, as to what attractions he saw in his intended which drew 
forth his preference for her more than for others, the characteristic 
reply was: " Less dynamic force.'* It has been so in all ages, and 
will so continue. 

In every possible way try to act in a natural and becoming man- 
ner, without affectation. Dress according to your means and sta- 
tion, if you will, but always in a modest, unassuming style, and dis- 
card at once and for ever, all those wretched shams aiid miserable 
appliances in the shape of padding, painting, perfuming, curling, 
tight lacing, etc., which are calculated to ruin the health and deceive 
^the observer. Cultivate khidness, cheerfulness, an even quiet 
temper, and repress asperities of exerj kind. 

The most jjowerful means for the repression of evil and the elimi- 
nation of good, is constancy in some useful employment of bodj^ or 
mind. Useful uidustry i^romotes bodily health, enhances every 
female grace, sweetens the temper, and beautifies the countenance. 
It is the great safety valve, which by Divine appointment, is designed 
to absorb and utilize the surplus energy dispersed to every heaith\^ 
human being during the i^rime of life^ and which, if spent in idle- 
ness, frivolity, dissipation, or senseless gossiping, is certain to pro- 
duce the most malignant evils. 

Ladies should never neglect pure air, and abundant out door ex- 
ercise, either in walking, carriage, or horseback riding. Confinement 
in close rooms, with stove or furnace heat, is most unfavorable to 
robust health. It is all important, in consideration of the joerform- 
ance of those high and holy functions entrusted to woman, that the 
beautiful, delicate, and exquisitely constructed body by which those 
functions are accomplished, should be kept attuned to the most per- 



/ 



184 MEDICAL DEPARTMENT. 

feet state of health. The mind should be kept free from toioral con- 
tamination of every kind, and trained to habits of pure thought, 
sobriety and stability. Nothing can be of greater importance to 
humanity than the proper adj ustment of the physical and mental 
equilibrium of woman. The weal or woe of the human race seem to 
t¥irn on this primary essential as on a pivot. What our children are, 
is in a great measure what their mother's have made them, for in the 
turn on this primary essential as on a pivot. What our children are 
is in a great measure what their mothers have made them, for in the 
very nature of things, children are in the mother's hand, like plas- 
tic wax under the seal, and the impression is generally in harmony 
either with what she has taught them or neglected to teach. 

Equally important is the duty incumbent on every female to vigi- 
lantly guard against forming matrimonial engagements with men of 
defective health or vitiated morals. The neglect of this wise precau- 
tion has caused an extent of misery and wretchedness beyond all 
human conception. On this subject, one of the ablest living medical 
men, Dr. B. W. Richardson, of London, England, remarks as fol- 
lows: " Tlie first step towards the reduction of diseases is, beginning 
at the beginning, to provide for the health of the unborn. If the 
intermarriage of disease were considered in the same light as the 
intermarriage of poverty, the hereditary transmission of disease 
would be at an end in three, or at most, four generations." He re- 
marks in ancther place, " Greater care than is at present manifested, 
ought to be tciken witii women who are about to become mothers." 

As many estimable ladies are pardonably anxious about their 
chances for marriage, the following curious statement, by Dr. Gran- 
ville, is drawn up from the registered cases of 876 married Avomen in 
France. It is the first table ever constructed to exhibit to ladies their 
chances of marriages at various ages. Of the 876 tabulated, there 
were married : — 



Years of age. 


Years of age. 


Years of age. 


Years of age. 


3 at 13 


118 at 20 


28 at 27 


5 at 34 


11 at 14 


813 at 21 


22 at 28 


3 at 35 


16 at 15 


85 at 22 


17 at 29 


at 36 


43 at 16 


59 at 23 


9 at 30 


2 at 37 


45 at 17 


53 at 24 


7 at 31 


at 38 


77 at 18 


36 at 25 


5 at 32 


1 at 39 


115 at 19 


24 at 26 


7 at 33 


at 40 



It should not be forgotten that women, and men, too, in England, 
Canada, and the Northern States, are no nearer maturity at 20, than 
the French at 18. This is owing to the warm climate, which in 
France accelerates maturity with greater rapidity than in more 
northern climes. From salutary experience, it would be safe to say 
that the best results would follow, did our girls not marry until after 
20, and our men till after 22, or even 24. 

Women married at 25, live four years longer than unmarried 
ones; 72 married women live to 45, for 52 unmarried. Among mar- 
ried men, 41 attain 45, for 18 unmarried. At 60, there are 48 married men 
for 11 unmarried. At 80, the numbers are 9 married for 3 unmarried. 

Cerebro-Spin^al Meningitis, or Spotted Fever, is fre- 
quentlj' caused by bad diet, malaria, cold, repression of the secre- 
tions, changeable weather, etc. It is a most malignant trouble, con- 
sisting of inflammation of the brain and spinal marrow. There is 
fever, pain in the her.d, rigidity of the muscles, intense thirst, ter- 
rible pain, and an abundance of purple spots. The head is forced 



MEDICAL DEPARTMENT. 18o 

backward with fearful agony, the intense suffering induces prostra- 
tions, stupidity, deafness, — in some cases blindness, and if the dis- 
ease is not restrained by skilful treatment, insensibilit3^ and death. 
In treating this disease, keep the bowels open, and the body warm: 
immersion in a hot bath, made strong with salt and mustard, is good 
to bring the blood to the surface. Another way is to wrap the body 
in a Avoollen blanket wrung out of hot water, and place outside of the 
blanket bottles filled with hot water, and cover over close, as de- 
scribed under the wet sheet x:)ack ; this Avill induce a copious perspir- 
ation and afford relief. Warm ginger tea is useful to generate inter- 
nal heat, and tincture of pepper for outward application, with fric- 
tion on the skin. If the pulse is high, give two to three drops ex- 
tract of Veratruyn viride (American Hellebore), every hour, diluted 
by adding 1 teaspoonful of water to ea-^h drop of the extract. Guard 
against constipation, retention of urine, convulsions, etc., and if the 
head is severely pained, relieve by dry cupping over tlie neck and spine. 

Croup Sykup. — Crushed blood root, 2 teaspoonfuls ; vinegar, 2 
gills ; white sugar, 8 tablespoonf uls ; boil all together and strain. 
Dose, from 5 to 1 teaspoonful. every hour or half hour, (warm) accord- 
ing to the severity of the case. Sponge the body with strong salera- 
tus water, and if inflammation exists, give, for a child of 1 year, a 
teaspoonful (every hour) of a mixture of 5 drops of veratrum in 20 
teaspoonfuls of w^ater. 

Sulphuric Ether.— Rectified spirit, 3 lbs. ; sulphuric acid, 2 lbs. 
carbonate of potassa (previously ignited), 1 oz. ; pour 2 lbs. of the 
spirit into a glass retort, add the acid, place the vessel on a sand 
bath, so that the liquor may boil as soon as possible, and the ether as 
it forms, pass over into a well cooled receiver; continue the distilla- 
tion until a heavier fluid begins to pass over, then lower the heat, 
add the remainder of the spirit, and distil as before ; pour off the 
supematent portion, add the carbonate of potassa for one hour; 
finally, distil the ether from a large retoit, and keep it in a well- 
stoppered bottle. 

Chloroform.— Take chloride of lime (in powder), 4 lbs.; water, 
12 lbs. ; mix in a capacious retort or still, add, of rectified spirit, 12 
fluid ozs., and cautiously distil, as long as a dense liquid, which sinks 
in the water it passes over with, is produced ; separate this from the 
water, agitate it with a little sulphuric acid, and, lastly, rectify from 
carbonate of baryta. The only safe way known of purifying chloro- 
form, consists in agitatioii ^\t\\pure water and redistillation. 

Prof. Nussbaum has succeeded in prolonging the anaesthesia in- 
duced by chloroform, bv the sub-cutaneous injection of a solution 
containing 1 gr. of acetate of morphia. In one case the patient slept 
12 hours and\inderwent a painful operation, without any sensation 
whatever. The injection performed without the previous inhalation 
of chloroform, produced no such effect. 

Carbonic Oxide Gas, is inflammable, but arrests animal life. 
Carbonic Acid Gas may be liquefied as follows :— Get a strong iron 
bottle, strong enough to resist a pressure of 40 atmospheres, or 600 
lbs. to the square inch ; put into it about 4 ozs. of sodic bicarbonate, 
and a small pot containing about the same quantity of oil of vitriol. 
Insert the latter carefuUv, so as not to spill any : close the bottle with 
an air tight cap, surround by a mixture of ice and salt, and upset the 
inner pot. The gas becomes condensed and liquified in the bottle, 
and on opening the bottle, by means of a stop-cock in the lid, will 
rush out, and part will fall down in a frozen state like snow. A jet 



186 



MEDICAL DEPARTMENT. 



of the liquid carbonic acid, directed on the bulb of a spirit thermom- 
eter, made it fall to 194° below zero. A jet passed into a phial is ex- 
panded 400 times, and the cold solidifies it as a white powder. Then, 
if the finder is placed on the powder, the expansion repels the finger, 
the cold being 231° below zero ! It is too dangerously cold for medi- 
cal applications, but a mixture of salt and finely broken ice, have 
been used to promote immunity from pain during amputation, and in 
cases of severe headache. Anaesthesia may also be produced by 
projecting a spray of sulphuric ether and rhigoline, which produces a 
temporary freezing, during which time an operation may be per- 
formed without pam to the patient, after which the parts thaw, and 
sensibility returns. 

Rules to be Followed by the By-standers in case of in- 
jury by Machinery &c., WHERE Surgical Assistance cannot 
be obtained,— In cases of severe shock, inducing paleness, chilliness, 
and prostration, place the sufferer on a bed with the head but slight- 
ly raised, keep up warmth by wrapping him in blankets and coverlets, 
assisted by bottles containing hot water, or by warm bricks, Avrap- 
ped in cloths, and applied to the armpits, sides, feet, &c., stimulate 
with table spoonful doses of whiskey or brandy every 15 or 20 minutes, 
until partial recovery, and nourish by giving strong soup occasionally. 
If the patient is not bleeding, do not bind the limb tight, but cover 
the bruised part lightly with rags. 

If bleeding results, do not try to stop it by binding up tlie wound, 
but find the artery by its beating, and place a firm and smooth wad 
made of cloth or rags rolled up, or any romid smooth article of proper 
size, WTapped up and place over the artery as shown in the figures, 
tie a handkerchief around the limb and tighten up ; put a stick through 
under the handkerchief as shown in Fig. B, giving it just enough of 
twist to stop the bleeding, then enter one end of the stick under the 
handkerchief as shown in Fig. C, to secure the bind. When the leg 
is bleeding: below the knee, apply the i)ad over the artery at the back 



of the thigh, as shown at C, on Fig. 
described. 



A, and secure in front as above 




The artery in the thigh runs along the inner side of the muscle in 
front near the bone. A little above the knee, it passes to the back of 
the bone. In injuries at or above the knee, apply the compress high 
up on the inner side of the thigh, at the pomt where two thumbs meet 
at C ,on Fig. D, with the knot on the outer side of the thigh. 

The artery in the arm runs down the inner side of the large muscle 
in front, quite close to the bone ; low down it gets further forward 
towards the bend of the elbow. It is most easily found and com- 
pressed a little above the middle at C, as shown on Fig. E. 

Examine the limb from time to time, and relax the compression if 
it becomes very cold or purple, but tighten the handkerchief again in 
case of bleeding. 

To transport an injured person, make a soft bed for the injured 
part, of straw, folded coverlets, &c., laid on a board, with side-pieces 



MEDICAL DEPARTMENT. . 187 

of board uailed on, when tliis can be done. If possible let the patient 
be laid on a door, shutter, settee, or other firm support comfortabl}' 
covered, and carry him steadily. Send for a physician in all cases. 
For Burns and Scalds, consult the Engineers' Department under that 
item. 

For Bruises, use tepid applications at first. After inflammation siii)- 
sides, use stimulating applications, as yinegar and water, or camphor- 
ated liniment. 

Yov Sprains, elevate the limb; keep the joint easy; apply tepid 
lotions or fomentations. When inflammation subsides, apply stimulat- 
ing liniments, and shower the part alternately with cold and tepid 
water. 

For iSTtiMBisiESS from Cold. — Restore warmth gradually, in pro- 
portion as circulation in the parts or body increases. 

For a Frozen Limb. — Rub with snow, and place in cold water 
for a short time. When sensation returns, i^lace again in cold water; 
add heat very gradually, by adding warm water. If apparently dead 
or insensible, strip entirely of clothes, and cover body, with exception 
of mouth and nostrils, with snoio o^ ice-cold water. When the body 
is thawed, dry it, place it in a cold bed ; rub with warm hands under 
the cover; continue this for hours. If life appears, give small injec- 
tions of camphor and water; put a drop of spts. camphor on the 
tongue ; then rub body with spirits and water, finally with spirits; 
then give tea, coffee, or brandy and water. 

In Apparent Death from Breathing Noxious Yapors. — ^Ex- 
pose the person to the air; sprinkle cold water on face and head; rub 
strong vinegar about nostrils; give drink of vinegar and water. If 
suffocated by breathing charcoal fumes, treat in the same manner, and 
excite breathing as directed in cases of drowning. 

Dr. M. Hall's Directions for Restoring the Apparently 
Drowned. — 1. Send for a physician in all cases. 2. Treat the patient 
instantly on the spot, in the open air, freely exposing the face, 
neck, and chest to the breeze, except in cold weather. 3. In order 
to CLEAR the throat, placc the patient gently on the face with one 
wrist under the forehead, that all fluid, and the tongue itself may fall 
forward, and leave the entrance into the windpipe free. 4. To ex- 
cite RESPIRATION, tum the patient slightly on his side, and apply 
some irritating or stimulating agent to the nostrils, as veratrine, 
DILUTE ammonia, &c., or snuff, or apply a feather to the throat. 5. 
I\Iake the face warm by brisk friction ; then dash cold water upon it. 
6. If not successful, lose no time, but, to imitate respiration, 
place the patient on his side, and a little beyond; then again on 
the face, and so on alternately. Repeat these movements deliberately 
and perseveringly 15 times only in a minute. (Wiien the patient 
lies on the breast, this cavity [is compressed by the weight of the 
bodj'-, and expiration takes place. When he is turned on the side this 
pressure is removed, and inspiration occurs). 7. When the prone 
position is resumed, make a uniform and efficient pressure along 
the spine, removing the pressure immediately, before rotation on the 
side. (The pressure augments the expiration ; the rotation commences 
inspiration). Continue these measures. 8. Rub the limbs upward 
WITH FIRM pressure, and with energy. (The object being to aid the 
return of venous blood to the heart). 9. Substitute for the patient's 
wet clothing, if possible, such other covering as can be instantly pro- 



188 . MEDICAL DEPARTMENT. 

cured, etich by-stander supplying a coat or vest, &c. Meantime, and 
from time to time, to excite inspie,atio:n", let the surfa,ce of the "body 
be SLAPPED briskly with the hand. 10. Rub the body briskly till it 
is Avarm and dry, then dash cold Avater upon it, and repeat the 
rubbing. 

Avoid the immediate removal of the patient, as it involves a dan- 
gerous LOSS OF time; also, the use of bellows, or any forcing in- 
strument, and ALL ROUGH treatme:nt. 

Rules for Accidents on Water. — ^When upset in a boat or 
thrown into the water and unable to swim, draw tlie breath in well; 
keep the mouth tight shut ; do not struggle and throw the arms up, 
but yield quietly to the water; hold theliead well up, and stretch out 
the hands only beloiv the water; to throw the hands or feet ^/p will 
pitch the body beloiv the water, hands or feet wp will i)itch the body 
head doivn, and cause the whole person to go immediately under 
water. Keep the head above, and every thing else under water. 

Everyone should learn to swim ; no animal, aquatic fowl, or reptile 
requires to be taught this, for they do it naturally. Few persons 
exist who have not some time or other, seen a bullfrog perform his 
masterly movements in the water, and it would detract from no one's 
dignity to take a few lessons from him. In learning, the beginner 
might sustain himself by a plank, a block, of wood, an attachment 
composed of cork, an inflated bladder, a flying kite, or a stout cord 
attached to a long rod held by an assistant on the land. Learn to 
sivim cost what it ivill. 

An officer of the Xew York police force wears three medals, and 
receives $50 per month from the Life Saving Benevolent Association. 
He has saved 12 lives from death by drowning, but he says that when 
a boy he received a thrashing every night from his father for going in 
swimming. 

Oxygen Gas. — 1. Use red oxide of mercury; heat over a spirit 
lamp, or ignited charcoal in a green glass retort, or in a short tube of 
Bohemian glass, closed with a perforated cork furnished with a piece 
of bent glass tube of small bore to conv^ey the liberated gas to the 
vessel arranged to receive it. Pure. 1 oz. yields about 100 cubic 
inches. 2. Treat chlorate of potassa as above. Pure. Product 100 
cubic inches of gas from 100 grains. 3. Bichromate of potassa, 3 
parts ; oil of vitriol, 4 parts ; heat gently as before ; yields pure oxy- 
gen very freely and rapidly. 4. Binoxide of manganese and oil of 
vitriol, equal parts : treat as the last. Product, 256 cubic inches from 
1 oz. binoxide. 5. On the large scale ; expose nitre to a dull red heat 
in an iron retort or gun barrel, Product, 1200 cubic inches of gas 
(from 1 lb. nitre), contaminated more or less with nitrogen. 6. Treat 
good commercial binoxide of manganese, as the last. Product, 1500 
to 1600 cubic inches, or from 5 to 6 gals, from 1 lb. of binoxide. 7. 
Chlorate of potassa 1^ lbs. ; binoxide of manganese, | lb. ; treat as 
the last. Gas procured from manganese or nitre, may be purified by 
passing it through lime water. When required for nice experiments, 
the first gas should be allowed to pass awaj^, or else be gathered 
separately, as it is apt to be impure. Oxygen gas is the supporter of 
vitality and fire, and is often used as a remedial agent in asphyxia, 
arising from the inhalation of carbonic acid or carbonic oxide. It 
was first discriminated as a distinct gas, by Priestly, in 1774. 



MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. 189 

Gerjian Rheumatic Fluid. — Oils of hemlock and cedar, of each 
Joz., oils of origanum and sassafras, each 1 oz. ; aqua ammonia, 1 
oz. ; capsicum pulverized, 1 oz. ; spirits of turpentine and gum 
•camphor, each i oz. ; put all into a quart bottle, and fill with 95 per 
cent, alcohol. Dose, for colic, for man, half a teaspoonful ; for a 
horse, J to 1 oz., in a little warm water, every 15 minutes, till relieved. 

LiNEsiENT FOR Old Sores. — Alcohol, 1 qt. ; aqua ammonia, 4oz. ; 
oil of origanum, 2 oz. ; camphor gum, 2 oz. ; opium, 2 oz. ; gum 
myrrh, 2 oz. ; common salt, two tablespoons. Mix, and shake occa- 
sionally for a week. 

LiKDviENT. — Good Samaritan. — Take 98 per cent, alcohol, 2 qts. ; 
and add to it the following articles : Oils of sassafras, hemlock, 
spirits of turpentine, tincture of cayenne, catechu, guaiac (guac), and 
laudanum, of each, 1 oz. ; tincture of myrrh, 4 oz. ; oil of origanum, 
2 oz. ; oil of wintergreen, J oz. ; gum camphor, 2 oz, ; and chloro- 
form, IJ oz. This is one of the best applications for internal pains 
knoAvn : it is superior to any other enumerated in this work. 

Inhalation of Tar for Consuiviptiqn. — Mix together 16 ozs. of 
liquid tar and one fluid oz. liquor of potassa, boil them for a few 
minutes in the open air, then let it simmer in an iron vessel over a 
spirit or other lamp in the chamber of the patient. This may at first 
excite a disposition to cough, but in a short time it aUays it, and re- 
moves any tendency to it. 

Cancer cure. — Drink a tea made from the tops of red clover ; 
about 1 qt. per day should be taken internally, and the tea should be 
used as a wash twice per day, ; very strongly recommended. 

Taylor's Remedy for Deafness. — Digest 2 ozs. braised garlic in 
1 lb. oil of almonds for a week, and strain. A drop x)0ured into the ear 
is effective in temporary deafness. 

Cure for Earache. — Take equal parts of chloroform and lauda- 
num, dip a i^iece of cotton into the mixture and introduce uito the ear, 
and cover up and get to sleep as soon as possible. 

Ottawa Root Beer. — Take 1 oz. each of sassafras, allspice, yellow- 
dock, and winter gi-een ; J oz. each wild cherry bark and coriander ; 
i oz. hops and 3 qts. molasses. Pour sufficient boiling water on the 
ingredients and let them stand 24 hours, filter the liquor and add Jpt. 
yeast, and it is ready for use in 24 hours. 

To Extract Essential Oil from Wood, Barks, Roots, Herbs, 
&c. — Take balm, mint, sage, or any other herb, &c., put it into a bot- 
tle, and pour upon it a spoonful of ether ; keej) in a cool place a few 
hours, and then fill the bottle with cold water ; tlie essential oil will 
swim upon the surface and may be easily separated. 

Fumigating Paper. — ^Dip light paper in a solution of alum ; strength 
of alum 1 oz., water 1 pt. Dry thoroughly, and on one side spread a 
mixture of equal parts of gum benzoin, galbanum, or Peruvian balsam; 
melt the gums in an earthenware dish and spread with a hot spatula ; 
slips of the paper are held over a fight, when the odorous matter ^vill 
be evaporated, the alum preventing the paper from igniting. 

Transparent Cement for Glass. — Dissolve 1 part India-rubber 
in chloroform, and add 16 parts by measure of gum mastic in powder. 
Digest for 2 days, shaking the bottle frequently ; apply with a fine 
camel's hair brush. 

Mouth Wash.— Proof spirits, 1 qt. ; borax and honey, of each 1 oz. ; 



190 MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. 

gum myrrli, 1 oz. ; red sanders wo(5d, 1 025. Rub the honey and borax 
Avell together in a mortar, then gradually add the spirit, the myrrh and 
sanders wood, and macerate 14 days. 

^yASH roil REMOVING PAilTICI.ES OF ZiNG OR IRON FROM THE 

Eye.— Muriatic acid, 20 drops ; mucilage, Idr. ; mix with 2 fluid ozs. 
rose water. Iron or steel particles may bo extracted by holding near 
them a powerful magnet. 

To Remove Tumors. — Dr. Simpson of Edinburgh introduces a 
hollow acupuncture needle, or very line trocar (a surgical instrument 
in the form of a fine hollow needle) into their tissue, and injects a 
few drops of some irritant liquid, such as a solution of chloride of 
zinc, pcrcholorde of iron, or creosote. The effect is to destroy the 
vitality of the tumors so treated, and admit of separating them. 

CojNepound Syrup of HvpoPHOsrHiTES.— Take of hypophosphito 
of lime, 1^ oz. ; hypophosphite of soda \ oz ; hypophosphite of pot- 
assa, \ oz."; cane sugar, 1 lb. troy ; hot water, 20 fluid ozs. ; orange 
Avater, 1 fluid oz. Mix a solution of the mixed salts in the hot water, 
filter through paper, dissolve the sugar in the solution by heat, and 
strain, and add the orange flower water. Dose, a teaspoonf iil, con- 
taining nearly five grains of the mixed salts. 

Cook's Electro-Magnetic Linevient. — Best alcohol, 1 gal. ; oil 
of amber, 8 oz. ; gum camphor, 8 oz. ; Castile soap, shaved fine, 2 
oz. ; beef's gall, 4 oz. ; ammonia, 3 F.'s strong, 12 oz.; mix, and 
shake occasionally for 12 hours, and it is fit for use. This will be 
found a strong and valuable liniment. 

London Liniment. — Take chloroform, olive oil, and aqua ammo- 
nia, of each 1 oz. ; acetate of morx)hia, 10 grs. Mix and use as other 
liniments. Very valuable. 

Ointments. — ^For Old Sores. — ^Red precipitate, J oz. ; sugar of 
lead, ^ oz. ; burnt alum, 1 oz. ; wliite vitriol, i^oz., or a little less j 
nU to be very finely pulverized ; have mutton tallow made warm, J 
lb. ; stir all in, and stir until cool. 

Judkin's Ointment. — Linseed oil, 1 pt. ; sweet oil, 1 oz. ; and boil 
them in a kettle on coals for nearly 4 hours, as warm as you can ; 
then have pulverized and mixed borax, \ oz. ; red lead, 4 oz. ; and 
sugar of lead, 1^ oz. ; remove the kettle from the fire, and thicken 
in the powder ; continue the vStirring until cooled to blood heat, then 
stir in 1 oz. of spirits of turpentine ; and now take out a little, let- 
ting it get cold, and if not then sufficiently thick to spread upon thi.n 
soft linen as a salve, you will boil again mi til this point is reached. 
It is good for all kinds of womids, bruiseSj sores, burns, white swell- 
ings, rheumatisms, ulcers, sore breasts ; and eveji where there are 
wounds on the inside, it has been used with advantage, by applying 
a plaster over the part. 

Magnetic Ointment. — Said to be Trask's. — Hard raisins cut 
ill pieces, and fine-cut tobacco, equal weights ; simmer well together, 
then strain, and press out all from the dregs. 

Mead's Salt-Rheum Ointment. — Aquafortis, 1 oz. ; quicksilver, 
1 oz. ; good hard soap, dissolved so as to mix readily, 1 oz. ; prepared 
chalk, 1 oz. ; mixed with 1 lb. of lard ; mix the above by putting the 
aquafortis and quicksilver into an earthen vessel, and when done 
eif'^^-rvcpcing, mix with the other ingredients, putting the chalk mlast ; 
add tt little spirits of turpentine,, say J tablespoon. 



MEDICAL DErARTMENT, ETC. 191 

Green Ointment. — ^Iloney and beeswax, eacli J lb. ; spirits of 
turpentine, 1 oz. ; Avinter^reen oil and laudanum, each 2 oz. ; ver- 
digris, finely pulverized, | oz. ; lard, IJ lb. ; mix by a stove fire, in 
a coi)per kettle, heating slowly. 

Itch Ointment.— Unsalted butter, 1 lb. ; burgundy ptch, 2 oz. , 
spirits of turpentine, 2 oz. ; red precipitate, pulverized, 1^ oz. ; melt 
the pitch and add the butter, stirring well together ; tlien remove 
from the fire, and when a little cool add the spirits of turpentine, and 
lastly the precipitate, and stir until cold. 

Jaundice.— In its Worst Forms.— Red iodide of mercurj-, 7 grs.; 
iodide of potassium, 9 grs. ; aqua dis. (distilled water), 1 oz. ; mix. 
Commence by giving 6 drops 3 or 4 times a day, increasing 1 drop a 
day until 12 or 15 drops are given at a dose. Give in a little water, 
immediately after meals. If it causes a griping sensation in the bowels, 
iind fulness in the head, when you get up to 12 or 15 drops, go back 
to 6 drops, and up again as before. 

Relied Y for Rheuimatism and Stiff Joints. — Strong camphor 
spirits, 1 pt ; neat's-^oot, coon, bear's, or skunk's oil, 1 pt. ; spirits of 
turjoentine, ^ pt. Shake the bottle when used, and apply 3 times 
daily, by pouring on a little at a time, and rubbing ui all you can for 
20 or 30 muiutes. 

AsTHiviA Remedies.— Elecampane, angelica, comfrey, and spike- 
nard roots with hoarhound tops, of each 1 oz. ; bruise and steep in 
lioney, Ipt. Dose, a tablespoon, taken hot every few minutes, until 
relief is obtained, then several times daily until a cure is effected. 

Another. — Oil of tar, 1 dr. ; tincture of veratrum viride, 2 drs. ; 
simple syrup, 2 drs. ; mix. Dose, for adults, 15 drops 3 or 4 times 
daily. Iodide of iDOtassium has cured a bad case of asthma, by taking 
5 gr. doses 3 times daily. Take J oz. and put it in a phial, and add 32 
teaspoons of water ; then 1 teaspoon of it will contain the 5 grs., 
Avhich put into h gill more water, and drink before meals. 

Comtosition" Powder. — Tho]vipson's. — Bayberry bark, 2 lbs. ; 
hemlock bark, 1 lb. ; ginger root, 1 lb. ; cayenne pepper, 2 oz. ; cloves, 
2 oz. ; all finely pulverized and well mixed. Dose, % a teaspoon of it, 
and a spoon of sugar ; put them into a tea-cup, and pour it half fuU of 
boilmg water ; let it stand a few minutes, and fill the cup with milk, 
and drink freely. If no milk is to be obtained, fill up the cup with 
hot water. 

French Reiniedy for Chronic Rheu]vl\ttsm.— Dr. Bonnet, of 
Graulbet, France, states, in a letter to the " Abeille Medicale," that he 
has been long in the habit of prescribing " the essential oil of turpen- 
tine by friction for rheumatism ; and that he has used it himself with 
perfect success, having almost instantaneously got rid of rheumatic 
pains in both knees and in the left shoulder." 

Diuretics — Piles, Drops, Decoction, &c . — Solidified copaiba, 2 
parts ; alcoholic extract of cubebs, 1 part ; formed into piUs with a 
little oil of juniper. Dose, 1 or 2 pills 3 or 4 times daily. This pill 
has been found very valuable in affections of the kidneys, bladder, 
and urethra, as inflammation from gravel, gonorrhoea, gleet, whites, 
leucorrhcea, common inflammations, &c. For giving them a sugar 
coat, see that heading, if desired. 

Diuretic Drops. — Oil of cubebs, J oz. ; sweet spirits of nitre, ^ 
oz. ; balsam of copaiba, 1 oz. ; Harlem oil, 1 bottle ; oil of lavender, 



192 MEDICAL DErAIlT3IENT, ETC. 

20 drops ; spirits of turpentine, 20 drops ; mix. Dose, 10 to 25 drops, 
as the stomach will hear, three times daily. It may be used in any of 
the above diseases with great satisfaction. 

Diuretic Tincture. — Green or growing spearmint mashed, put 
into a bottle, and covered with gm, is an excellent diuretic. 

Diuretic for CniiiDREN. — Spirits of nitre — a few drops in a little 
spearmint tea — is all sufficient. For very young children, pumpkhi- 
seed, or water-melon-seed tea is i^erhaps the best. 

Dropsy. — Syrup and Pills. — Queen-of-the-meadow root, dwarf- 
elder flowers, berries, or inner bark, jimiper berries, horse-radish 
root, pod millcweed, or silkweed, often called, root of each, 4 oz. ; 
prickly-ash bark of berries, mandrake root, bittersweet bark, of the 
root of each, 2 oz. ; Avhite-mnstard-seed, 1 oz. ; Holland gin, 1 pt. 
Pour boiling water on all except the gin, and keep hot for 12 hours ; 
then boil and pour off twice, and boil doAvn to 3 qts., and stram, add- 
ing 3 lbs. of sugar, and lastly the gin. Dose, take all the stomach 
will bear, say a wine glass a day, or more. 

Dropsy Pills. — Jalap, 50 grs. ; gamboge, 30 grs. ; podophyllln, 
20 grs. ; elatarium, 12 grs. ; aloes, 30 grs. ; cayeime, 35 grs. ; Castile 
soap, shaved and i^ulverized, 20 grs. ; croton oil, 90 drops ; powder all 
finely, and mix thoroughly ; then form into pill mass, by usmg a thick 
mucilage made of equal parts of gum arable and gum tragacanth, and 
divide in three-grain pills. Dose, 1 pill every 2 days for the first 
week ; then every 3 or 4 days, until the water is evacuated by the 
combmed aid of the pill with the alum syrup. This is a powerful 
medicine, and will well accomplish its work. 

Liver Pill. — Leptandrin, 40 grs. ; podophyllin and cayenne, 30 
grs. each ; sanguinarin, iridhi, and ipecac, 15 grs. each ; see that all 
are pulverized and well mixed ; then form into piU mass by using J 
dr. of the soft extract of mandrake and a few drops of anise oil ; then 
roll out into three-grain pills. Dose, 2 pills taken at bed-time will 
generally operate by morning ; but some persons require 3. 

Irritating Plaster. — Extensively Used by Eclectics. — ^Tar, 1 
lb. ; burgundy pitch, J oz. ; white-pine turpentine, 1 oz. ; resin, 2 oz. 
IJoil the tar, resin, and gum together a short time, remove from tho 
lire, and stir in finely pulverized mandrake root, blood root, poke 
root, and Indian turnip, of each, 1 oz. 

Pills.— To Sugar Coat.— Pills to be sugar coated must be very 
dry, otherwise they will shrink awa,y from the coating, and leave it a 
shell easily crushed off. When they are dry, you will take starch, 
gum arable, and white sugar, equal parts, rubbing them very fine in 
a marble mortar, and if damp, they must be dried before rubbing 
together ; then put the powder into a suitable pan, or box, for shak- 
ing ; now put a few jjills into a small tin box having a cover, and 
pour on to them just a little simple syrup, shakmg well to moisten 
the surface only ; then throw into the box of powder, and keep in 
motion until completely coated, dry, and smooth. If you are not 
very careful, you will get too much syrup upon the pills ; if you do, 
put in more, and be quick about it to prevent moistening the pill too 
much, getting them mto the powder as soon as possible. 

Positive Cure for Hydrophobia. — The dried root of elecampane, 
pulverize it, and measure out 9 heaping tablespoonfuls, and mix it 
with 2 or 3 teaspoon! uIrj of pulverized gum arable ; then divide into 



MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. 193 

9 equal portions. When a person is bitten by a rabid animal, tike 
one of these portions and steep it in 1 pt. of new milk, until nearly 
half the quantity of milk is evaporated ; then strain, and drink it in 
the morning, fasting for 4 or 5 hours after. The same dose is to be 
repeated 3 mornings in succession, then skip 3, and so on, until the 9 
doses are taken. 

The patient must avoid getting wet, or the heat of the sun, and 
abstain from high-seasoned diet, or hard exercise, and, if costive, take 
a dose of salts. The above quantity is for an adult ; children will 
take less according to age. 

Eye Pbepakations.— Eye Water.— Table salt and white vitriol, 
of each 1 tablespoon ; heat them upon copper plates or in earthen- 
ware imtil dry ; the heating drives off the acrid water, called the 
^ater of crystallization, making them much milder in their action ; 
now add to them soft water ^ pt. ; putting in white sugar, 1 table- 
spoon ; blue vitriol, a piece the size of a common pea. If it should 
prove too strong in any case, add a little more soft water to a phial 
of it. Apply it to the eyes 3 or 4 times daily. 

India Prescription for Sore Eyes. — Sulphate of zinc, 3 grs. ; 
tincture of opium (laudanum), 1 dr. ; rose water, 2 oz. ; mix. Put a 
drop or two in the eye, 2 or 3 times daily. 

Another. — Sulphate of zinc, acetate of lead, and rock salt, of 
each I oz. ; loaf sugar, 1 oz. ; soft water, 12 oz. ; mix without heat, 
and use as other eye waters. If sore eyes shed much water, put a 
little of the oxide of zinc into a j)hial of water, and use it rather free- 
ly. This will soon effect a cure. Copperas and water has cured sore 
eyes of lon^ standing ; and used quite strong, it makes an excellent 
application in erysipelas. AUum and the white of an egg is good. 

Indian Eye Water. — Soft water, 1 pt. ; gum arable, 1 oz. ; white 
vitriol, 1 oz. ; fine salt, ^ teaspoon ; put all into a bottle, and shako 
until dissolved. Put into the ej^e just as you retire to bed. 

Black Oil. — Best alcohol, tincture of arnica, British oil, and oil 
of tar, of each 2 oz. ; and slowly add sulphuric acid, J oz. These 
black oils are getting into extensive use as a liniment, and are indeed 
valuable, especially in cases attended with much inflammation. 

Vermifuge Lozenges.— Santonin, 60 grs. ; pulverized sugar, 5 
oz. ; mucilage of gum tragacanth, sufficient to make into a thick 
paste, worked carefully together, that the santonin shall be evenly 
mixed throughout the whole mass ; then if not in too great a hurry, 
cover up the mortar in which you have rubbed them, and let stand 
from 12 to 24 hours to temper ; at which time they will roll out 
better than if done immediately ; divide into 120 lozenges. Dose, 
for a child 1 year old, 1 lozenge, night and morning ; of 2 years, 2 
lozenges ; of 4 years, 3 ; of 8 years, 4 ; of 10 years or more, 5 to 7 
lozenges ; in all cases to be taken twice daily, and continuing until 
the worms start on a voyage of discovery. 

Harlem Oil or Welsh Medicamentum. — Sublimed or flowers of 
sulphur and oil of amber, of each 2 oz. ; linseed oil, 1 lb. ; spirits of 
turpentine sufficient to reduce all to the consistence of thin molasses. 
Boil the sulphur in the linseed oil untfl. it is dissolved, then add the 
oil of amber and turpentine. Dose, from 15 to 25 drops, morning 
and evening. Amongst the Welsh and Germans it is extensively 
used for strengthening the stomach, kidneys, liver, and lungs ; for 

13 



194 MEDICAL DEPART3IENT, ETC. 

asthma, shortness of breath, coitgh, inward or outward sores, drop- 
sy, worms, gravel, fevers, palpitation of the heart, giddiness, head- 
ache, &c., by taking it internally ; and for ulcers, malignant sores, 
cankers, &c., anointing externally, and wetting linen with it, and 
applying to bums. 

Egyptian Cure fok Cholera. — ^Best Jamaica ginger root, bruis- 
ed, 1 oz. ; cayenne, 2 teaspoons ; boil all in 1 qt. of water to Jpt., and 
add loaf su^ar to form a thick syrup. Dose, 1 tablespoon every 15 
minutes, until vomiting and purging ceases ; them follow up with a 
blackberry tea. 

Indian Prescription for Cholera.-— First dissolve gum camphor, 
Joz., inl^oz. of alcohol; second, give a teaspoon of spirits of 
hartshorn in a wine glass of water, and follow it every 5 minutes 
Avith 15 drops of the camphor in a teaspoon of water, for 3 doses ; 
then wait 15 minutes, and commence again as before ; and continue 
the camphor for 30 minutes, unless there is returning heat. Should 
this be the case, give one more dose, and the cure is effected ; let 
them perspire freely (which the medicine is designed to cause), as 
ux)on this the life depends, but add no additional clothing. 

Isthmus Cholera Tincture. — ^Tincture of rhubarb, cayenne, 
opium, and spirits of camphor, with essence of peppermint, equal 
jmrts of each, and each as strong as can be made. Dose, from 5 to ^0 
drops, or even to 60, and repeat, until relief is obtained, every 5 to 30 
mmutes. 

King of Oils, for Neuralgia and Rheumatism.— Burning fluid, 
1 pt. ; oils of cedar, hemlock, sassafras, and origanum, of each 2 oz. ; 
carbonate of ammonia, pulverized, 1 oz. ; mix^ Directions. — Apply 
freely to the nerve and gums around the tooth ; and to the face, in 
neuralgic pams, by wetting brown paper and laying on the parts, not 
too long, for fear of blistering, — ^to the nerves of teeth by lint. 

Neuralgia. — Internal Remedy. — Sal-ammoniac, J dr., dissolve 
in water 1 oz. Dose, one tablespoon every 3 minutes, for 20 minutes, 
at the end of which time, if not before, the pain will have disappeared. 

Artificial Skin. — For Burns, Bruises, Abrasions, &c.— Proof 
AGAINST Water. — Take gun cotton and Venice turpentine, equal 
parts of each, and dissolve them in 20 times as much sulphuric ether, 
dissolving the cotton first, then addmg the turpentine ; keep it corked 
tightly. Water does not affect it, hence its value for cracked nipples, 
chapped hands, surface bruises, &c., &c. 

Indian Balsam. — Clear, pale resin, 3 lbs., and melt it, adding 
spirits of turpentine, 1 qt. ; balsam of tolu, 1 oz. ; balsam of fir, 4 oz. ; 
oil of hemlock, origanum, with Venice turpentine, of each, 1 oz. ; 
strained honey, 4 oz. ; mix well, and bottle. Dose, 6 to 12 drops ; 
for a child of six, 3 to 5 drops, on a little sugar. The dose can bo 
varied according to the ability of the stomach to bear it, and the 
necessity of the case. It is a valuable preparation for coughs, inter- 
nal pains, or strains, and works benignly upon the kidneys. 

Wens — To Cure. — Dissolve copperas in water to make it very 
strong ; now take a pin, needle, or sharp knife, and prick or cut the 
wen in about a dozen places, just sufficient to cause it to bleed ; then 
wet it well with the copperas water, once daily. 

Bronchocele. — Enlarged Neck. — ^To Cure. — Iodide of potas- 
sium (often called hydriodateof potash), 2 drs. ; iodine, 1 dr. ; water 



MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. 195 

24 oz. ; mix and shake a few minutes, and pour a little into a phial 
for internal use. Dose, 5 to 10 drops before each meal, to be taken in 
a little water. External Application.— With a feather, wet the 
enlarged neck, from the other bottle, night and morning, until well. 
It will cause the scarf skin to peel off several times before the cure 
is perfect, leaving it tender; but do not omit the application more than 
one day at most, and you may rest assured of a cure, if a cure can bo 
performed by any means whatever. 

Daley's CAitanNATivE. — Magnesia, 2 drs. ; oil peppermint, 3 drops; 
oil nutmeg, 7 drops ; oil anise, 9 drops ; tinct. of castor, IJ drs. ; tuict 
of assaf cetida, 45 drops ; tmct. of opium, 18 drops ; essence pennyroyal, 
50 drops ; tinct. of cardamons, 95 drops ; peppermint water, 7 oz. ; mix. 

Positive Curb for Diarrhcea. — ^Take 2 wine glasses of vinegar, 
and one tablespoonful of salt. Mix the whole thoroughly to dissolve 
the salt ; add 7 to 10 drops of laudanum, according, to the age or 
strength of the patient, and give the whole at one dose. 

Cure for Ague. — Cut three lemons into tliui slices and pound, 
them with a mallet, then take enough coffee to make a quart, boil it 
down to a pint and pour it while quite hot over the lemons. Let it 
stand till cold, then strain through a cloth, and take the wliole at one 
dose, immediately after the chill is over, and before the fever comes on. 

To IiviPROVE the Voice.— Beeswax, 2 drs. ; copaiba balsam, 3 drs. ; 
powder of liquorice root, 4 drs. ; melt the copaiba balsam with tiio 
wax in a new earthen pipkin ; when melted, remove them from the 
fire, and mix in the powder ; make the pills of 3 grs. each. Two of 
these piUs to be taken occasionally, 3 or 4 times a day. Very best Imowii. 

Cure for Tape Worm. — Take at one dose, ether § oz. 2 hours 
after this take castor oil, 1 oz. The worm is discharged entire or al- 
most so, and always with the head intact. 

Necessary Rules for Sleep.— There is no fact more clearly 
established in the physiology of man than this, that the brain expends 
its energies and itself during the hours of wakefulness and that these 
are recuperated during sleep. If the recuperation does not equal the 
expenditure, the brain withers ; this is insanity. Thus it is in early 
English history, persons who were condemned to death by beuig pre- 
vented from sleeping always died raving maniacs, and those who are 
starved to death become insane ; the brain is not nourished and they 
can not sleep. The practical inferences are three; 1st. Those who 
think most, who do the most brain work, require the most sleep. 2d. 
The time "saved" from necessary sleep is infallibly destructive to 
mind, body and estate. 3d. Give yourself, your children, your servants, 
give all that are under you, the fullest amount of sleep they will take, 
by compelling them to go to bed at some regular early hour, and to 
rise in the morning at the moment they aivaJce ; and, within a fort- 
night, Nature, with almost the regularity of the rising sun, will un- 
loose the bonds of sleep the moment enough repose has been secured 
for the wants of the system. This is the only safe and efficient rule. 

Signs of Disease in Children. — In the case of a baby not yet 
able to talk, it must c?^ when it is ill. The colic makes a baby cry 
loud, long, and passionately, and shed tears — stoppiug for a moment 
and beginning again. 

If the chest is affected, it gives one shurp cry, breaking off imme- 
diately, as if crying hurt it. 



il96 MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. 

If the head is affected, it cries, in sharpy piercing shrieks, with low 
moans and wails between. Or there may he quiet dozing, and start- 
ings between. 

It is easy enough to perceive, where a child is attacked by disease 
that there is some cliange taking place ; for either its skin will be dry 
and hot, its appetite gone ; it is stupidly sleepy, or fretful and crying ; 
it is thirsty, or pale and languid, or in some way betrays that some- 
thing is wron^. "When a child vomits, or has a diarrhcea, or is cos- 
tive and feverish, it is owing to some derangement, and needs atten- 
tion. But these various symptoms may continue for a day or two 
before the nature of the disease can be determined. A warm bath, 
warm drinks, etc., can do no harm, and may help to determine the 
case. On coming out of the bath, and being well rubbed with the 
hand, the skin Will show symptoms of rash, if it is a skin disease 
which has commenced. By the appearance of the rash, the nature 
of the disease can be learned. Measles are in patches, dark red, and 
come out first about the face. If scarlet fever is impending, the ^in 
will look a deep pink all over the body, though mostly so about the 
neck and face. Chicken-pox shows fever, but jiot so much running 
at the nose, and appearance of cold, as in measles, nor is there as 
much of a cough. Besides, the spots are smaller, and do not run 
much together, and are more diffused over the whole surface of the 
skin, and enlarge into little blisters in a day or two. 

Let the room where the child is sick be shady, quiet, and cool. Bo 
careful not to speak so suddenly as to startle the half -sleeping patient 
and handle it with the greatest tenderness when it is necessary to 
move it. If it is the lungs that suffer, have the little patient some- 
what elevated upon the pillows for easier breathing, and do everthing 
to sooth and make it comfortable, so as not to have it cry, and to thus 
distress its inflamed lungs. If the child is verjr weak, do not move it 
too suddenly, as it may be startled into convulsions. In administering 
a bath, the greatest pains must be taken not to frighten the child. 
It should be put in so gradually, and so amused by something placed 
in the water on purpose as to forget its fear ; keep up a good supply 
of fresh air, at a temperature of about 60° Fah. If a hired nurse 
Tnust be had, select if possible a woman of intelligence, gentle and 
loving disposition, kind and amiable manners, and of a most pacific 
xmruffled, and even temper. If a being can be got possessed of these 
angelic qualities, and we believe there are many such, you wiU be 
quite safe in intrusting to her care the management of your sick child 
or yourself either, in case of sickness. She should not be mider 
twenty-five or over fifty-five, as between these two ages she will, if 
healthy, be in her fuU strength and capacity. 

Whooping Cough. — To empty the child's stomach by a lobelia 
emetic, is the first step. After this make a syrup of sugar, ginger- 
root, a little water, and enough lobelia tincture to produce a slight 
nausea. This, given two or three times a day, will loosen the cough 
very much. See " Whooping Cough Syrup." 

DiAKRHCEA. — Nothing is better for looseness of the bowels than 
tea made of ground bayberry. Sweeten it well, and give a half- 
teacupful once in two hours, until the child is better. Bathing must 
not be neglected. For Croup Remedy see " Cure for Lockjaw.** 

Colic— This can be cured with warm injections of simple somv 



MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC.* 197 

suds, or warm water with a warming tincture in it. ▼ A little warm 
tea may be given at the same time, and the bowels rubbed. Every 
family should have a small and large syringe. - Nothing is oftencr 
needed, particularly in the care of children. 

Fever. — ^Where a child has a simple fever from teething or any; 
other cause not connected with acute disease, give a teaspoonf ul ol 
syrup of rhubarb, a warm injection, and sponge-baths. > These will 
generally be all that is needed. 

Rickets akd Sckofula. — If children have either of these, or both 
these diseases, a good, nutritive diet is a great essential. Then the 
alkaline-bath, a little lime-water, say a teaspoonf ul three times a day, 
and out-door exercise, are the chief remedies. 

Fits — Spasms — When these are brought on by indigestion, i^lacethc 
child in a warm bath immediately, give warm water, or a lobelia'' 
emetic, rub the skin briskly, etc., to get up an action. In brain disease 
the warm water is equally useful. Iii fact, unless the fit is constitu- 
tional, the warm bath will relieve the patient by di'awing the blood to 
the surface. 

Eklargemekt of the Brain. — This chiefly effects children, and 
consists in an unnatural growth of tlie brain. The skull may grow 
with it, and there be no symtoms of disease, though children with this 
large brain are apt to die of some brain disease. The symptoms of 
enlargement of the brain are, dullness of intellect, indifference to ex- 
ternal objects, irritable temper, inordinate appetite, giddiness, and 
habitual headache. Sometimes there are convulsions, epileptic fits, 
and idiocy. There is also a pecular projection of the parietal bones 
in this disease. 

Treatment. — As much as possible, repress aU exercise of the mind. 
Do not suffer the child to go to school ; but put it to the most active 
and muscular exercise in the open air. The moment there is any heat 
in the top of the head, apply cold water, ice, or cold evaporating lo- 
tions. The diet should be very simple, bread and milk only, if, as the 
child grows up, the signs of the disease increase. 

Water in the Head. — Another disease of children, and especially 
of scrofulous children. It is inflammatory, and should be early no- 
ticed. 

Symptoms, — Capricious appetite, a foul tongue, offensive breath en- 
larged, and some times tender belly, torpid bowels, stools light-colored 
from having no bile, or dark from vitiated bile, fetid, sour-smelling, 
slimy and lumpy. The child grows pale and thin ; and is heavy, lan- 
guid, dejected ; it is fretful, irritable, uneasy, and apt to be tottering 
in its gait. 

The disease may begin, after these symptoms, by pains in the head, 
becoming more severe and frequent, sharp and shooting, causing the 
child to waken and shriek out. As the drowsy state advances, the 
shrieking gives place to moaning. There is great stiffness in the back 
of the neck, pam in the limbs, tenderness in the scalp, vomiting, sigh- 
ing, intolerance of light, knitting of the brows, and increased disturb- 
ance of the stomach and bowels. This may last from ten to four- 
teen days, the patient growing more weak and peevish. Another 
form of attack is marked by acute pain in the head, high fever, con- 
vulsions, flushed face, brilliant eyes, intolerance of light and sound, 
pain, tenderness in the belly, stupor, great imta,bili1^ of stomach, 



198 MEDICAL DEPAKTMENT, ETC. 

causing retching and vomiting on every attempt to sit up. Tiie third 
mode of attack is very insidious — the early sj^mptoms being so mild 
as hardly to be noticed. In this case, the convulsions or palsy come 
sudden] 5^, Avithout notice, bringing swift and unexpected destruc- 
tion. In the first stage of the disease there is increased sensibility ; 
in the second decreased sensibility; in the third, palsy, convulsions, 
squinting of the eyes, rolling of the head, stupor, and a rapid, thread- 
like pulse. 

Treatment. — ^In the first stage, purging is very important, and 
must be continued for three or four days. An excellent purgative 
is this : pulverized scammony, six grains ; croton oil, four drops ; 
pulverized loaf sugar, sixteen teaspoonfuls. Rub well together in a 
mortar. Give one teaspoonful every hour or two, till it operates. 
Apply cold water or ice to the head. In the second stage put blisters 
upon the back of the neck, and one on the bowels, if very tender. 
In the third stage use the warm bath, also alteratives and diuretics. 
For an alterative, use iodide of ix)tassium, one dram ; water, half an 
ounce ; mix. Thirty drops to a child seven years old every hour. 
For a diuretic, use tincture of digitalis, one ounce ; syrup of squills, 
one ounce ; mix. Ten drops for a child seven years old every four 
hours. The patient should be kept in a dark room, away from all 
•noise and excitement, and should lie upon a hair mattress, with his 
head somewhat elevated. The diet in the first stage should be noth- 
ing more than gruel ; after that, more nourishing, but easy of diges- 
tion, such as beef-tea, plain chicken-broth, animal- jellies, etc. At 
the same time the patient should be supported by the cautious use of 
wine-whey, valerian, or ten drops of aromatic spirits of ammonia 
every four hours. 

Mumps. — This disease, most common among cnildren, begins witn 
soreness and stiffness in the side of the neck. Soon a swelling of the 
paratoid gland takes place, which is painful and contmues to increase 
for four or five days, sometimes making it difficult to swallow, or 
open the mouth. The swelling sometimes comes on one side at a 
time, but commonly upon both. There is often heat and sometimes 
fever, with a dry skin, quick pulse, furred tongue, constipated bowels, 
and scanty and high-colored urine. The disease is contagious. 

Treatment. — ^Keep the face and neck warm, and avoid taking cold. 
Drink warm herb teas, and if the symptoms are severe, 4 to 6 grs. 
of Dover's powder ; or if there is costiveness, a slight physic, and 
observe a very simple diet. If the disease is aggravated by taking 
cold, and is very severe, or is translated to other glands, physic must 
be used freely, leeches applied to the swelling, or cooling poultices. 
Sweating must be resorted to in this case. 

Scarlet Fever is an acute inflammation of the sKin, both exter- 
nal and internal, and connected with an infectious fever. 

Symptoms. — ^I'he fever shows itself between two and ten days after 
exposure. On the second day of the fever the eruption comes out in 
minute pimples, which are either clustered together, or spread over 
the surface in a general bright scarlet color. The disease begins with 
languor, pains in the head, back, and limbs, drowsiness, nausea and 
chiUs, followed by heat and thirst. When the redness appears the 
pulse is quick, and the patient is restless, anxious and often delirious. 
The eyes are red, the face swollen, and the tongue covered in the 



MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. 199 

Biifddle "witli white mucus, through which are seen elevated points of 
extreme redness. The tonsils are swollen, and the throat is red. 
By the evening of the third or fourth day the redness has reached its 
height, and the sldn becomes moist, when the scarf-skin begins to 
come off in scales. 

In this fever the flesh puffs up so as to distend the fingers, and 
disfigure the face. As it progresses the coating suddenly comes off 
the tongue, leaving it and the whole mouth raw and tender. The 
throat is very much swollen and inflamed, and ulcers form on the 
tonsils. The eustachian tube which extends up to the ear, the glands 
nnder the ear and jaw, sometimes inflame and break ; and the ab- 
scesses formed in the ear frequently occasion deafness, more or less 
diflBicult to cure. The symptoms of this disease may be known from 
that of measles by the absence of cough ; by the finer rash ; by its 
scarlet color ; by the rash appearing on the second instead of tha 
fourth day ; and by the ulceration of the throat. 

Treatment — ^In ordinary cases the treatment required is very simple. 
The room where the patient lies should be kept cool, and the bed- 
covering light. The whole body should be sponged with cool water as 
often as it becomes hot and dry, and cooling drinks should be admin- 
istered. A few drops of belladonna, night and morning, is all that is 
needed. 

If there is much fever and soreness of throat, give the following 
tincture of hellebore often enough to keep down the pulse : — 

Tincture of American hellebore, 1 dr. ; tincture of black cohosh, 2 
oz. ; mix. Take 1 teaspoonful 3 to 6 times a day. 

It would also be useful to commence treatment with an emetic • 
and to soak the feet and hands in hot water containing a little 
mustard or cayenne pepper ; continuing this bath 20 minutes, twice 
a day, for 2 or 3 days. The cold stage being passed, and the fever 
having set in, warm water may be used without the mustard or 
pepper. If the head is affected, put drafts upon the feet ; and if the 
bowels be costive, give a mild physic. Solid food should not bo 
allowed ; but when the fever sets in, cooling drinks, such as lemonade, 
tamarind-water, lice-water, flaxseed tcii, then gruel, or cold water 
may be given in reasonable quantities. To stimulate the skin, 
muriatic acid, 45 drops in a tumbler filled with water and sweetened, 
and given in doses of a teaspoonful, is a good remedy. 

Where the disease is very violent, and the patient inclines to sink 
immediately ; where typhoid symptoms appear and there is great 
prostration ; the eruption strikes in ; the skin changes to a mahogany 
color ; the tongue is a deep red, or has on it a dark brown fur, and 
the ulcers in the throat become putrid, the treatment must be differ- 
ent from the above. In this case it must be tonic. Quinia must be 
given freely ; and wine whey, mised with toast-water, will be useful. 
Quinia is made as follows : — Sulphate of quinine, 1 scrux)le ; alcohol, 
4 ozs. ; sulphuric acid, 5 drops ; Madeira wine, 1 quart ; mix. Two 
wine-glassfuls a day. Tincture of cayenne, in sweetened water, may 
be given in small doses. Gargles are also necessary. A good one is 
made of pulverized cayenne, 1 dram ; salt, one dram ; boiling water, 
1 gill. Mix, and let them stand 15 minutes. Then add 1 gill vinegar. 
Let it stand an hour and strain. Put a teaspoonful in t*he child's 
mouth once in an hour. A warm bath should be used daily as soon 



200 MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, ETC. 

as the skin begins to peel off, to prevent dropsy. If dropsy siia in, 
the bath once in 3 days is sufficient, and sweating should be promoted 
by giviug the tincture of Yirginia snake-root and similar articles ; a 
generous diet should be allowed at the same time, to bring uj) the 
child's strength 

Measles is an acute inflanmiation of the skin, internal and exter- 
nal, combined with an infectious fever. 

Symptoms. — Chills succeeded by great heat, languor, and drowsi- 
ness, pains in the head, back, and limbs, quick pulse, soreness of 
tliroat, thirst, nausea and vomiting, a dry cough, and high-colored 
I urine. These symptoms increase in violence for four days. The eyes 
are inflamed and weak, and the nose pours forth a watery secretion, 
with frequent sneezing. There is considerable inflammation in the 
larynx, windpipe, and bronchial tubes, with soreness of the breast and 
hoarseness. About the fourth day the skin is covered with a breaking 
out which produces heat and itching, and is red in spots, upon the 
face first, gradually spreading over the whole body. It goes off in 
the same way, from the face first and then from the body, and the 
hoarseness and other symptoms decline with it; at last the outside 
skin peels off in scales. 

Treatment. — ^In a mild form, nothing is required but a light diet, 
slightly acid drinks, and flax seed or slippery elm tea. Warm herb 
teas, and frequent sponge baths with tepid water, serve to allay the 
fever; care should be taken not to let the patient take cold. If the 
fever is very high, and prevents the rash coming out, a slight dose of 
salts, or a nauseating dose of ipecac, lobelia, or hive-syrup should be 
given, and followed by teasponful doses of comi^ound tincture of 
Virginia snake-root until the fever is allayed. If the patient from any 
derangement takes on a low typhoid type of fever, and the rash does 
not come out until the seventh day, and is then of a dark and livid 
color, tonics and stimulants must be given, and expectoration promo- 
ted by some suitable remedy. There is always danger of the lungs 
being left in an inflamed state after the measles, unless the greatest 
care is taken not to suffer the patient to take cold. Should there be 
much pain, and a severe cough, this must be treated as a separate 
disease, with other remedies. 

Typhoid Fever. — Symptoms. — ^Is generally preceded by several days 
of languor, low spirits, and indisposition to exertion. There is also, 
usually, some pain in the back and head, loss of appetite, and 
drowsiness, though not rest. The disease shows itself by a chill. 
During the first week there is iucreased heat of the surface, frequent 
pulse, furred tongue, restlessness, sleeplessness, headache, and pahi in 
the back; sometimes diarrhoea and swelling of the belly, and some- 
times nausea and vomiting. 

The second week is often distinguished by small, rose-colored spots 
on the belly, and a crop of little watery pimples on the neck and chest, 
having the appearance of minute drops of sweat ; the tongue is dry 
and black, or red and sore; the teeth are foul; there may be delirium 
and dalhiess of hearing; and the symptoms every way are more 
serious than during the first week. Occasionally, the bowels are at 
this period perforated or ate through by ulceration, and the patient 
suddenly sinlvs. If the disease proceeds unfavorably into the third 
week, there is low, muttering delirium; great exhaustion; sliding 



GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS' RECEIPTS. 201 

down of the patient toward tlie foot of the bed; twitching of the 
muscles, bleeding from the bowels ; and red or puiTple spots upon tho 
skin. If, on the other hand, the patient improves, the countenance 
brightens up, the pulse moderates, the tongue cleans, and the dis- 
charges look healthy. 

Treatment.— Give the patient good air, and frequent spongings with 
water, cold or tepid, as most agreeable. Keep the bowels in order 
and be more afraid of diarrhoea than costiveness. Diarrhoea should 
be restramed by a little brandy, or by repeated doses of Dover's 
powder. For costiveness, give mild injections, made slightly loosen- 
ing by castor oil, or common molasses. To keep down the fever, and 
produce perspiration, give tincture of veratrum viride, 10 drops every 
hour. If the bowels are swelled, relieve them by hot fomentations of 
hops and vinegar. If the pain in the head is very severe and constant, 
let the hair be cut short, and the head bathed frequently with cold 
water. Give light nourishment, and if the debility is great, broth and 
wine will be needed. Cleanse the mouth with very weak tea — old 
hyson. If the fever runs a low course, and the patient is very weak, 
quinine may be given from tlie beginning. Constant care and good 
nursing are very important. 

Typhus fever is distinguished from typhoid by there being no marked 
disease of the bowels in typhus. 



GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS' RECEIPTS. 

Cheap Vinegab. — Mix 25 gals, of wann rain water, with 4 gals, 
molasses and 1 gal. yeast, and let it ferment; you will soon have the 
best of vinegar; keep adding these articles in these proportions as the 
stock is sold. 

For Grocers' Sales — Take three barrels ; let one of them be 
your vinegar barrel ; fill this last up before it is quite empty, with 
molasses, 2 gals. ; soft water, 11 gals ; yeast. 1 qt. ; keeping these pro- 
portions in filling up the whole three barrels ; seU the vinegar out of 
^our old vinegar barrel as soon as it is ready, which will be in a short 
time ; when nearly empty, fill it up with the fluid as before, and pass 
on to sell out of the next barrel ; by the time it is disposed of go on to 
the last ; then go back to the first, filling up your barrels in every 
case when nearly empty, and you wiU always keep a stock of good 
vinegar on hand unless your sales are very large ; in which case, fol- 
low the next process. Have the bung-holes open in the barrels to 
admit air. The free adruission of warm air hastens the process. 

Vinegar in Three Days. — Get a quantity of maple, beech, or 
basswood chips or shavings, and soak these in good vinegar, for two or 
three days. With these chips you will fill a barrel, which has been 
pierced with a large number of inch noles all around the sides for tho 
free admission of air among the chips (the more holes in the barrel 
the better, for the more air the sooner the vinegar will be made) cut 
another barrel in two halves, place one half below the barrel with tho 



202 GUOCERS AND CONFECTIONERS' RECEIPTS. 

chips and the other half above it. The top tub must have its bottom 
pierced with a number of gimlet holes, in which are placed several 
threads of twine, to conduct the vinegar evenly over the chips. The 
liquid drams down slowly through the chips and out of a faucet near 
the bottom of the barrel into the lower tub. It should run through 
every four hours, and then be baled or pumped back. Directions to 
make vinegar from sugar : Use IJ lb. to each gal. of water ; of the 
dregs of molasses barrels, use 2 lb. to each gal. of water ; smaU beer, 
lager beer, ale, &c., which have become sour, make good vinegar by 
being reduced with water ; small beer needs but little water, lager beer 
as much water as beer ; to 2 gals, cider, add J gal. of water ; you can 
also make excellent vinegar out of the artificial cider mentioned below. 
Use, in every case, soft water to make vinegar, and use 2 qts, yeast 
to every barrel. It makes much quicker if the fluid is slightly 
lukewarm. Leach either of these preparations through the shavings. 

This process should be attended to during warm weather, or in 
a room where a pretty high temperature is kept up, as it wiU not 
work otherwise. 

Excellent Vinegar, Cheap.— Acetic acid, 5 lbs. ; molasses, 2 
gal. ; yeast, 2 qts, ; put them into a forty-gal. cask, and fill it up with 
rain water ; stir it up, and let it stand one to tliree weeks, letting it 
have all the air possible, and you will have good \dnegar. If wanted 
stronger, add more molasses. Should you at any time have weak 
vinegar on hand, put molasses into it to set it working. This will 
soon correct it. Make m a warm place. 

White Wine Vinegar. — Mash up 20 lbs. raisins, and add 10 gals, 
water ; let it stand in a warm place for one month, and you will have 
pure white wine vinegar. The raisins may be used a second time the 
same way. 

To Preserve Eggs. — To each i-)atent pailful of water, add 2 pts. 
of fresh slacked lime, and 1 pt. of common salt ; mix well. Fill your 
barrel half full with this fluid, put your eggs down in, it any time af- 
ter June, and they will keep two years if desired. 

Liquid Mucilage. — Fine clear glue 1 lb. ; gum arable, 10 oz. ; 
water, 1 qt ; melt by heat in a glue kettle or water bath ; when en- 
tirely melted, add slowly 10 ozs. strong nitric acid, set off to cool. 
Then bottle, adding in a couple of cloves to each bottle. 

Candied Lemon Peel. — ^Take lemon peels and boil them in syrup ; 
then take tliem out, and dry. 

Baking Powder.— Tartaric acid, 5 lbs. ; pure sesquicarbonate of 
soda. 8 lbs. ; potato farina, or other flour or starch, 16 lbs. Dry 
separately by gentle heat. Mix this perfectly in a dry room, pass 
the mixture through a sieve and put up at once into damp proof 
hard pressed packages. To use, 1 or 2 teaspoonf uls are mixed with 
dry flour, which is then mixed with cold water, and baked imme- 
diately. Another. — Tartaric acid, 1 lb. ; pure bicarbonate of soda | 
Ibs. ; potato farina, J lb. Treat the same as the last. 

To Make an Ice Chest. — ^Take 2 drygoods boxes, one of which is 
enough smaller than the other to leave a space of about 3 inches all 
around when it is placed inside. Fill the space between the two with 
sawdust packed closely, and cover with a heavy lid made to fit neat- 
ly inside the larger box. Insert a small pipe in the bottom of the 
chest to carry off the water from the melting ice. For family use or 



GKOCERS AND CONFECTIONERS RECEIPTS. 203 

grocers, use this will prove as serviceable as refrigerators that cost 
twenty timef? as much. 

Soap Manufacture. — ^TVhen wood ashes cannot conveniently ho 
had it is usual for soap manufacturers to use equal quantities of re- 
cently slacked lime, and sal soda, soda ash or caustic soda, using water 
enough to give the ley sufficient strength to support a fresh egg. It 
must be very strong. The solution can be effected by heat, or stir- 
ring, or by both methods, finally drawing off, or bailing out the liquid 
clear of sediment, previously throwing in salt and giving time for the 
sediment to settle ; 1 ton of yellow soap will require about 1000 lbs. 
tallow and 350 lbs. resin, with ley sufficient. The same quantity of 
white soap will require nearly 1300 lbs. tallow, boiling in every case 
with the proper quantity of ley, until it forms a perfectly homoge- 
neous mass by a perfect blending of the component parts all together, 
when it is poured out into suitable frames to harden and cool. It is 
afterwards cut up into proper sized bars by means of mres to which 
handles are attached and then piled up to dry. 

Transparent Soap. — Slice 6 lbs. nice yellow bar-soap into shav- 
ings ; put into a brass, tin or copper kettle, with alcohol, 4 g^h, heat- 
ing gradually over a slow fire, stirring till all is dissolved"; tlien add 
1 oz. sassafras essence, and stir until all is mixed ; now pour into 
]->ans about IJ inches deep, and when cold cut into square bars the 
length or width of the pan, as desired. 

Engt.ish Bar-Soap. — Six gals, soft water ; G lbs. good stone lime; 
20 lbs. sal-soda ; 4 oz. borax ; 15 lbs. fat (tallow is best) ; 10 lbs. pul- 
verized resin, and 4 oz. beeswax ; put the water in a kettle on the 
fire, and when nearly boiling add the lime and soda ; when these arc 
dissolved, add the borax ; boil gently, and stir until all is dissolved ; 
then add the fat, resin, and bees-wax : boil all gently until it shows 
flaky on the stick, then pour into moulds. 

Best Soft Soap. — Mix 10 lbs. potash in 10 gals, warm soft water 
over night ; in the morning boil it, adding 6 lbs. grease ; then put all 
in a barrel, adding 15 ^als. soft water. 

Soap without Lye or Grease. In a clean pot put J lb. home- 
made hard or mush soap, and h lb. sal-soda, and 5 pts. of "soft water. 
Boil the mixture 15 minutes, and you will have 5 lbs. good soap for 
7i cents. Hard Soap, — Take 5 lbs. hard soap, or 7 lbs. soft soap, and 
4lbs. sal-soda, and 2 oz. borax, and 1 oz. hartshorn ; boil one quarter 
hour with 22 qts. water ; add, to harden, ^ lb. resin. 

German Yeli^ow Soap. — ^Tallow and sal-soda, of each 112 lbs., 
resin, 5Glbs. ; stone Mme, 28 lbs. ; palm oil, 8 oz. ; soft water, 28 gals. 
Put soda, lime, and water into a kettle and boil, stirring well ; then 
let it settle, and pour off the lye. In another kettle, melt the taUow, 
resin, and palm oil ; having itliot, the lye being also boiling hot, mix 
all together, stirring well and the work is done. For small quantities. 
—Tallow and sal-soda each, 1 lb. ; resm, 7 oz. ; stone lime, 4 oz. ; 
palm oil, 1 oz. ; soft water, 1 qt. 

Hard Soap with Lard.— Sal-soda and lard, each G lbs. ; stone 
lime, 3 lbs. ; soft water, 4 gals. ; dissolve the lime and soda in the 
water by boiling, stirring, settling, and pouring off ; then return to 
the kettle (brass or copper), and add the lard, and boil it till it becomes 
soap ; then pour into a dish or moulds ; and, when cold, cut into bars, 
and dry it 



204 GKOCERS AND CONFECTIONERS' llECEIPTS. 

White Hard Soap with Tai^lotnt. — ^Fresli slacked lime, sal-soda, 
and tallow, of each, 2 lbs. ; dissolve the soda in 1 gal. boiling solt 
water ; now mix in the lime, stirring occasionally for a few hours ; 
after which, let it settle, pouring off the clear liquor, and boiling the 
tallow therein until it is all dissolved ; cool it in a flat box or pan, cut 
into bars or cakes as desired. It may be perfumed with sassafras oil 
or any other i^erfume desired, stirring it in when cool. One hundred 
pounds soap, very cheap. — Potash, 6 lbs. ; lard, 4 lbs. ; resin, J lb. 
Beat up the resm, mix all together, and set aside for five days ; then 
put the whole into a 10-gal. cask of water, and stir twice a day for 
ten days, when it is ready for use. 

Variegated Soaps. — Soft water 3qts., nice white bar soap 3 lbs., 
sal-soda 2 ozs. ; Chinese vermilion and Chinese blue, of each about 
7 grs., oil sassafras Joz. ; shave the soap mto thin slices and add it to 
the water as it begins to boil, when dissolved set it off the fire, take 
out a cup of soap and stir in the vermillion, take out another cup of 
soap and stir in the blue ; then pour m the contents of the first cup, 
giving two or three turns only with a stirring stick, then add the other 
cupful in the same Avay, then pour into moulds, or into a proper box, 
and when cold it can be cut into bars ; it will present a beautiful 
streaked appearance. 

Caiviphor Soap. — Curd soap 28 lbs., otto of rosemary Ijlbs. Reduce 
the camphor to powder, add one ounce almond oil, then sift it, when 
the soap is melted and ready to turn out, add the camphor and rose- 
mary. Wliite Windsor Soap. — Curd soap 1 CAvt., marine soap 21 lbs. 
oil soap 14 lbs., oil carawaj^, IJlbs., oil thyme and rosemary of each J 
lb. oils of cassia and cloves of each ^ lb. Broion Windsor Soap, 
Curd soap J cwt. , marine soap J cwt. , yellow soap J cwt. , oil soap J cwt. 
Brown coloring (caramel) J pt. oils caraway, cloves, thyme, cassia, petit 
grain and French lavender of each 2 oz. ^and Soap. — Curd soap 7 lbs. 
marine soap 7 lbs., sifted silver sand 28 lbs., oils thyme, cassia, cara- 
Avay, and French lavender of each 2 oz. 

Solid Candles from lard. — Dissolve J lb. alum and J lb. salt- 
petre in J pt. water on a slow fire ; then take 3 lbs. of lard cut into 
small pieces, and put into the pot with this solution, stirring it con- 
stantly over a very moderate fire until the lard is all dissolved ; then 
let it simmer until all steam ceases to rise and remove it at once from 
the fire. If you leave it too long it will get discolored. These can- 
dles are harder and better than tallow. 

Tallow— To Cleanse and Bleach.— Dissolve alum, 5 lbs., in 
water, 10 gals., by boiUng ; and when it is all dissolved, add tallow, 
20 lbs. ; continue the boiling for an hour, constantly stirring and 
skimming ; when sufficiently cool to allow it, strain through thick 
muslin ; then set aside to harden ; Avhen taken from the water, lay 
it by for a short time to drip. 

Imitation Wax Candles. — ^Purify melted tallow by throwing in 
powdered quick lime, then add two parts wax to one of tallow, and 
a most beautiful article of candle, resembling wax, will be the result. 
Dip the wicks in lime water and saltpetre on making. To a gallon of 
water add 2 oz. saltpetre and J lb. of lime ; it improves the light, 
and prevents the tallow from running. 

Adamantine Candles from Tallow. — Melt together 10 oz. mut- 
ton tallow ; camphor, J oz. ; bees-wax, 4 oz. ; alum, 2 oz. 



TABLES, «feC., FOR MERCHANTS. 



205 



Table of Miscellaneous Weights aot> Measures. 



Apples, dried, bush, about 25 lbs. 
Almonds, seron of, 1 to 2 cwt. 
Beef, firkin, 100 lbs. 

<* or Pork, barrel, 200 lbs. 
Buckwheat, bush, usually 50 lbs. 
Beans, white, bushel, 60 lbs. 
Butter, barrel, 224 lbs. 

<< firkin, 56 lbs. 

" tub, 84 lbs. 
Coffee, tierce of, 5 to 7 cwt. 

♦< bags of Rio, about 162 lbs. 

*< " St. Domingo, about 130 
lbs. 

" pocket of Java, about 50 lbs. 

<* bale of Mocha, 2 to 214 cwt. 
Clover seed, cask, 7 to 9 cwt. 

" <' bushel, usually 60 lbs. 

Com, per bushel, in most places, 50 

lbs. 
Cement, barrel, 300 lbs. 
Cotton, bale, N. Orleans and Alaba- 
ma, 400 to 300 lbs. 

" '« East Indies, 320 to 380 

lbs. 

*< *' Carolina, Georgia & West 
Indies, 300 to 312 lbs. 

<« '' Brazilian 160 to 200 lbs. 

Dried Peaches, bush, usually 33 lbs. 
Flax, bale, Russian, 5 to 6 cwt. 
Fish, quintal, 112 lbs. 

« barrel, pickled, 200 lbs. 
Flaxseed, bush, in most places, 55 

lbs. 
Flour, bbl. net, 196 lbs. 

" including bbl., 216 lbs. 

*< sack, 5 bushels, 280 lbs. 
Figs, drum, 24 lbs. 
Ginger, ground, box, 24 lbs. 
Honey, gal., 12 lbs. 
Hops, bag of, about 2l^ cwt. 
Hempseed, bush, in most places 44 

lbs. 
Indian Meal, hogshead, 800 lbs. 
Lime, bbl., 225 lbs. 
Lemons, box, Sicily, about 350 lbs. 
Mace, case, about ll^ cwt. 



Molasses, hhd. from 130 to 150 gals. 
Oats, per bush., 32 lbs. 
Oranges, box, double O, 300 to 350 
lbs. 
" *< single O, 175 to 350 

lbs. 
Rye, bush, in most places, 56 lbs. 
Salmon, box, 120 to 130 lbs. 
Salt, hhd., 3 bush. 

*' bbl., 31/2 bush. 

*' bushel of, fine ground, 70 lbs. 
Sugar, bbl., 200 to 250 lbs. 

*' box, 400 to 500 lbs. 
Soap, bbl. 256 lbs. 

" box, 75 lbs. 
Tea, chest, Congou, 75 lbs. 

** " Hyson, 60 to 84 lbs. 

" 1/2, about 40 lbs. net. 
Timothy Seed, bushel, 45 lbs. 
Wheat, bushel, 60 lbs. 

Beer, hhd., 54 gals. 

Butt of Sherry, 108 gals. 

Brandy, puncheon of, 110 to 120 gals. 

*' hhd., 55 to 60 gals. 
Claret, hhd., 46 gals. 
Puncheon of Scotch Whiskey, 110 to 
130 gals. 
*« Rum, 100 to 110 gals. 
Pipe of Port, 115 gals. 
" Maderia, 92 gals. 
" Teneriffe, 100 gals. 
A hogshead is one-half, a quarter 
cask is one-fourth, and an oc- 
tave is one-eighth of a pipe, butt, 
or puncheon. 

British Measures of Volume. 

The Imperial gallon measures 277- 
274 cubic inches, and contains 10 
lbs avoirdupois of distilled 
water at 32° Fahr. 

The Ale gallon is 282 cubic inches, 
and contains 10.2 lbs, avoirdupois 
of distilled water. 



The wine gallon of 231 cubic ins. containing 8.355 lbs. avoirdupois of dis- 
tilled water, is the government or customs gallon of the United States, 
and the legal gallon of each State in which no law exists fixing a Stat e_ or 
statute gallon, and the Standard U. S. bushel is the Winchester, contain- 
ing 2150.42 cubic inches, or 77.627413 lbs. avoirdupois of distilled water. 

The Imperial bushel=221S.192 cubic ins. The heaped bushel=19.5 ins. 
diameter, cone 6 ins. high=2815.4872 cubic ins. For Grain— % bushels= 
1 quarter. 1 quarter =10.2694 cubic feet. Coal or Heaped measure—^ 
bushels=l sack, 12 sacks=l chaldron ; 1 chaldron=58.656 cubic feet and 
weighs 3136 lbs. 1 stone=14 lbs. 1 Quarter is equal to 8V4 U. S. bushels 
1 sack flour =5 bushs.=280 lbs. Anthracite coal per cubic ft. weighs 90 to 
102 lbs. Bituminous coal, per cubic ft. 79 to 82 lbs. Coal as conventional- 



206 TABLES, &C., FOR MERCHANTS. 

ly purcliased=43.56 cubic ft. to a ton (or about 28 bushels and 5 pecks), in 
tbe U. S., and is bought wholesale by the dealer at 2240 lbs. per ton, and 
retailed at 2000 lbs. In commerce, 1 ton of flour is 8 sacks, and 1 ton of 
potatoes 10 bushels. The weight and measures in the Dominion of Can- 
ada are the same as those of Great Britain, but the United States bushel 
and gallon are most in use. The dimensions of a barrel should be, diam. 
of head, 17 ins., do. at bung, 19 ins.; length, 28 ins. ; volume 7689 cub. ins. 
A tun is 2 pipes, 4 hogsheads, 3 puncheons, 8 barrels, or 252 gals. 

Quantity of Goods estimated to compose a Ton in calcula- 
ting Freights by Water.— Lemons, 20 boxes ; Raisins, 20 casks ; do., 
80 boxes ; do., 160 half boxes ; do., 320 quarter boxes ; Almonds, 16 frails ; 
Grapes, 40 kegs ; Wine, Malaga, 8 quarter casks ; ditto, 14 Indian barrels ; 
Cassia, 25 piculs ; Jute, 4 bales ; Linseed, 1600 lbs., or 8^/2 bags per ton; 
Ginger, 110 Ibs.^ Twine, 890 lbs.; Matting, 4-4, 8% rolls of 40 yds. ; do., 5-4, 

7 rolls of 40 yds. ; do., 6-4, 5% rolls of 40 yards ; Gunny bags, large, 425 ; 
medium do., 500 ; small do., 625 ; Saltpetre, 11 to 12 bags per ton of 2240 lbs. 

New York Freights.— Quantity of Goods which compose a 
Ton. — Extract from tJie Bye-Laws of the New York Chamber of Commerce, 
In freighting vessels by the ton, in the absence of a .definite agreement 
between the owner of the vessel and freighter of the goods, the following 
regulations shall be the standard of computation : That the articles the 
hulk ofivhich shall compose a To7i, to equal a Ton of heavy materials, shall 
be in weight as follows. Coffee in casks, 1568 lbs. ; Coffee in bags, 1830 
lbs. ; Cocoa in casks, 1120 lbs. ; Cocoa in bags, 1307 lbs. ; Pimento in casks, 
952 lbs. ; Pimento in bags, 1110 lbs. ; Dry hides, 10 cwt. ; Chinese raw silk, 

8 cwt, ; Bohea tea, net, 10 cwt. ; Green teas, 8 cwt. ; Ship-bread, bulk, 8 
cwt. ; Ship-bread, bags, 7 cwt. ; Ship-bread, casks, 6 cwt. ; Grain, Peas, or 
Beans in casks, 22 bushels ; Grain, in bulk, 36 bushels ; European salt, 31 
bushels ; West India salt, 31 bushels ; Sea coal, 29 bushels ; Tobacco, 6 
hhds. ; Pig and Bar iron. Potashes, Sugar, Logwood, Fustic, Nicaragua 
wood and Heavy Dye-woods, Rice, Honey, Copper ore, and all otlief 
heavy goods, 20 cwt.=l ton ; Coffee^ cocoa, and dried codfish in bulk, iC 
cwt.=l ton ; Dried Codfish, in casks of any size, 12 cwt.=l ton ; Oil, Wine, 
Brandy, or any kind of liquor, reckoning the full contents of the cask, wine 
measures 200 gals. =1 ton. Mahogany, Square timber, Oak Plank, Pine and 
other boards, Beavers, Furs, Peltry, Beeswax, Cotton, Wool, and ale 
of all kinds, 40 cubic ft.=l ton. Flour, in bbls. of 196 lbs. each 8 bbls.=: 
Iton; Beef, Tallow, Pickled fish, Pitch, Tar, and Turpentine, 6 bbls. =1 ton. 

A Car-load. — As a general rule the following quantities constitute 
a car-load throughout Canada and the United States, viz. : 20,000 lbs. 
or 70 bbls. of salt, 70 of lime, 70 of flour, 60 of whiskey, 200 sacks of 
flour, 6 cords of hard wood, 7 of soft wood, 16 head of horses, 18 to 20 
head of cattle, 50 to 60 head of ho2:s, 80 to 100 head of sheep, 9,000 
feet of solid boards, 17,000 feet of siding, 13,000 feet of flooring, 40,000 
shingles, one-half less of hard lumber, one-fourth less of green lum- 
ber, one-tenth less of joists, scantling and all other large timber, 340 
"bushels of Avheat, 360 of com, 680 of oats, 400 of barley, 360 of flax-seed, 
360 of apples 430 of Irish potatoes, 356 of sweet potatoes, 1,000 bushels 
of bran. 

Exchange on England. 

Exchange is the method of adjusting accounts or paying debts, when 
the debtor and creditor are distant from each other, by means of an order 
or draft called a bill of exchange, so as to avoid the transmission of either 
money or goods ; for example, A of New York wishing to pay a debt to B, 
of London, pays an equivalent amount to C, of New York, who has a 
debtor, D, in London ; and A receives from C an order, addressed to D, 
requesting him to pay the amount to B. This is sent in a letter to B, who 
presents it to D for acceptance or payment. Thus the debtor in one place 
is substituted for the debtor in another, and two accounts may be adjust- 
ed at the same time by the simple transmission of a letter. Par of ex- 



TABLES, &C., FOR MERCHANTS. 



207 



change, is the equivalency of a certain amount of the currency of one 
country to the currency of another, the currencies of both being of the 
precise weight and purity fixed by their respective mints. Thus accord- 
ing to the mint regulations of England and France, £1 sterling is equal 
to 25 francs, 20 centimes, which is consequently said to be the par between 
London and Paris. Exchange is made to diverge from par, either by de- 
preciation of the currency in either country below the mint standard, or 
by the difference in the amounts of indebtedness between one country 
and another, called the balance of trade, which effects the relative de- 
mand for bills of exchange. Thus in the following table, the present 
standard value of £1 st^. in the United States, being ^4.84.4, when ex- 
change is at 9 per cent., it is then at par ; if higher than 9, it is above par, 
if less than 9, it is below, as shown by the table. 

EXCHANGE TABLE. 



5 per cent. 


i§4.66.7 


7% 


per cent. 


$4.78.9 


10 per cent. 


§4.88.9 


514 1^ 


4.68.0 


8 




4.80.0 


IOV4 




4.90.0 


4.70.0 


8V4 
8V. 




4.81.1 


IOV2 
1034 




4.91.1 


6 * '' 


4.71.1 




4.82.2 




4.92.2 


6V4 " 


4.72.2 


s% 




4.83.3 


11 




4.93.3 


6V^ " 


4.73.3 


9 




4.84.4 


IIV4 




4.94.4 


6% " 


4.74.4 


9^4 




4.85.6 


111/3 




4.95.6 


7 


4.75.6 


^% 




4.86.7 


113/4 




4.96.7 


71/4 " 


4.76.7 


9%. 




4.87.8 


12 




4.97.8 


1V2 '' 


4.77.8 















The following Table exhibits the Legal Equivalents of 
British Money in American Dollars and Cents. 



s. 


^ c. m. 


S. 


f c. m.!£ 


^ c. 


£ 


§ c. 


£ 


$ c. 


£ 


• § c. 


£ 


$ c. 


1 


24.2 


11 


2.66.2 


1 


4 84 


11 


53 24 


21 


101 64 


31 


150 04 


41 


198 44 


2 


48.4 


12 


2.90.4 


2 


9 68 


12 


58 08 


22 


106 48 


32 


154 88 


42 


203 28 


3 


72.6 


13 


3.14.6 


3 


14 52 


13 


62 92 


23 


111 32 


33 


159 72 


43 


208 12 


4 


96.8 


14 


3.38.8 


4 


19 36 


14 


67 76 


24 


116 16 


34 


164 56 


44 


212 96 


5 


1.21.0 


15 


3.63.0 


5 


24 20 


15 


72 60 


25 


121 00 


35 


169 40 


45 


217 80 


6 


1.45.2 


16 


3.87.2 


6 


29 04 


16 


77 44 


26 


125 84 


36 


174 24 


50 


242 00 


7 


1.69.4 


17 


4.11.4 


7 


33 88 


17 


82 28 


27 


130 68 


37 


379 08 


60 


290 40 


8 


1.93.6 


18 


4.35.6 


8 


38 72 


18 


87 12 


28 


135 52 


38 


183 92 


70 


338 80 


9 


2.17.8 


19 


4.59.8 


9 


43 56 


19 


91 96 


29 


140 36 


39 


188 76 


80 


387 20 


10 


2.42.0 


20 


4.84.0 


10 


48 40 


20' 96 80 


30 


145 20 


40 


193 60 


90 


436 00 



Flavoring Extracts, Vanilla, Ginger, &c.— Vanilla beans, 
4 ozs. ; sugar, 2 ozs. ; alcohol, 4 fluid ozs. ; simple syrup, 4 ozs. ; brandy, 
1 pt. Cut the beans finely, and rub thoroughly with the sugar, put 
all into a strong stone bottle, secure the cork with twine, and boil in 
a water bath for J hour, then transfer to a filter and allow it to per- 
colate through, then add brandy sufficient to make 4 pts. Other 
extracts, as ginger, &c., can be made in a similar manner, by using 
the respective ingredients. 

Essential oils of aniseed, lavender, peppermint, cloves, cinnamon, 
&c. , are obtained by submitting parts of the plants, previously ground 
to a coarse powder, to distillation with water, when the oils are carried 
over in a minute state of division with the aqueous vapor. The 
essential oils enclosed in the skins of lemons, oranges, bergamots, 
&c., are obtained by pressing the rinds of these fruits. 

To Preserve Apples. — Pack in boxes or barrels elevated from the 
cellar floor, with a layer of dry sawdust at the bottom of each box or 
barrel, then a layer of apples placed out of contact with each other, 
then a layer of sawdust, and so on till all are full. Sound apples 
packed in this way will keep fresh a long time. 



208 GROCERS AND CONFECTIONER'S RECEIPTS; &C. 

"Weights, in Pounds, of Various Articles, as Rated by Railway 
Companies, when their Weights cannot otherwise be ascer- 
tained. 

pounds. 

Ashes, pot or pearl Barrel. . . . 450 

Apples, and "barrelled fruits Barrel 200 

Apples Bushel. . . . 50 

Barley Bushel.... 45 

Beef, pork, bacon Per hhd .... 1,000 

Butter, tallow, lard Per bbl. ... 333 

Salt fish and meat Per firkin 100 

Bran, feed, shipstuffs, oats Bushel 35 

Buckwheat Bushel .... 48 

Bricks, common Each 5 

Bf^k... Cord!.! 12,000 

Charcoal Bushel.... 22 

Coke, and cake meal Bushel 40 

Clover seed Bushel .... 62 

Eggs Barrel.... 200 

Fish and salt meat Per firkin .... 100 

Flour andmeal Per bushel, 5G lbs. Barrel.... 216 

Grain and seeds, not stated Bushel ... 60 

Hides (green) Each ... . 85 

Hides (dry), salted or Spanish Each 33 

Ice, coal, lime Bushel 80 

Liquors, malt and distilled Barrel 350 

Liquors Per gallon. ... 10 

Lumber — pine, poplar, hemlock Ft. b. m 4 

Lumber — oak, walnut, cherry, ash Ft. b. m. . . . 5 

Nails and spikes Keg 106 

Onions, wheat, potatoes Bushel 60 

Oysters Per bushel, 100 lbs., per 1,000. . . . 350 

Plastering lath Per 1,000. . . . 60o 

Resin, tar, turpentine Barrel.... 300 

Sand, gravel, etc Per cubic ft 150 

Shingles Per M., short, 900 lbs., Long. ...1400 

Salt Per bushel. . . . 70 

Stone, undressed Perch 4,000 

Stone, dressed Cubic ft 180 

Timothy and light grass seed Bushel 40 

Wood— hickory Cord. . . .4,500 

Wood— oak Cord. ... 3,500 

1 ton (2240 lbs.) cured hay is 425 cubic ft.; 1 ton of hay in mow, 414.37 
lbs., or a cube of 7^4 ft. Hay, as usually delivered, weighs 5 lbs. per cubic 
ft.; do., well pressed, 8 lbs. Straw, loose, weighs 31/2 Ihs. per cubic ft.; 
do., well pressed, 5% lbs. U. S. gallon of water weighs 8.33 lbs. ; do., of 
molasses, 11%; do., of turpentine, 7.31; do., of alcohol, 6.96. 

Belfast Ginger Ale. — Double refined sugar, powdered, 1 lb. ; 
bicarbonate of soda, 3J ozs. ; citric acid, 4J ozs. ; concentrated ess. of 
ginger, IJ ozs. ; ess. of "cayenne, 2 drs. ; ess. of lemon, 40 drops. The 
soda, acid and sugar must be carefully dried separately at a tempera- 
ture not exceeding 120"; and the sugar before drying must be thor-. 
oughly incorporated with the essences, to which a small quantity of 
caramel, as color, may be added. The whole forms a powder, a des- 
sertspoonful of which will make a tumblerful of the drink. 

Unfermented Wine. — To make this, boil grapes of any kmd over 
a slow fire till the pulp has thoroughly separated from the skin, add- 
ing just enough water to prevent burning at the bottom of the vessel, 
then press the juice through a fine cloth and add 5 its weight of sugar, 



GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS' RECEIPTS, «fcC. 209 



mix well, bring the juice to the boiling point once more, and can it 
in air-tight jars. This Avine will keep sweet for years, and has the 
color of port. 

To Imphove Spoiled Butter. — The cut represents an excellent 
arrangement for the restoration of bad butter by means of the weU- 
known absorbent and deodorizing qual- 
ities of charcoal. The tainted butter is 
removed from the firkin or other ves- 
sel by removing the staves and hoops 
surrounding it. It is then i^laced in a 
clean bag and buried in granulated 
charcoal in a suitable barrel or box. In 
a short time, the offensive odor and 
bad smell will disappear, and a fine, 
fresh, marketable appearance will be 
imparted to the butter by the conserv- 
ing operation of the charcoal. 

Another way, melt the butter in twice 
its weight of boiling water, shake well 
and pour the melted butter into cold 
water to regain a proper consistence. 
Or, wash in good new milk, in which the butyric acid, which causes 
the rancidity, is freely soluble. Wash afterwards in cold spring 
water. Another good way is to wash the butter in strong lime water, 
previously permitting the lime ample time to settle, and using the clear 
portion. 

To Can Fkuit. — The following instructions for boiling and can- 
ning fruit will prove useful to many. The first number after the 
name of the fruit has reference to the number of minutes required for 
boiling, and the second to the ounces of sugar required to each quart. 
Currants, 6, 8 ; cherries, 5, 6 ; crab-apples, 25, 8 ; blackberries, 6, 6 ; 
gooseberries, 8, 8 ; grapes, 10,8; plums, 10, 8; peaches (whole), 15, 
4; peaches (halves), 8, 4 ; pears (whole), 30, 8 ; quinces (sliced), 15, 
10 ; tomatoes, 30, (no sugar) ; beans and peas, 3 to 4 hours, no sugar. 

To Can Green Corn.— Dissolve 2^ ozs. tartaric acid in 1 pt. water, 
and use 1 teaspoonful to every pint of com while the corn is at boiling 
heat. When opened for use, add one teaspoonful of soda to every 3 
cans of corn. 




Percentage of Alcohol in 100 Parts of the following 
Liquors.— P?'o/. Brande. 



Scotch Whiskey 54.53 

Irish do 5,3.9 

Rum 53.68 

Gin 51.6 

Brandy 53.39 

Burgundy 14.57 

Cape Muscat 18. 25 

Champagne (still) 13.80 

Do. (sparkling) 12 . 61 

Cider 5.2 to 9.8 

Constantia 19.75 

Gooseberry Wine 11 .48 



Currant Wine 20.50 

Port 22.90 

Maderia 22.27 

Teneriif e 19.79 

Sherry 19.17 

Claret 15.1 

Elder 8.79 

Ale..... 6.87 

Porter 4.2 

Malaga 17.26 

Bhenish 12.8 

Small Beer 1.28 



210 GKOCERS AND CONFECTIONERS' RECEIPTS. 

R^vpiD Process of marking Goods at any desired per cent. 
Profit. — Retail merchants, in buying goods by wliolesale, buy a great 
many articles by the dozen, such as boots and shoes, hats and caps, 
and notions of various kinds ; now, the merchant, in buying, for in- 
stance, a dozen hats, Imows exactly what one of these hats will retail 
for m the market where he deals ; and, miless he is a good accountant, 
it will often take him some time to determine whether he can afford 
to purchase the dozen hats and make a living profit by selling them by 
the single hat ; and in buying his goods by auction, as the merchant 
often does, he has not time to make the calculation before the goods are 
bid off. He therefore loses the chance of making good bargains by be- 
ing afraid to bid at random, or if he bids, and the goods are cried off, 
lie may liave made a poor bargain, by bidding thus at a venture. It then 
becomes a useful and practical problem to determine instantly what 
per cent, he would gain if he retailed the hat at a certain price, to 
tell what an article should retail for to make a profit of 20 per cent. 

Rule. — Divide ivhat the articles cost per dozen by 10, which is done 
hy removing the decimal point one place to tJie left. 

For instance, if hats cost S17.50 per dozen, remove the decimal point 
one i)lace to the left, making $1.75, what they should be sold for 
apiece to gain 20 per cent on the cost. . If they cost $31.00 per dozen, 
they should be sold at $3,10 apiece, etc. We take 20 per cent, as the 
basis for the f olloAving reasons, viz : because we can determine instant- 
ly, by simply removing the decimal point, without changing a figure, 
and, if the goods would not bring at least 20 per cent, profit in the 
home market, the merchant could not afford to purchase, and would 
look for cheaper goods. 

The reason for the above rule is obvious, for if wo divide the cost 
of a dozen by 12, we have the cost of a single article ; then if we wish 
to make 20 per cent, on the cost (cost being 1-1 or 5-5), we add the 
per cent., which is 1-5, to the 5-5, making G-5 or 12-10 ; then as we 
multiply the cost, divided by 12, by the 12-10 to find at what price one 
must be sold to gain 20 per cent., it is evident that tlie 12s will cancel 
and leave the cost of a dozen to be divided by 10, to do this remove the 
decimal point one place to the left. 

Example 1. — If I buy 2 dozen caps at S7.50 per dozen, what shall I 
retail them at to make 20 per cent. ? Ans. 75 cents. 

ExAJMPLE 2. — When a merchant retails a vest at $4.50 and makes 
20 per cent, what did he pay per doz. ? Ans. $45. 

Example 3. — ^At what price should I retail a pair of boots that cost 
$85.00 per doz. to make 20 per cent ? Ans. $8.50. 

Now, as removing the decimal point one place to the left, on the cost 
oi a dozen articles, gives the selling price of a single one with 20 per 
cent, added to the cost, and, as the cost of any article is 100 per cent, 
it is obvious that the seUing price would be 20 per cent, more, or 120 
per cent. ; hence, to find 50 per. cent, profit which would 
make the seUing price 150 per cent., we would first find 120 
per cent, then add 30 per cent, by increasmg it one-fourth itself ; 
lor 35 per cent., increase it one-eight itself, etc. Hence to mark an 
article at any per cent, profit we find the following: 

— General Ruijis.--Fi7^stfind 20 per cent, profit by^ removing the dec- 
imal point one place to the left on the price the articles cost per doz.; 
then, as 20 per cent profit is 120 per cent, add to or subtract from this 



GROCERS AKD CONFECTIONERS* RECEIPTS. 211 

amount the fractional part that the required per cent, added to 100 is 
more or less than 120. 

Merchants, in marking goods, generally take a per cent, that is an ali- 
quot part of 100, as 25, 33 1-3, 50, &c. The reason they do this is be- 
cause it makes it much easier to add such a per cent, to the cost ; for 
instance, a merchant could mark almost a dozen articles at 50 per cent, 
profit in the time it would take him to mark one at 49 per cent. 
The following is arranged for the convenience of business men in 
marking the prices of all articles bought by the dozen. 
To make 20 per cent, remove the i)oi'ut one place to the left. 



80 




ii 


(( 




and add h it 


self. 


60 




(( 


(( 




(( 


1-3 


It 


50 




(( 


(( 




(( 


1-4 


it 


44 




(C 


(C 




(( 


1-5 


ti 


40 




(( 


(( 




(( 


1-6 


tt 


37 




(( 


(( 




It 


1-7 


it 


35 




ti 


(( 




tt 


1-8 


ti 


331-3 




a 


(( 




it 


1-9 


tt 


32 




tt 


(( 




tt 


1-10 


tt 


30 




(( 


(( 




tt 


1-12 


tt 


28 




It 


({ 




tt 


1-15 


tt 


26 




cc 


(( 




tt 


1-20 


tt 


25 




tt 


(( 




(( 


1-24 


tt 


12i 




it 


tt 




subtract 


1-16 


it 


16 2-3 




It 


tt 




u 


1-36 


it 


18| 




tt 


tt 




(( 


1-96 


It 


buy a doz. 


shii-ts for 828.00, what shall I retail them for to 



If I 

make 50 per cent. ? Ans. $3.50 

Explanation. — ^Remove the point one place to the left, and add J 
itself. 

Aliquot Parts of 100 and 1000.— Merchants in selling goods gen- 
erally make the price of an article some aliquot part of 100, as in sell- 
ing sugar at 12^ cents per lb., or 8 lbs. for $1.00, or in sell- 
ing calico for 16 2-3 cents per yard, or 6 yds. for $1.00, etc. The 
f oUowing table will be found valuble for aU such calculations, 
12i is 1-8 part of 100. 8J is 1-12 part of 100. 

25 is 1-4 part of 100. 16 2-3 is 2-12 or 1-6 of 100 

37^ is 3-8 part of 100. 33 1-3 is 4-12 or 1-3 of 100. 

50 is 4-8 or h of 100. 66 2-3 is 8-12 or 2-3 of 100 

624 5-8 part'^of 100. 83 1-3 is 10-12 or 5-6 of 100 

75 is 6-8 or 3-4 part of 100, 125 is 1-8 part of 1000. 
Slh is 7-8 part of 100. 250 is 2-8 or i of 1000. 

6} is 1-16 part of 100. 375 is 3-8 part of 1000. 

18| is 3-16 part of 100. 625 is 5-8 part of 1000. 

3l| is 5-16 part of 100. 875 is 7-8 part of 1000. 

To multiply by an aliquot part of 100. 

RcTLE.— Add two cyphers to the multiplicand, then take such part 
of it as the multiplier is part of 100. 

N. B. If the multiplicand is a mixed number reduce the fraction to 
a decimal of two places before dividing. 

N. B. For the sake of uniformitv, it has been thought best to 
classify the Coal, Interest and Ready Reckoner Tables at the end of 
the Engineers* Department, 



212 GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS* RECEIPTS. 

Teas. — ^Tlie names of tlie different kinds of tea relate to the time 
of their being gathered, or to some peculiarity in their manufacture. " 
It is a general rule, that all tea is fine in proportion to the tenderness 
and immaturitjr of the leaves. The quality and value of the differ- 
ent kinds diminish as they are gathered later in the season. 

Black Teas.— As soon as the leaf-bud begins to expand, it is 
gathered to make Pekoe. A few days' later growth produces black- 
leaved Pekoe. The next picking is called Souchong ; as the leaves 
grow larger and more mature, they form Congou ; and the last pick- 
ing is Bohea. Bohea is called by the Chinese, Ta-cha (large tea), on 
:account of the maturity and size of the leaves ; it contains a larger 
proportion of woody fibre than other teas, and its infusion is of a 
darker color and coarser flavor. Congou, the next higher kind, is 
named from a corruption of the Cliinese Koong-foa (great care, or 
assiduity). This forms the bulk of the black tea imported, and is 
mostly valued for its strength. 

Soucliong — Seaoa-choong (small scarce sort), is the finest of the 
strongest black tea, with a leaf that is generally entire and curly. It 
is much esteemed for its fragrance and fine flavor. Pekoe is a corrup- 
tion of the Canton name, Pak-ho (white down), being the first sprouts 
of the leaf -buds ; they are covered with a white silky down. It is a 
delicate tea, rather deficient in strength, and is principally used for 
flavoring other teas. 

Green Teas. — The following are the principal kinds, licankay, 
Ilyson-Skin, Hyson, G^inpoioder, and Young Hyson. 

Young Hyson is a delicate young leaf, called in the original lan- 
guage Yu-tsien (before the rains), because gathered in the early 
siDring. Hyson, from the Chinese word He-tchune, which means, 
flourishing spring. This fine tea is gathered early in the season, and 
prepared with great care and labor. Each leaf is picked separately, 
and nipped off above the footstalks ; and every separate leaf is 
rolled in the hand. It is much esteemed for its flavor. Gunpowder 
Tea is only Hyson roUed and rounded to give it the granular appear- 
ance whence it derives its name. The CMnese caU it Choo-cha (peal 
tea). Hyson-Skin is so named from the Chinese term, in which 
connection skin means the refuse, or inferior portion. In preparuig 
Hyson, all leaves that are of a coarse yellow, or imperfectly twisted 
appearance, are separated, and sold as skin-tea, at an inferior price. 

Twankay is the last picking of green tea, and the leaf is not rolled 
or twisted as much as the dearer descriptions. There is altogether 
less trouble bestowed on the preparation. 

Coffees.— Java Coffee. — Use of the imported article, 20 lbs. '; 
dried dandelion root, 7 lbs. ; chiccory, 13 lbs. Roast and grind 
well together. 

For West India, use rye roasted with a little butter, and ground 
very fine. 

For Turkey Coffee, use rice or wheat roasted with a little 
butter, 7 lbs. ; chiccory, 3 lbs. ; grind. 

Essence op Coffee is made by boiling down molasses tiU 
hard ; grtud to a powder ; add \ lb. of good Java coffee to every 4 
lbs. of the mixture. ^ Put up for sale in round tin cans or air-tight' 
paper packages. 

Coffee for Pound Packages.— Best Java coffee, 1 lb. ; rye, 3, 



GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS* RECEIPTS. 213 

lbs. ; carefully clean the rye from all bad grains, wash to remove 
dust, drain off the water, and put the grain into your roaster, 
carefully stirruig to brown it evenly. Brown the rye and coffee 
separately, grind and put up in tight packages to preserve the 
aroma. 

To Flavor Tobacco. — This is done by means of a mixture of 1 part 
each of lemon peel, orange peel, figs, coriander seed and sassafras ; 
J part each of elderflowers, elderberries, and cinnamon ; 2 parts of 
saltpetre, 3 of salt, and 4 of sugar. This mixture must be digested in. 
50 parts of water, and, before applying it flavored vrith an alcoholic 
solution of gum benzion, mastic, and myrrh. It is said that this 
decoction gives a flavor to common leaves resembling Porto Rico, but 
to this end the leaves must be well dried, about a year old, well per- 
meated with the preparation, kept in a pile for 8 days, turned daily, 
and finally dried. 

Flavor for Cigar Makers. — ^Take 2 ozs. tonqua beans and 1 
oz. cinnamon ; bruise and pulverize them to a powder, and put 
them into 1 pint of Santa Cruz rum ; let it stand for a few days to 
macerate ; stir all together, and with this liquid sprinkle your 
common or inferior tobacco. Dry out of the sun, and the flavor 
will be unequalled. 

Tabac Perfuiviee aux Fleurs is made by putting orange flowers, 
jasmines, tube roses, musk roses, or common roses, to snuff in a close 
chest or jar, sifting them out after 24 hours, and repeating if necessary. 

Maccaboy Snuff is imitated by moistenuig the tobacco with a 
mixture of treacle and water, and allowing it to ferment. 

Spanish Snuff is made, from unsifted Havana snuff, reduced by 
adding ground Spanish nutshells, sprinkling the mixture with treacle 
water, and allowing it to sweat for some days before packing. 

Yellow Snuff is prepared from ordinary pale sni/^', moistened 
with a mixture of yellow ochre diffused in loater, to which a few 
spoonfuls of thin mucilage has been added. 

Perfumes for Snuff. — ^Tonqua beans, essence of ditto, ambergris 
musk civet, leaves of orchis fusca, and essence of orris root, essence 
or oils of bergamot, cedar, cloves, lavender, petit grain, neroli and 
roses, as well as several others, either alone or compounded. 

Unerring Tests for good Flour. — Good flour is white, witii a 
yellowish or straw-colored tint Squeeze some of the flour in 
your hand ; if good, it will retain the shape given by pressure. 
Knead a little between your fingers ; if it works soft and sticky, it is 
poor. Throw a little ac^ainst a dry perpendicular surface; if it fall 
like powder, it is bad. * 

To Correct Musty Flour. — Carbonate of magnesia, oi bs.; flour, 
7G5 lbs. ; mix. This improves bad flour, causing it to become more 
wholesome, producing lighter and better bread than ;.when alimi is 
used, and absorbs and dissipates the musty smell.' 

iERATED Bread. — 1 lb. flour,* 100 grs. carb. of soda ; 60 grs. com- 
mon salt; 1 teaspoon powdered sugar; 120 grs.' muriatic acid, more or 
less, according to its strength; 1 wme pt. of water, t. inferior flour will 
require less. ^> Well mix the flour, soda, salt, and sugar^m an earthen 
vessel, then add the acid mixed with the water, stir iwith^ a i wooden 
spoon. Bake in one loaf about 1 hour. " Bake in tm or. iron pans, but 
avoid the use of metallic vessels or spoons while mixing. 



214 GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS' RECEIPTS. 

Patent Self-Raising Flour. — Kiln-dried flour, 1 cwt. ; tartaric 
acid, 10^ oz. ; mix tliorouglily. After 2 or 3 days, add, of bicarb, 
soda, 12 oz. ; lump sugar J lb. ; common salt, 1^ lb. Mix, and pass 
through the ** dressing ma clime.'* Have all the articles perfectly dry, 
and separately reduced to fine i)owder before adding to the flour. Mix 
Avith cold water, and bake at once. It produces light and porous 
bread. 

To Cure Butter.— Take 2 parts of fine salt ; 1 part loaf sugar ; 
1 part saltpetre ; mix comxDletely. Use 1 oz. of this mixture to 
I each pound of butter ; work well. Bury your butter firkins in the 
earth in your cellar bottom, tops nearly level with the ground, or 
store away in a very cool place, covering the butter with a clean 
cloth and a strong brine on the top, and it wiU keep two years 
if desired. 

To Keep Butter during Hot Weather. — A simple mode of 
keeping butter in warm weather is to invert a large crock of earthen, 
or a flower pot if need be, (varying with the size of the vessel con- 
taining the butter, ) over the dish or firkin in which the butter is held. 
The porousness of the earthenware will keep the butter cool, and all 
the more so if the pot be wrapped in a wet cloth, with a little water in 
the dish with the butter. Not the porosity of the earthenware, but 
the rapid absorption of heat by external evaporation causes the butter 
to become hard. 

To RESTORE Rancid Butter.— Use 1 pt water to each lb. of but- 
ter, previously adding 20 grs. chloride of lime to each pt. of water ; 
wash well the butter in this mixture, afterward re-wash in cold 
water and salt ; or melt the butter in a water bath with animal 
charcoal, coarsely powdered and previously well sifted to free 
it from dust ; skim, remove, and strain through flannel ; then salt 

Tomato Catsup. — Boil 1 bushel of tomatoes till they are soft; 
squeeze them through a fine wire sieve ; add IJ pts. salt, 2 oz. cayenne 
pepper, and 5 heads of onions, skioned and separated; mix together, 
and boil till reduced one half; then bottle. 

The Northern-Light Burning Fluid. — Get good deodorized 
Ijenzine, GO to 65 gravity, and to each brl. of 42 gals, add 2 lbs. pulver- 
ized alum, SJ oz. gum camphor, and 3J oz. oil of sassafras, or 2 oz. oil 
.l)ergamot; stir up and mix thoroughly together, and it will soon be 
Teady for use. N. B. — As this fluid creates a much larger volume of 
light and flame than carbon oil, it is necessary to use either a high 
iDurner, such as the sun burner, to elevate the flame away from the 
J lamp, in order to keep it cool, or instead thereof, to use a burner pro- 
vided with a tube for the escape of the gas generated from the fluid, 
,such, for instance, as the Meriden burner. 

Test for Burning Oil.— Heat water in a pot on the fire to 120° 
Fahr. Take a tin and put in it a tablespoonf ul of the oil you wish to 
test, place the tin containing the oil in the hot water, let it cool down 
to 112° Fahr. ; when at this point, approach a light very cautiously to- 
wards the oil, and if it takes fire before the light touches it you will 
be safe in rejecting it. 

Preserved or Solidified Milk. — 1. Fresh-skimmed milk, 1 gal. ; 
sesquicarbonate of soda (in iDOwder), IJ dr. Mix; evaporate to ^ part 
by heat of steam or waterbath, with constant agitation ; then add of 
powdered jiugar CJ lbs. and complete the evai)oration at a reduced 



" GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS' RECEIPTS. 215 

temperature. Reduce the dry mass to powder, add the cream well 
drained, which was taken from the milk. Alter thorough admixture, 
put the whole into well stopped bottles or tins, and hermetically seal. 
2. Carbonate of soda, J dr. ; water, 1 fluid oz. ; dissolve ; add of fresh 
milk, one qt. ; sugar, 1 lb. ; reduce by heat to the consistency of a syrup, 
and finish the evaporation on plates by exposure, in an oven. 
Observe — About 1 oz. of the powder agitated with 1 pt. of water forms 
a good substitute for mUk. 

Sealing-wax, Red.— Shellac (very pale), 4 oz. ; cautiously melt in 
a bright copper pan over a clear charcoal fire ; when fused, add 
Yenice turpentine, IJ oz. Mix, and further add vermilion, 3 o-z. ; 
remove the pan from the fire, and pour into a mould. For a NacJc 
color, use ivory black, or lampblack, mstead of the vermilion ; for a 
blue color, use Prussian blue, instead of the vermilion, same quantity. 
Each color must be well mixed vnth the composition ; of the lampblack, 
use only sufiicient to color. 

HoRTicui^TURAt, Ink. — Copper, 1 part ; dissolve in nitric acid, 10 
parts, and add water, 10 parts ; used to write on zinc, or tin labels. 

Bottle Wax— Black. — Black resin, 6J lbs. ; beesAvax, J lb. ; finely 
powdered ivory black, IJ lbs. Melt together. Red, as the last, but 
substitute Venetian red, or red lead, for the ivory black. 

Gold-colored Sealikg-wax. — Bleached shellac, 3 lbs.; Yenice 
turpentine 1 lb. ; Dutch leaf ground fine, 1 lb., or less. The leaf should 
be ground, or i^owdered sufficiently fine, without being reduced to 
dust. Mix with a gentle heat, and pour into moulds. 

Lithographic Ink. — ^Yenice turpentine 1 part, lampblack 2 parts, 
hard tallow soap 6 i^arts, mastic in tears, 8 parts, shellac 12 parts, 
wax 16 parts ; melt, stir, and pour it out on a slab. 

Inks. — 1. Fine Black writing Ink. — To 2 gals, of a strong decoc- 
tion of logwood, well strained, add IJ lbs. blue gaUs in coarse powder, 
G ozs. sulphate of iron, 1 oz. acetate'of copper, 6 ozs. of well ground 
sugar, and 8 oz. gum arable. Set the above on the fire until it begins 
to boil; strain, and then set it away until it has acquired the desired 
black. 2. Green Ink. Cream of tartar 1 part, verdigris 2 parts, 
water 8 parts. Boil till reduced to the proper color. 3. Blue Ink. 
Take sulphate of indigo, dilute it with water till it produces the re- 
quired color. 4. Violet Ink. Is made by dissolving some violet 
aniline in water to which some alcohol has been added : it takes very 
little aniline to make a large quantity of the ink. 5. Gold Ink. 
Mosaic gold, two parts, gum arable, one part, rubbed up to a proper 
condition. G. Silver Ink. Triturate in a mortar equal parts of silver 
foil and sulphate of potassa, until reduced to a fine powder, then wash 
the salt out, and mix the residue with a mucilage of equal parts of 
gum arable water. 7. Ftdlam^s Recipe for Indelible Stencil-plate 
Ink. 1 lb. precipitate carbonate of iron ; 1 lb. sulphate of iron ; IJ 
lbs. acetic acid. Stir over a fire until they combine ; then add 3 lbs. 
prmter's varnish and 2 lbs. fine book mk, and stir until well mixed. 
Add 1 lb. of Ethiop's mineral. 8 Exchequer Ink. Brxised galls, 40 
lbs. ; gum, 10 lbs. ; green sulphate of iron, 9 lbs. ; soft Avater, 45 gals. 
Macerate for 3 weeks with frequent agitation and strain. This ink 
will endure for ages. 9. Asiatic Ink. Bruised galls, 14 lbs. ; gum, 5 
lbs. Put them in a small cask, and add of boilmg soft water, 15 gals. 
Allow the whole to macerate, with frequent agitation, for two weeks, 



216 GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS' RECEIPTS. - 

then further add green copperas, 5 lbs., dissolved in 7 pts. water. 
Again mix well, and agitate the Avhole daily for two or three weeks 
10. Extra good Black Ink. Bruised galls, 2 Ibe., logwood chips, 
green copperas and gum, of each, 1 lb. ; water, 7 gals. Boil 2 hours 
and strain. Product. 5 gals. 11. Brown Ink. A strong decoction of 
catechu. The shade may be varied by the cautious addition of a little 
weak solution of bichromate of potash. 12, Indelible Ink. Nitrate 
of silver, J oz. ; water, | oz. Dissolve, add as much of the strongest 
liquor of ammonia as will dissolve the precipitate formed on its first 
addition; then add of mucilage IJ dr.j and a httle sap green, syruiD of 
buckthorn, or finely powdered indigo, to color. Turnslblack on being 
held near the fire, or touched with a hot iron. 13. Indelible Ink for 
Glass or Metal. Borax, 1 oz; shellac, 2 oz. ; water, 18 fluid oz. ; boil 
in a covered vessel, add of thick mucilage, 1 oz. ; triturate it with 
levigated indigo and lampblack q. s., to give it a good color. After 2 
hours' repose, decant from the dregs and bottle for use. It may be 
bronzed after being applied. Resists moisture, chlorine, and acids. 
14. Common Ink. To 1 gal. boiling soft water, add J oz. extract log- 
wood ; boil two minutes ; remove from the fire, and stir in 48 graius 
bichromate of potash, and 8 grains prussiate of potash ; for 10 gals, use 
6 J oz. logwood extract; 1 oz. bichromate of potash, and 80 grains 
prussiate of potash ; strain. 15. Black Copying Ink, or Writing fluid 
Take 2 gals, rain water and put into it gum arable, J lb. ; brown sugar, 
J lb. ; clean copperas, i lb. ; x)owdered nutgalls, f lb. ; mix, and shako 
occasionally for ten days and strain; if needed sooner, let it stand in 
an iron kettle untn the strength is obtained. This ink will stand the 
action of the atmosphere for centuries, if required. 16. Bed Ink. 
In an ounce phial put 1 teaspoonf ul of aqua-ammonia ; gum arable 
size of two or three peas; and 6 grains of No. 40 carmine; fill up with 
soft water, and it is soon ready for use. 

Liquid Blacking. — Ivory black, 2 lbs. ; molasses, 2 lbs. ; sweet oil, 
1 lb. ; rub together till well mixed ; then add oil vitrei, 5 lb. ; add 
coarse sugar, J lb. ; and dilute with beer bottoms ; this cannot be 
excelled. 

Ticketing Ink for Grocers, &c. — ^Dissolve 1 oz. of gum arable in 
6 oz. water, and strain ; this is the mucilage ; for black color, use 
drop black, i^owdered, and ground with the mucilage to extreme fine- 
ness ; for blue, ultra-marine is used in the same manner ; for green, 
emerald green ; for lohite, flake white ; for i^ed, vermilion, lake, or 
carmine ; for yellow yChiome yellow. When ground too thick they are 
f thinned Avith a little water. Apply to the cards with a small brush. Tlie 
cards may be sized with a thin glue, and afterwards varnished, if it is 
desired to preserve them. ^ 

Bluing for Clothes.— Take 1 oz. of soft Prussian blue, powder it, 
and put in a bottle with 1 quart of clear rain water, and add J oz. of 
pulverized oxahc acid.§i» A tablespoonful is sufiicient for a large wash- 
ing 

Premium Method of keeping IIaivis, &c. — ^To 4 gals, water, add 8 
lbs. coarse salt ; J oz. potash ; 2 oz. saltpetre ; 2 lbs. brown sugar. 
Boil together, skim when cold, put on the above quantity to 100 lbs. 
meat ; hams to remain in eight weeks, beef, three weeks. Let the 
hams dry several ' days before smoking. Meat of all kinds, salmon 
and other fish, lobsters, &c., may be preserved for years by a light ap- 



GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS' RECEIPTS. 217 

plication of pyroligneoiis acid applied with a brusli, sealing up in cans 
as usual. It imparts a splendid flavor to the meat, is very cheax), and 
an effectual preservative against loss. 

To PRESERVE Meats, Sai^mon, Lobsters, &c., HERMETicALiiY 
SEALED.— The meat to he preserved is first parboiled or somewhat more 
and freed from hones. It is then put into tin cases or canisters, which 
are quite filled up with a rich gravy. A tin cover, with a small aper- 
ture, is then carefully fixed on by solder ; and, wliile the vessel is per- 
fectly full, it is placed in boilmg water, and undergoes the remainder of 
the cooking. The smaU hole in the cover is completely closed up by 
soldering while the whole is yet hot. The canister, with its ingredients, 
is now allowed to cool, in consequence of which these contract, and 
the sides of the vessel are slightly forced inward by atmospheric pres- 
sure, and become a little concave. The vessel being thus hermet- 
ically sealed, and all access of the air prevented, it may be sent into 
any climate without fear of putrefaction ; and the most delicate 
food of one country may be used in another in all its original perfec- 
tion, months and years after its preparation. Lobsters should be boil- 
ed louger than meats, and the scales removed i^revious to puttmg into 
the canisters. Salmon put up by this process is most delicious. By the 
French process the meat is boiled till it is three-quarters done, when 
two-thirds of it are taken out, the remauiing one-third is boiled into a 
concentrated soup, and the meat previously taken out is put mto the 
canisters, which are then filled up with the soup ; the tin cover with 
aperture is soldered on, and the canister with its contents sub- 
mitted to farther boiling in hot water, when the aperture is closed, as 
above stated, and the canisters laid away in store. 

To PRESERVE Fruits without Sugar. — Fill some stone wide- 
mouthed bottles with the fruit carefully picked, and set them in 
a copper or large kettle ; then fill the kettle with cold water nearly 
up to the mouths of the bottles. Corks should be prepared to :dt 
the bottles, and a cloth should be put under the bottoms of tho 
bottles to prevent their cracking with the heat. Light the fire un- 
der the kettle, and heat the water to 160° or 170°. This heat should 
be continued for half an hour, when the fruit will be suflaciently 
scalded ; after that, fill up the bottles with boiling water to within 
an inch of the cork, and cork them tightly. Lay the bottles on 
their sides ; change the position of the bottles once or twice a 
week during tlie first two months, turning them round to prevent 
any fermentation that might take place. Fruits could also be 
kept by the process mentioned above for meats, remembering that 
they are to be scalded only, not boiled, as in the case with meats. 

Another Method. — After paring and cormg, put among them 
sufficient sugar to make them palatable for present eating, about 
3 or 4 lbs. only to each bushel ; let them stand awhile to dissolve 
the sugar, not using any water ; then lieat to a boil, and continue 
the boiling with care for 20 to 30 minutes, or sufficiently long to 
heat them through, which expels the air. Have ready a kettle of 
hot water, into which dip the can or bottle long enough to heat it ; 
then fill in the fruit while hot, corking it immediately, dipping the 
end of the cork into the bottle-wax preparation described else- 
where. 

Worcestershire Sauce.— White vinegar 15 gals. ; walnut catsup 



218 GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS RECEIPTS. 

10 gals. ; Maderia wine 5 gals. ; mushroom catsup 10 gals. ; table 
salt 25 lbs. ; Canton soy, 4 gals. ; powdered capsicum 2 lbs. ; powdered 
allspice 1 lb. ; powdered coriander, seeds 1 lb. ; cloves, mace, and cin- 
namon, of each, J lb. ; asaf cetida J lb. ; dissolved in brandy 1 gal. Boil 
20 lbs. hogs livers in 10 gals, of water for 12 hours, renewing the water 
from time to time. Take out the liver, chop it, mix with Water, work 
through a sieve, and mix with the sauce. 

Gherkins.— Take small cucumbers (not young), steep for a week 
in very strong brme ; it is then poured off, hejtted to the boiling 
'pomt, and again poured on the fruit. The next day the gherkins 
are drained on a sieve, wiped dry, put into bottles or jars, with 
some spice, ginger, pepper, or cayenne, and at once covered with 
strong pickling vinegar. 

;Mixed pickles from cauliflowers, white cabbage, French beans, 
onions, cucumbers, &c., are treated ?is gherkins, with raw ginger, 
capsicum, mustard-seed and long pepper, added to each bottle. 
A little bruised turmeric improves both the color and flavor. 

Indian pickle. — Piccalilli. — ^Take one hard Avhite cabbage 
(sliced), 2 cauliflowers, pulled to pieces, 20 French beans, 1 stick 
of horse-radish, sliced fine, 2 doz. small white onions, and 1 doz. 
gherkins. Cover these with boiling brine ; next day, drain the 
whole on a sieve, put it into a jar, add of curry powder, or tur- 
meric, 2 oz. ; garlic, ginger, and mustard-seed, of each 1 oz. ; cap- 
sicum J oz. Fill up the vessel with hot pickling vmegar ; bung 
it up close, and let it stand for a montli, with occasional agitation. 

To Preserve Fruit Juice without Heat. — Ingredients : 10 lbs. 
of fresh-gathered, picked, red-ripe currants, or other fruit, 2 qts. 
cold water, 5 oz. tartaric acid, 6 lbs. of coarse sifted sugar. Put 
the fruit mto a large earthen pan, pour the water with the tartaric 
acid dissolved in it over the fruit, cover the pan with some kind of 
lid, and allow the whole to steep for 24 hours in a cold place, and 
it would be all the better if the pan contahiing the fruit could be 
immersed in rough ice. Next, pour tlie steeped fruit into a sus- 
pended stout flannel bag, and when all the juice has run through, 
tie up the open end of the bag, and place it on a large earthen 
dish, with another dish upon it ; place a half -hundred weight upon 
this, to press out all the remaining juice, and then mix it with the 
other juice. You now put the sifted sugar into the juice, and stir- 
both together occasionally, until the sugar is dissolved, and then 
bottle up the syrup, cork, and tie down the bottles with wire, and 
keep them in the ice well or in a cold cellar, in a reclining position. 

To RESTORE Injured Meat. — ^AVhen the brine sours and taints 
the meat, pour it off ; boil it, skim it well, then pour it back again 
on the meat boiling hot ; this will restore it, even when much 
injured. If tainted meat is injured, dip it in the solution of chlo- 
ride of lime prescribed for rancid butter ; it will restore it. Fly- 
blown meat can be completely restored by immersing it for a few 
hours in a vessel containing a small quantity of beer ; but it will 
taint and impart a putrid smell to the liquor. Fresh meat, hams, 
fish, &c., can be preserved for an indefinite length of time without 
salt, by a light application of pyrohgneous acid applied with a 
brush ; it imparts a fine smoky flavor to the meat, and is an effect- 
ual i)reservative. But pure acetic acid may be used instead. 



GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS RECEIPTS. 219 

FuEsn LIeat — to keep a Week or Two in SuMiviEit. — ^Farmers 
or others living at a distance from butchers can keep fresh meat 
very nicely for a week or two, by putting it into sour milk, or but- 
ter milk, placing it in a cool cellar. The bone or fat need not bo 
removed. Rinse well when used. 

Milk:]vian's Process.— To give a body to diluted milk use tho 
following nutritive and healthy compound at the rate of 8 oz. to 
every 5 gals., stirring it up in the milk, till all is dissolved: arrow- 
root, 6 oz. ; magnesia, G oz. ; starch, 1 lb.; flour, J lb. ; white sugar 
in powder, 1 lb. ; mix all intimately together, and keep in a dry 
I)lace for use. 

CtJSTARD Powders. — Sago meal and flour, 1 lb. each ; color with 
turmeric to a cream color. Flavor with essential oil of almonds, 1 
dr. ; ess. of lemon, 2 drs. Use with sweetened milk to form ex- 
temporaneous custards. 

Curry Powder. — Turmeric, and coriander seeds, of each, 4 oz. ; 
black pepper, 2J oz. ; ginger 14 drs. ; cinnamon, mace, and cloves, each, 
J oz. ; cardamon seeds, loz. ; cummin seeds, 2 drs. ; cayenne i)epper, 
1 oz. ; powder and mix. 

Napoleon's Camp SAucE.~01d strong beer, 2 qts.,white wine, 1 qt, 
anchovies, 4 ounces ; mix ; boil for ten minutes ; remove it from the 
fire, itnd add peeled shallots, 3 ounces ; macerate for 14 days, 
and bottle. 

Pickled Onions. — Choose small round onions, remove the skins, 
steep them in strong brine for a week in a stone vessel, pour it olf, 
and heat till it boils ; then pour on the onions, boiling hot ; after 
24 hours, drain on a seive, then put them in bottles, fill up over them 
with strong spiced vinegar, boiling hot, cork down immediately, and 
wax over tlie cork. In a similar manner are pickled mushroons, 
cauliflowers, samphires, peas, beans, green gooseberries, walnuts, 
red cabbages (without salt, with cold vinegar). Observe that the soft 
and more delicate do not require so much soaking in brine as the harder 
and coarser kinds, and may be often kept by simply pouring very 
strong pickling vinegar on them without the application of heat. For 
2'icaches, select ripe but not soft ones ; rub with a dry cloth ; put four 
cloves, free from their heads, in each large peach, and two in small 
ones ; to 1 gallon vinegar, put 6 lbs. brown sugar ; put the peaches in 
a jar and put the vinegar (diluted with water, if too strong), and 
sugar in a preserving kettle over the fire ; boil and skim it ; pour it 
boiling hot over the peaches, covering them closely ; repeat the 
operation three times ; then seal them tightly in cans or bottles. 

French Patent Mustard. — Flour of mustard, 8 lbs. ; wheat flouj; 
8 lbs. ; bay salt, 2 lbs. ; cayenne pepper, 4 oz. ; vinegar to nux. 

CoMiviON Mustard. — Flour of mustard 28 lbs. ; wheat flour, 28 ids. , 
cayenne pepper, 12 oz., or as required ; common salt 10 lbs. ; rape 
oil 3 lbs. ; tui-meric to color ; mix well, and pass through a fine seive. 

Starch Polish. — White wax, 1 oz. ; spermaceti, 2 oz. ; melt them 
togetlier with a gentle heat. When you have prepared a sufficient 
amount of starch, in the usual way, for a dozen pieces, put iato it a 

Eiece of the polish about the si^e of a large pea ; more or less, accord- 
ig to large or small washiugs. Or thick gum solution (made by pour- 
fjog boiling water upon gum arable), one tablespoon to a pint of starch, 
idves clothes a beautiful gloss. 



220 GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS' RECEIPTS. 

Fire Eikdlers. — ^To make very nice fire kindlers, take resin, any 
quantity, and melt it, putting in for each pound being used, from 2 to 
3 oz. of tallow, and when all is hot, stir in pine sawdust to make 
very tliick ; and, while yet hot, spread it out about 1 inch thick, 
upon boards which have fine sawdust sprinkled upon them, to prevent 
it from sticlring. When cold, break up into lumps about 1 inch square. 
But if for sale, take a thin board and press upon it, while yet warm, 
to lay it off into inch squares ; this makes it break regularly, if you 
press the crease sufficiently deep, greasing the marked board to prevent 
it from sticking. 

To Keep Cider sweet, A]st) Sweeten Sour Cider. — To keep 
cider perfect, take a keg and bore holes in the bottom of it ; spread a 
piece of woollen cloth at the bottom; then fill with clean sand closely 
packed ; draw your cider from a barrel just as fast as it will run 
through the sand ; after this, put in clean barrels which have had a 
piece of cotton or linen cloth 2 by 7 inches dipped in melted sulphur 
and burned inside of them, thereby absorbing the sulphur fumes 
(this process will also sweeten sour cider) ; then keep it in a cellar or 
room where there is no fire, and add J lb. white mustard seed to each 
barrel. If cider is long made, or souring when you get it, about 1 qt. 
of hickory ashes (or a little more of other hard wood ashes) stirred 
into each barrel will sweeten and clarify it nearly equal to rectifying it 
as above ; but if it is not rectified, it must be racked off to get clear of 
the pomace, as with this in it, it will sour. Oil or whisky barrels are 
best to put cider in, or J pint sweet oil to a barrel, or a gallon of 
whisky to a barrel, or both, may be added with decidedly good 
effects ; isinglass, 4 oz. to each barrel, helps to clarify and settle ci- 
der that is not to be rectified. 

Ginger Wine.— Water, 10 gals., lump sugar, 20 lbs., bruised gin- 
ger, 8 oz. ; 3 or 4 eggs. Boil weU and skim ; then pour hot on six or 
seven lemons cut in slices, macerate for 2 hours ; then rack and fer- 
ment ; next add spirit 2 qts., and afterwards finings, 1 pint ; rum- 
mage well. To make the color, boil J oz. saleratus and J oz. alum in 
1 pint of water till you get a bright red color. 

Ice Cream. — Have rich, sweet cream, and a half-pound of loaf 
sugar to each quart of cream or milk. If you cannot get cream, the 
best imitation is to boil a soft custard, 6 eggs to each quart of milk (eggs 
well beat). Or another is made as follows : boil 1 quart of milk, and 
stir into it, while boiling, 1 tablespoonf ul of arrowroot wet with cold 
milk ; when cool stir into it the yolk of 1 egg to give it a rich color. 
Five minutes* boiling is enough for either plan. Put the sugar in af- 
ter they cool ; keep the same proportions for any amount desired. 
Or thus : to 6 quarts of milk add J lb. Oswego starch, first dissolved ; 
put the starch in 1 quart of the milk ; then mix altogether, and sim- 
mer a little (not boil) ; sweeten and flavor to your taste ; excelleut. 
The juice of strawberries or raspberries gives a beautiful color and 
flavor to ice creams, or about ^ oz. essence or extract to 1 gallon, or 
to suit the taste. Have your ice well broken, 1 qt. salt to a bucket of 
ice. About one hour's constant stirring, with occasional scraping 
down and beating together, will freeze it. 

Chicago Ice Cream. — ^Irish moss soaked in warm water one hour, 
and rinsed well to cleanse it of sand and a certain foreign taste ; then 
steep it in milk, keeping it just at the point of boiling or simmermg 



GHOCERS AND CONFECTIONERS* RECEIPTS. 221 

for one hour, or until a rich yeHow color ifi given to the milk ; with- 
out cream or eggs, from 1 to 1^ oz. to a gal. only is necessary, and 
this will do to steep twice. Sweeten and flavor like other creams. 

Substitute fok Cream. — Take 2 or 3 whole eggs, heat them weU 
up in a basin ; then pour boiling hot tea over them ; pour gradually 
to prevent curdling. Ifc is difficult for the taste to distinguish it from 
rich cream. 

Ginger Beer. — Take 5 J gals, water, | lb. ginger root bruised, 
tartaric acid, ^ oz., white sugar, 2^ lbs., whites of 3 eggs well 
beaten, 10 small teaspoonf ids of lemon ess. ; yeast, 1 gill ; boil the 
root for 30 miiiutes in 1 gaL of tlie water ; strain off, and put the ess. 
in while hot; mix, make over night; in the morning, skim and bottle, 
keeping out the sediments. 

PitiiiADELPHiA Beer. — ^Take 30 gals, water, brown sugar, 20 lbs. 
ginger root bruised, i lb., cream of tartar, IJ lbs., carbonate of soda, 
3 oz., oil of lemon, cut in a little alcohol, 1 teaspoonf ul, the white of 

10 eggs well beaten, hops, 2 oz., yeast, 1 qt. The ginger root and hops 
should be boiled for twenty or thirty minutes in enough of the water 
to make all milk- warm ; then strained mto the rest and the yeast added 
and allowed to work itself clear; then bottle. 

Cider without Apples. — ^Water, 1 gallon; common sugar, 1 lb.; 
tartaric acid, h oz. ; yeast, 1 tablespoonful; shake well, make in the 
evenmg, and it will be fit to use next day. 

For Bottlikg.— Put in a barrel, 5 gals, hot water; 30 lbs. common 
sugar; | lb. tartaric acid; 25 gallons cold water; 3 pints of hop or brew- 
ers' yeast, worked into paste Avith 1 pint of water and 1 lb. flour. Let 
it work in the barrel forty-eight hours, the yeast running out of the 
bunghole all the time, puttmg in a little sweetened water occasionally 
to keep it full ; then bottle, putting in two or three broken raisins to 
each bottle ; and it will nearly equal champagne. 

Cheap Cider. — Put in a cask 5 gals, hot water ; 15 lbs. brown sugar ; 
1 gal. molasses ; J gal. hop or brewers' yeast ; good vuiegar, 6 qts. ; stir 
well, add 25 gals, cold water, ferment as the last. 

Another Cider. — Cold water, 20 gals., brown sugar, 15 lbs., tar- 
taric acid, i lb. ; rummage well together, and add, if you have them, 
3 or 4 lbs. of dried sour apples, or boil them and pour in the express- 
ed juice. This cider wiU keep longer than the others. 

Spruce and Ginger Beer. — Cold water, 10 gals. ; boiling water, 

11 gals. ; mix in a barrel; add molasses, 30 lbs., or brown sugar, 24 
lbs. ; oil of spruce or any oil of which you wish the flavor, 1 oz. ; add 1 
pint yeast, ferment, bottle in two or three days. If you wish white 
spruce beer, use lump sugar; for ginger flavor, use 17 oz. gmger root 
bruised, and a few hops; boil for thirty minutes in three gals, of the 
water, strain and mix well; let it stand two hours and bottle, using 
yeast, of course, as before. 

Hop Beer, very fine. — "MIk 14 Ibs.of molasses and 11 gals, water 
well together, and boil them for 2 hours with 6 oz. hops. When quite 
cool, add a cupful of yeast, and stir it well by a gallon or two at a 
time. Let it ferment for 16 hours, in a tub covered with a sack, then 
put it in a 9-galloii cask, and keep it filled up; bung it down in 2 days, 
and m 7 days it wiU be fit to drink, and'will be stronger tlian London 
porter 

Edinburgh Ale.— Employ the best pale malt— 1st, mash 2 barrels 



222 GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS' RtlCEIPTS- 

Er. quarter, 'at 183°, mash three-quarters of an hour, let it stand 1 
our, and allow half an hour to run oft' the wort; 2d, mash 1 barrel 
per quarter. 180°, mash three-fourths of an hour, let it stand about 
three-fourths, and tap as before; 3d, mash 1 barrel per quarter, 
at 170°, mash half an hour, let it stand half an hour, and tap as 
before. * The first and second wort may be mixed together, boiling 
them about an hour or an hour and a quarter, with a quantity of 
hops proportioned to the time the ale is required to be kept. The 
first two may be mixed at the heat of 60°, in the glyetun, and the 
second should be fermented separately for small beer. The best 
hops should be used in the proportion of about 4 lbs. for every 
quarter of malt employed. 

Bottling Porter. — Brown Stout. Pale malt, 2 quarters ; amber 
and brown malt, of each IJ do. ; mash at 3 times, with 12, 7, and 
G barrels of water ; boil with hops, 50 lbs ; set with yeast, 29 lbs. 
Product, 17 barrels, or 1^ times the malt. 

Lemon Beer. — To make 20 gals, boil G oz. of ginger root bruised, 
J lb. cream of tartar, for 20 or 30 minutes, in 2 or 3 gals, water ; 
this will be strained in 13 lbs. coffee sugar, on which you have 
put J oz. oil of lemon, and six good lemons squeezed up together, 
having warm water enough to make the whole 20 gals, just so 
hot that you can hold your hand in it without burning, or about 
70 degrees of heat ; put in IJ pints of hop or brewers' yeast, worked 
into paste with 5 or G oz. flour. Let it work over night, then strain 
and bottle for use. 

Table Beer.— Malt, 8 bushels ; hops, 7 lbs ; molasses, 25 lbs. ; brew 
for 10 barrels ; smaller quantity in proportion. 

Hop Beer. — Hops, G ounces ; molasses, 5 quarts ; boil the hops till 
the strength is out, strain them into a 30-gallon barrel ; add the 
molasses and one teacupf ul of yeast, and fill up with water ; shake it 
well, and leave- the bung out till fermented, which will be in about 
24 hours. Bung up, and it will be fit for use in about three days. 
Molasses Beer. — Hops, loz. ; water, 1 gal. ; boil for ten minutes, 
strain, add molasses, 1 lb. ; and when lulce-warm, yeast, 1 spoonful. 
Ferment. 

Root Beer. — Water 10 gals, heat to 00° Fah. then add 3 gals, mo- 
lasses ; let it stand 2 hours, pour it into a bowl and add powdered or 
bruised sassafras and wintergreen bark of each J lb. ; yeast 1 pt. ; 
bruised sarsaparilla root, ^ lb. ; add water enough to make 25 gals, in 
all. Ferment for 12 hours, then bottle. 

Ottawa Beer and Ginger Ale.— Ottawa beer is made by using 
8 ozs. of a fluid extract which contains the concentrated strength of 1 
lbs. of 13 different roots and barks, added to 1 gal. syrup which is mixed 
with 14 gals, water, into which carbonic acid gas is forced at a pressure 
of 80 lbs. to the square inch. Ginger Ale is made in the same way 
except that 4 ozs. of extract is suflicient. When the ginger is reaUy 
used, an extract deprived of resinous impurities is made use of, 
which gives a clear amber colored drink. 

Cheap Beer. — ^Water, 15 gals. ; boil half the water with J lb. 
hops ; then add to the other ^alf in the tun, and mix well with 1 
gal. molasses and a little yeast. 

To restore Sour Beer.— Good hops, J lb., powdered chalk, 2 lbs. 
Put L\the hole of the cask, and bung close for a few days ; for frosted 



GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS* RECEIPTS. 223 

beer, add some finings, a few handfuls of flour, and some scalded 
hops ; for ropy beer, use a handful or two of flour, the same of hops, 
with a little powdered alum to each barrel. Rummage well. 

To Improve the Flavor of Beer. — Bruised ginger, 1 oz. ; bruised 
cloves, J oz. ; a few scalded hops and a doz. broken coarse biscuits 
to every two barrels. Rummage well. 

Lemonade. — WTiite sugar, 1 lb., tartaric acid, i ounce, essence of 
lemon, 30 drops, water 3 qts. Mix. 

Creajvi Soda. — Loaf sugar, ten lbs., water, 3 gals. ; warm gradu- 
ally so as not to bum ; good rich cream, 2 quarts ; extract vanilla, 
14 ounces ; extract nutmeg, J ounce ; tartaric acid, 4 ounces. Just 
bring to a boiling heat ; for if you cook it any length of time, it will 
crystallize ; use 4 or 5 spoonfuls of this syrup instead of three, as in 
other syrups ; put J teaspoonful of soda to a glass, if used without a 
foimtain. For charged fountains no acid is used. 

Freezing Preparation. — Common sal-ammoniac, well pulverized, 
1 part ; saltpetre, 2 parts ; mix well together. Then take common 
soda, well pulverized. To use take equal quantities of these prepa- 
rations (which must be kept separate and well covered previous to 
using) and put them m the freezing pot ; add of water a proper 
quantity, and put in the article to be frozen in a proper vessel ; cover 
up, ana your wants wiU soon be supplied. For freezing cream or 
wines this cannot be beat. 

Sarsaparilla Mead. — 1 lb. of Spanish Sarsaparilla, boil 5 hours 
and strain off 2 gals : add sugar 16 lbs. and tartiiric acid 10 ozs., half 
a wine glass of syrup to half pint tumbler of water, and half teaspoon- 
ful of soda is a fair proportion for a drink. 

Portable Lemonade. — Tartaric acid, 1 ounce, wliite sugar, 2 lbs., 
essence of lemon, quarter ounce ; powder and keep dry for use. One 
dessert spoonful wiU make a glass of lemonade. 

I»iPERiAL Cream Nectar. — Part 1st, take 1 gallon water, loaf 
sugar, 6 lbs., tartaric acid, 6 ounces, gum arable, 1 ounce. Part 2d, 
flour, 4 teaspoonfuls, the whites of 5 eggs ; beat finely together ; 
then add J pint water ; when the first part is blood warm, put in the 
second ; boil 3 minutes, and it is done. Directions : 3 tablespoonf uls 
of syrup to two-thirds of a glass of water ; add one-third teaspoonful 
of carbonate of soda, made fine ; stir well, and drink at your leisure. 

Peppermint Cordial.— Good whisky, 10 gals., water 10 gals., 
white sugar, 10 lbs., oil peppermint, 1 ounce, in 1 pint alcohol, llb.flour 
well worked in the fluid, J lb. burned sugar to color. Mix, and let it 
stand one week before using. Other oil in place of peppermint, and 
you have any flavor desired. 

Silver-top Drink.— Water, 3 qts. , white sugar, 4 lbs. , ess. of lemon, 
4 teaspoonfuls, white of 5 eggs, beat with 1 tablespoonf ul of flour ; 
boil to a syrup ; then divide into equal parts, and to one add 3 ounces 
tartaric acid, to the other 4 ounces of carbonate of soda ; put in a 
teaspoonful of each of the syrups, more or less (according to the size 
of the glass), to two-thirds of a glass of water ; drink quick. 

Sangaree. — Wine, ale, or porter, or two-thirds water, hot or cold, 
according to the season of the year, loaf sugar to taste, with nutmeg. 

Soda Syrups.— Loaf or crushed sugar, 8 lbs., pure water, 1 gallon, 
gum arable, 2 oz. ; mix in a brass or copper kettle. Boil until the 
gum is dissolved, then skim and strain through white flannel, after 



224 GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS' RECEIPTS. 

which add tartaric acid, 5J oz. ; dissolve in hot water ; to flavor, use 
extract of lemon, orange, vaniUa, rose, sarsaparilla, strawberry, &c., 
&c., J oz. or to your taste. If you use juice of lemon, add 2i lbs. of 
sugar to a pint, you do not need any tartaric acid with it ; now use 
two tablespoonfuls of syrup to J of a tumbler of water, and J tea- 
spoonful of super-carbonate of soda, made fine ; drink quick. For 
soda fountains, loz. of super-carbonate of soda is used to 1 gallon of 
water. For charged foun£ains no acids are needed in the syrups. 

Stoughton Bitters. — Gentian, 4 ounces, orange peel, 4 ©unces, 
Columbo, 4 ounces, camomile flowers, 4 ounces, quassia, 4 ounces, 
burned sugar, 1 lb., whiskey, 2 J galls. Mix and let it stand 1 week. 
Bottle the clear liquor. 

Common Smali* Beer.— -A handful of hops to a pail of water, a 
pint of bran, add haK a i)int of molasses, a cup of yeast, and a spoon- 
ful of ginger. 

RoYAii Pop. — Cream tartar, 1 lb., ginger, IJoz., white sugar, 7 
lbs., essence of lemon, 1 drachm, water, 6 galls., yeast 1 pint. Tie 
the corks do^vn. 

Raspberry Syrup without Raspberries.— First make a syrup 
with 36 lbs. of white sugar, and 10 gallons of water, and put it into 
a clean mixing barrel. Then dissolve J lb. of tartaric acid in 1 qt. 
of cold water, and add to the syrup. Kext take J lb. orris root 
and pour over it half a gallon of hoilincf water ; let it infuse until 
cold, then filter, and put it into the mixing barrel, stirring it well. 

To Color. — Boil ^ oz. of cochineal ; j oz. cream tartar; J oz. 
saleratus ; and \ oz. alum in 1 qt. of water mitU you get a bright red 
color, and add this to the syrup till the color suits. Tlie above is a 
very valuable receipt, and will make 16 gals, syrup at a very low cost 
per gallon. If it is desirable to produce a richer syrup, add more 
sugar. Colors should be made in a brass or copper kettle. 

Bottled Soda Water without a Machine. — ^In each gallon of 
water to be used, carefully dissolve g lb. crushed sugar, and one ounce 
of super-carbonate of soda ; then fill pint bottles with this Avater, have 
your corks ready ; now drop into each bottle J dram of pulverized 
citric acid, and immediately cork, and tie down. Handle the bottles 
carefully, and keej) cool until needed. More sugar may be added if 
desired. 

Oyster Soup. — ^To each dozen or dish of oysters, put J pint of 
water ; milk, 1 gill ; butter J oz. ; powdered crackers to thicken ; 
brin^ the oysters and water to a boil, then add the other ingredients 
previously mixed together, and boil from three to five minutes only 
Season with pepper and salt to taste. 

Mock Terrapin.— J. supper dish. Half a calf's liver ; seasoned, 
fry brown. Hash it, not very fine, dust thickly with flour, a teaspoon- 
ful mixed mustard, as much cayenne pepper as will lie on .a half dime; 
2 hard eggs, chopped fine, a lump of butter as large as an ^g^, a teacup 
of water. Let it boil a minute or two ; cold veal wiU do, if liver is not 
liked. 

Blackberry Wine.— Wash the berries, and pour 1 qt. of boil- 
ing water to each gal. Let the mixture stand 24 hours, stirring occa- 
sionally ; then strain and measure into a keg, adding 2 lbs. sugar, 
and good rye whiskey 1 pint, or best alcohol, \ pint to each gal. 
Cork tight, and put away for use. The best wine that can be made 



GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS' RECEIPTS. 225 

]MuTTON nARRicoT. — Take a loin of mutton, cut it into small chops, 
season it AAdtli ground pepper, allspice, and salt, let it stind a night, 
and then fry it. Have good gravy well seasoned with flour, butter, 
catsup and pej)per, if necessary. Boil turnips and carrots, cut them 
small, and add to the mutton stewed in the gravy, with the yolks of 
hard toiled eggs, and forced meat balls. 

LiiiTATiON Apple Butter. — Vinegar, 1 qt. ; cheap molasses 1 qt. ; 
mix together, set over the fire till it commences to cook ; take it off, 
add 10 tablespoonfuls of wheat flour, and cold water to make a bat- 
ter, then add 1 qt. scalding water, stir and cook for fifteen minutes. 

Lemon Syrup. — Havana sugar, 1 lb., boil in water down to a quart, 
drop in the white of 1 egg, and strain it. Add i oz. tartaric acid ; let 
it stand 2 days; shake often; 12 drops essence of lemon wiU much 
improve it • 

SuPEPwiOR Raisin Wixe. — Take 30 lbs. of chopped raisins free from 
stems and dust; put them in a large keg, add to them 10 gals, soft 
water; let them stand two weeks unbmiged, shaking occasionally 
(warm place in winter), then strain through woollen, or filter; color 
with burnt sugar ; bottle and cork well for use. The mo^^e raisins the 
better the wine, not exceeding 5 lbs. to each gallon. 

Raisin Wine equal to Sherry. — Boil the proper quantity of 
water and let it stand till cold. To each gal. of this add 4 lbs. of 
chopped raisins, previously well washed, and freed from stalks; let 
the whole stand for 1 month, stirring frequently; then remove the 
raisins, and bung ui) closely for 1 month more ; then rack into another 
vessel, leaving all sediment behind, and repeat till it becomes fine: 
then to every 10 gals. addG lbs. of fine sugar, and 1 doz. of good 
oranges, the rinds being pared veiy thhi, and infused m 2 qts. of 
brandy, which should be added to the liquor at its last racking. Let 
the whole stand three months in the cask, then bottle. It should re- 
main bottled twelve months. To give it the flavor of Madeira, when 
it is in the cask, put in a couple of green citrons, and let them remain 
till the wine is bottled. 

Port wine. — Worked cider, 42 gals. ; good port wine, 12 gals : 
good brandy, 3 gals.; pure spirits, G gals; mix. Elderberries and 
aloes, and the fruit of the black haws- make a fine purple color for 
wines, or use burnt sugar. 

A3IERICAN Chaivipagne. — Good cider (crab-apple cider is the best), 
7 gals. ; best fourth-proof brandy, 1 qt. ; genuine champagne wine, 5 
pts. ; milk, 1 gal. ; bitartrate of potassa, 2 oz. Mix, let stand a short 
time; bottle while fermenting. An excellent imitation. 

British Cha:mpagne,— Loaf sugar, 5G lbs. ; brown sugar (pgle), 48 
lbs. ; water (warm), 45 gals. ; white tartar, 4 oz. ; mix, and at a proper 
tem]:>erature add yeast, 1 qt. ; and afterwards sweet cider, 5 gals.; 
bruised wild cherries, 14 or 15 oz. ; pale spirits 1 gal. ; orris-powder, ^ 
oz. Bottle while fermenting. 

British Madeira.— Pale malt, 1 bushel; boiling water, 12 gals.; 
mash and strain ; then add white sugar, 4 lbs. ; yeast 1 lb. Fer- 
ment, next add raisin or Cape wme, 3 qts. ; brandy, 3 qts. ; sherry, 2 
qts. ; port, 2 qts. ; bung down. The malt may be mashed again for 
bottle beer 

Currant: and other Fruit Wenes. — To every gallon of expressed 
juice, add 2 gals, soft water, G lbs. brown sugar, cream tartar, 1^ oz.; 

15 



226 GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS' RECEIPTS. 

and qt. brandy to every 6 gals. ; some prefer it without orandy. After 
fermentation, take 4 oz. isinglass dissolved in 1 pt. of the wine, and 
put to each barrel, which wiU fine and clear it: when it must bo 
drawn into clean casks, or bottled, which is preferable. 

Blackberry and Strawberry Wii^s are made by taking the 
above wuie when made with port wine, and for every 10 gals, from 4 
to 6 qts. of the fresh fruit, bruised and strained, are added, and let 
stand four days till the flavor is extracted; when bottling, add 3 or 
four broken raisins to each bottle. 

MoRELLA Wine. — To each quart of the expressed juice of themor- 
ella, or tame cherries, add 3 qts. water and 4 lbs. of coarse brown su- 
gar; let them ferment, and skim till worked clear; then draw off, 
avoiding the sediment at the bottom. Bung up, or bottle, which is 
best for all wines, letting the bottles lie always o^the side, either for 
wines or beers. 

London Sherry. — Chopped raisins, 400 lbs. ; soft water, 100 gals. ; 
Bugar, 45 lbs. ; white tartar, 1 lb. ; cider, 16 gals. Let them stand to- 
gether in a close vessel one month ; stir frequently. Then add of spirits, 
8 gals. ; wild cherries bruised, 8 lbs. Let them stand one month longer, 
and fine with isinglass. 

English Patent Wine from Rhubarb. — ^To each gai. of juice, 
add 1 gal. soft water, in which 7 lbs. brown sugar have been dissolved ; 
fill a keg or barrel with this proportion, leaving the bung out, and keep 
it filled with sweetened water as it works off, until clear. Any other 
vegetable extract may be used if this is not liked ; then bung down or 
bottle as you please. The stalks wiU yield f their weight in juice ; 
fine and settle with isinglass as above. This wine will not lead to 
intemperance. 

Various Wines. — ^To 28 gals, clarified cider add good brandy 1 gal. ; 
crude tartar (this is what is deposited by grape wines), milk to settle 
it, 1 pt. ; draw off 36 hours after thoroughly mixijig. 

Ginger Wine. — ^Put one oz. of good ginger-root bruised in l qt. 95 
per. cent, alcohol; let it stand nine days, and strain; add 4 qts. water, 
and 1 lb. white sugar dissolved in hot water, color with tincture of 
ganders to suit. 

Another. — To 1 qt..95 per cent, alcohol add 1 oz. best gmger-root 
(bruised but not gromid), 5 grs. capsicum and 1 dr. tartaric-acid. Let 
it stand one week and filter; now add 1 gal. water in which 1 lb. of 
crushed sugar has been boiled. Mix when cold. To make the color, 
boil J oz. cochineal, j oz. cream tartar, J oz. saleratus, and J oz. alum, 
in 1 pt. of water till you get a bright-red color. 

To RESTORE Flat Wine.— Add 4 or 5 gals, of sugar, honey, or 
bruised raisins to every 100 gals., and bung close; a little spirits may 
be added, to roughen ; take bruised aloes, or powdered catechu, and 
add to the wine in suitable proportions, or add a small quantity of 
bruised berries of the mountain ash, to allay inordinate flatness. Let 
it stand 2 hours and bottle, ustug yeast, of course, as before. 

White Wines are generally fined by isinglass in the proportion of 
IJ oz. (dissolved in IJ pts. of water, and thinned with some of the wine) 
to the hogshead. Red Wines are generally fined with the whites of 
eggs, in the proportion of 12 to 18 to each pipe ; they must be well 
beaten, to a froth with about 1 pt. of water, and afterwards mixed with 
a little of the wine before addias: them to the liquor. Rummage well. 



GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS' RECEIPTS. 227 

Champagne Cider. — Good pale cider, 1 hhd. ; spirits, 3 gals. ; sugar, 
20 lbs.; mix, and let it stand one fortnight; then fine with skimmed 
milk, J gal. ; this will be very pale, and a similar article, when pro- 

Eerly bottled and labelled, opens so brisk, that even good judges 
ave mistaken it for genuine champagne. 

Berlin Carraway Cordial.— Take 8 gals, spirit, 50per cent. ; 1 oz. 
t)il of carraway, which you dissolve in spirit 95 per cent. ; 8 lbs. sugar; 
8 lbs. water. Dissolve your sugar in the water ; mix, stir and filter. 

Stomach Bitters Equal to Hostetters'. — ^European gentian 
root, 1 J oz. ; orange peel, 2| oz. ; cinnamon, ^- oz. ; anise seed, J oz. ; 
coriander seed, J oz. ; cardamon seed, J oz. ; unground Peruvian 
bark, J oz. ; gum kino, J oz. ; bruise all these articles, and put them 
into the best alcohol, 1 pt. ; let it stand a week, and pour off the 
clear tincture ; then boil the dregs a few minutes in 1 qt. of water, 
strain, and press out all the strength ; now dissolve loaf sugar, 1 lb. 
in the hot liquid, adding 3 qts. cold water, and mix with the spirit 
tincture first poured off, or you can add these, and let it stand on 
the dregs if preferred. 

Boker's Bitters.— Rasped quassia, IJoz. ; calamus, li oz. ; pow- 
dered catechu, IJ oz. ; cardamon, 1 oz. ; dried orange X3eel, 2 oz. ; 
macerate the above ten days in J gal. strong whiskey, and then fil- 
ter, and add 2 gals, water ; color with mallow or malva flowers. 

CuRACOA Cordial, 40 Gals. — ^Essence of bitter oranges, 2 oz. ; ess. 
of neroli, 2 oz. ; ess. of cinnamon, ^ oz. ; 3 drs. mace, infused in alco- 
hol. Dissolve the above essence in 1 gal. alcohol, 95 per cent. ; 
then put in a clean barrel 13 gals, alcohol, 85 per cent. ; 26 gals, 
sugar syrup, 30 degTces Baume ; and add 1 gal. perfumed spirit as 
above. Color with saffron or turmeric. 

CuRAcoA d'Hollande, 20 Gals. — Curacoa orange-peel, 2 lbs ; -J lb. 
Ceylon cuinamon. Let them soak in water ; boil them for five 
minutes with the ^uice of 32 oranges and 14 gals, of plain white 
syrup ; then add 6" gals, alcohol, 95 per cent. ; strain, filter ; color 
dark yellow with sugar coloring. 

Anisette Cordial, 40 Gals.— Put in a barrel 13 gals, alcohol, 75 
per cent. Dissolve 3^ oz. essence of green anise-seed in 1 gal. 95 
per cent, alcohol, and "add J gal. orange-flower water ; 8 or ten drops 
infusion of mace, and 5 drops essence of cinnamon. Then put ui the 
barrel 26 gals, sugar syrup, 25 degrees Baume ; stir fifteen minutes, 
and let it rest four or five days ; then filter. Add 2 or 3 sheets of 
filtering paper. 

Ratafia. — ^Ratafia may be made with the juice of any fruit. Take 
3 gals, cherry j nice, and 4 lbs. sugar, which you dissolve in the juice ; 
steep in 2-^ gals, brandy ten days ; 2 drs. cinnamon, 24 cloves ; 16 
oz. peach-leaves ; 8 oz. bruised cherry kernels. Filter, mix botli 
liquids, and filter again. 

Arrack Punch Syrup.— 53J lbs. sugar ; 3J gals, water. Boil up 
well ; then add If gals, lemon-juice to the boiling sugar, and stir 
till the liquid is clear ; pour it in a clean tub, and when nearly cool, 
add 5 gals. Batavia arrack, then filter. 

Syrups for Soda Fountains, &c.— 1. Simple syrup. Wliite sugar, 
10 lbs ; water, 1 gal ; best isinglass, J oz. Dissolve the ismglass in 
hot water, and add it to the hot syrup. The syrup is to be made with 
gentle heat and then stramed. 2. Letiion — a-— Grate off the yellow rind 



228 GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS' RECEIPTS. 

of lemons and beat it up wit'li a sufficient quantity of granulated 
sugar. Express the lemon juice, add to each pt. of juice Ipt. of 
water, and 3 lbs. of granulated sugar, including that rubbed with the 
rind ; warm until the sugar is dissolved and strain. 3. Lemon — h — 
Simple syrup 1 gal., oil of lemon 25 drops, citric acid 10 drams. Rub 
the oil of lemon with the acid, add a small portion of syrup, and 
mix. 4. Strawberry — a — Strawberry juice Ipt., simple syrup 3 pints, 
solution of citric acid 2 drams. 5. Straioherry — & — Fresh strawber- 
ries 5 qts. white sugar 12 lbs., water, Ipt. Sprinkle some of the sugar 
over the fruit in layers, and allow the whole to stand for several 
hours ; express the juice and strain, washing out the pulp with water ; 
add the remainder of the sugar and water, bring the fluid to the pomt 
of boiling, and then strain. This will keep for a long time. 6. Rasp- 
hernj. Raspberry juice 1 pt., simple syrup 3 pts., citric acid 2 drams. 
Raspberry syrup may also be made in a way similar to No. 5 for 
strawberry. 7. Vanilla. — Fluid extract of vanilla 1 oz., citric acid, j oz. , 
simple syrup 1 gal. Rub the acid with some of the syruj), add the 
extract of vanilla, and mix. 8. Vanilla Cream. — Fluid extract of 
vanilla 1 oz., simple syrup 3 pts., cream or condensed milk Ipt. ; may 
be colored with carmine. 9. Cream. — Fresh cream 1 iDt., fresh milk 1 
pt, powdered sugar 1 lb. ; mix by shaking, and keep in a cool place. 
The addition of a few grains of bicarbonate of soda will for some 
time retard souring. 10. Ginger. — Tincture of ginger 2 fluid ozs. 
simple syrup 4 pts. 11. Orange. — Oil of orange 30 drops, tartaric acid 
4 drams, simple syrup 1 gal. Rub tlie oil with the acid, and mix. 12. 
Pineapple. — Oil of pineapple 1 dram, tartaric acid 1 dram, simple 
syrup 6 pts. 13. Orgeat. — Cream syrup 1 pt, vanilla syrup 1 pt , oil of 
bitter almonds 4 drops. 14. Nectar. — ^Vanilla syrup 5 pts., pineapple 
syrup Ipt., strawberry, raspberry or lemon 2 pts. 15. Sherbet. — 
Vanilla syrup 3 pts., pineapple 1 pt., lemon syruj) 1 pt. 16. Grape. — 
Brandy J of apt, spirits of lemon 2 oz., tmcture of red sanders 2 ozs., 
simiDle syrup 1 gal. 17. Banana. — Oil of banana 2 drams, tartaric acid 
1 dram, simi)le syrup 6 pts. 18. Coffee. — Coffee roasted | lbs., boiling 
water 1 gal. Enough is filtered to inake about J gal. of the infusion, 
to which add granulated sugar 7 lbs. 19. Wild Cherry. — Wild cheny 
bark coarse powder, 5 ozs. Moisten the bark with water, and let it 
stand for 24 hours in a close vessel. Then pack it firmly in a per- 
colator, and pour water upon it until 1 pt. of fluid is obtained. To 
this add 28 ozs. of sugar. 20. Wintergreen. — Oil of wintergreen 25 
drops, simple syrup 5 pts., and a sufficient quantity of burnt sugar to 
color. 21. Sarsaparilla — a — Oil wintergreen 10 drops, oil of anise 10 
drops, oil of sassafras 10 drops, fluid extract of sarsaparilla 2 ozs. 
simple syrup 5 pts. , powdered extract of licorice 1 oz. 22. Sarsaparilla 
— &— -Simple syrup 4 pts., compound syrup of sarsaparilla 4 fluid ozs., 
caramel IJozs., oil of wintergreen 6 drops, oil of sassafras 6 drops. 
23. Maple. — Maple sugar 4 lbs., water 2 pts. 24. Chocolate, — Best 
chocolate 8 ozs., Avater 2 pts., white sugar 4 lbs. IMix the chocolate 
in water, and stir thoroughly over a slow fire. Strain, and add tlie 
sugar. 25. Cbj^ee Cream.— Coffee syrup 2 pts., cream Ipt. 2Q. Am- 
brosia. — ^Raspberry syrup 2 pts., vanilla 2 pts., hock wine 4 ozs. 27. 
Hock and Claret. — ^Hock or claret wine 1 pt., simple syrup 2ijts. 28. 
Solferino. — Brandy Ipt, simple syrup 2 pts. 29. Fruit Acid. — (Used 
in some of the syrups). Citric acid 4 ozs., water* 8 ozs. Most of the 



GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS* RECEIPTS. 229 

syrups not made from fruits may have a little gum arable added in 
order to produce a rich, froth. 

BuTYiMG Ether is much used to impart a pine apple flavor to 
rum. Dissolved in 8 or 10 parts of alcohol, it forms tlie pine apple 
essence. From 20 to 25 droiDS of this essence, added to 1 lb. sugar, 
containing a httle citric acid, Imparts to tlie mixture a strong taste of 
pine apple. 

Amylo- Acetic Ether is a preparation of fruit-oil and other ingre- 
dients, and Avhen diluted with alcohol, it is sold as essence of Jargonelle 
pear, and is used for flavormg different liquors. Fifteen parts amylo- 
acetic ether, with half a part of acetic ether, dissolved in 100 parts of 
alcohol, form what may he called the Bergamot-pear essence, which, 
when employed to flavor sugar, acidulated with a little citric acid, im- 
parts the odor of the Bergamot pear, and a fruity, refreshing taste. 

Pelargoxate or Ethylio Ether (pelargonic ether), has the 
agreeable odor of the quince, and, when dissolved in alcohol in duo 
proportion, forms the quince essence. 

Acetate of Ajmyeig Ether (same as amylo ether), mixed with 
hutyric ether, forms in alcoholic solution the banana essence. 

Valeria^s^ate op A3IYLIG Ether. — An alcoholic solution of this 
ether in the proportion of 1 part to G or 8 of alcohol, forms a flavormg 
liquid under the name of apple essence. 

Melk Pctxch. — One tablespoonful of fine white sugar, 2 ditto of 
water, 1 wine glass of Cognac brandy, h ditto Santa Cruz rum, J tum- 
blerful of shaved ice ; fill with milk. Shake the ingredients well to- 
gether, and grate a little nutmeg on top. To make it hot, use hot nnlk 
and no ice. 

Glasgoav Pcr^rcH. — Melt lump-sugar in cold water, with the juice 
of a couple of lemons, j^assed thi-ough a fine wire strainer; this is sher- 
bet, and most be well mingled. Then add old Jamaica rum, one part 
of rum to five of sherbet. Cut a couple of lemons in tsvo, and run 
each section rapidly around the edge of the jug or bowl, gently 
squeezing in some of the delicate acid, when aU is ready. 

LIint Juxep. — One tablespoonful of white pulverized sugar, 2^ ditto 
water; mix well with a spoon. Take 3 or 4 sprigs of fresh mint, "press 
them well in the sugar and water, add IJ wme glasses of Cognac 
brandy, and fill the glass with shaved ice, then draw out the sprigs of 
mint, and insert them in the ice with the stems downwards, so that 
the leaves will be above in the shape of a bouquet; arrange berries and 
FmaU pieces of sliced orange on top in a tasty manner, dash with 
Jamaica rum, and sprinkle sugar on top. Sip with a glass tube 
or straw. 

Cider Kectar. — One qt. cider, 1 bottle soda water, 1 glass sherry, 
1 small glass brandy, juice of half a lemon, peel of ^ of a lemon, sugar 
and nutmeg to taste. Flavor it with extract of pine ai^iDle, strain, and 
ice it aU well. 

IIAI.F AND HAiiF.— Li London, this drink is made by mixing half 
porter and half ale ; in America, it is made by mixing half new and 
taK old ale. 

Apple Toddy.— One tablespoonful of fine white sugar, 1 wine- 
glass of cider brandy, J of a baked apple. FiU the glass two-thirds 
full of boihng water, and grate a little nutmeg on top. 

Apple Punch. — Lay in a china bowl slices of apples and lemona 



230 GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS' RECEIPTS'. 

alternately, each layer being tliicldy strewed with powdered sugar. 
Pour over the fruit, wlien the howl is half filled, a bottle of claret; 
cover, and let it stand for 6 hours. Then pour it through a muslin 
bag, and it is all ready. 

Old Man's Milk. — One wme-glass of port wine, 1 teaspoonf ul of 
sugar. Fill the tumbler one third full of hot milk. 

Perfect Love. — One tablespoonf ul sugar, 1 piece each of orange 
and lemon peel. Fill the tumbler one-third full of shaved ice, aiid 
fill balance with wine ; ornament in a tasty manner with berries in 
season ; sip through a straw. 

ISIOLAssES Candy. — West-Indian molasses, 1 gallon ; brown sugar, 
2 lbs. ; boil the molasses and sugar in a preserving kettle over a 
slow fire ; when done enough it will cease boiling ; stir frequently, 
and when nearly done, stir in the juice of four lemons or two tea- 
spoonfuls of essence of lemon • afterwards butter a pan, and i)our 
out. 

Confectioners* Colors.— J?ecZ, cochineal, 1 oz. ; boil 5 minutes 
m half pint water ; then add cream tartar, 1 oz. ; poimded alum, J 
oz. ; boil 10 minutes longer, add sugar, 2 oz. ; and bottle for uset 
Blue^ put a little warm water on a plate, and rub in mdigo till the 
required color is got. Yellow, rub with some water a little yellow 
gamboge on a plate, or infuse the heart of a yellow-lily flower with 
milk-warm water. Green, boil the leaves of spinach about 1 minute 
in a little water, and. when strained, bottle for use. 

To Candy Sugar.— Dissolve 2 parts of double refined sugar in 1 
of water. Great care must be taken that the syrup does not boil 
over, and that the sugar is not burnt. The first degree is called the 
thread, which is subdivided into the little and great thread ; if j^ou 
dip your finger in the syrup, and apply it to the thumb, the tenacity 
of the syrup will, on separatmg the finger and thumb, afford a thread 
which shortly breaks, this is the little thread ; if the thread admits of 
a greater extension of finger and thumb, it is called the great thread; 
by longer boiluig you obtahi the pearl, which admits of bemg drawn 
without breaking by the utmost extension of finger and thumb ; 
this makes candied sugar: by further boiling you obtain the hloio, 
which is known by dipping a skimmer with holes in the syrup, and 
blowing through them ; if bubbles arc perceived, you have got the 
blow. Thefeailier implies more numerous bubbles, and then the sugar 
will fly off like flakes while the skimmer is being tossed. By boil- 
ing longer, you obtain the crack ; it will crack when broken, and does 
not stick to the teeth ; dip a teaspoon into the sugaj*, and let it drop to 
the bottom of a pan of cold water. If the sugar remains hard, it has 
attained the degree termed a^acJc. 

Fig Candy,— Take 1 lb. of sugar and 1 pint of water ; set over a 
slow fire. When done add a few drops of vinegar and a lump of but- 
ter, and pour into pans m which spHt figs are laid. 

Raisin Candy ca,n be made in the same manner, substituting 
stoned raisins for the figs. Common molasses candy is very nice 
with all kinds of nuts added. 

Scotch Butter Candy. — Take 1 lb. of sugar and 1 pint of water; 
dissolve and boil. When done, add one tablesx)oonful of butter, 
and enough lemon juice and oil of lemon to flavor. 

COiiQioN Lemon Candy.— Take 3 lbs. coarse brown sugar : add to 



GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS' RECEIPTS. 231 

it three teacupfiils of water, and set over a slow fire for half 
an hour; put to it a little gum arable dissolved in hot water; this is 
to clear it. Continue to take off the scum as long as any rises. When 
perfectly clear, try it by dipping a pipe-stem first into it and then into 
cold water, or by taking a spoonful of it into a saucer ; if done, it will 
snap hke glass. Flavor with essence of lemon and cut it into sticks. 

Peppermint, Rose, ok Horehouxd Candy. — They may be made 
as lemon candy. Flavor with essence of rose or peppermint or finely 
powdered horehound. Pour it out in a buttered i^aper, placed in a 
square tin pan. 

Popped Cohn, dipped in boiling molasses, and stuck together, forms 
an excellent candy. 

Rock Candy. — To make fine rock candy, clarify double refined 
white sugar, filter it, and boil it till it is ready to crj^stallize, or 
boiled to a bUster. The boiling sugar must measure 35° on the syrup 
weight, a degree more or less prevents its crystallization. Then take 
a brass kettle, of about 16 or 18 inches diameter and from 6 to 8 mches 
deep, smooth and polished on the inside. Make 8 or 10 small holes at 
equal distances from each other in a circle around the sides of tho 
kettle, about 2 inches from the bottom ; pass threads through these 
from one side to the other, and stop the holes on the outside with i)aste 
or paper to prevent the syrup from running out. Having thus pre- 
pared the kettle, pour in the syrup, till it rises about an inch above 
the threads ; then i^lace it in a stove moderately heated, and leave it 
to crystallize, agitating it from time to time. The crystallization will 
take place in six or seven days. As soon as the crystals are formed, 
j)onT off the remaining syrup, and throw in a little Avater to wash tho 
crystals that are left at the bottom of the vessel. So soon as the mass 
is thoroughly draiend set it in a very hot stove, leave it for two days, 
when it is fit for use. Straw-colored rock candy is made by sub- 
stituting brown for loaf sugar. Tho syrup must be'^boiled over a very 
hot fire in order to render the candy perfectly white. The sides of the 
kettle should be sponged repeatedly during the boiling process, to 
prevent the sugar from adhering and burning. 

Orange Rock Candy is made by flavoring the syrup with a couple 
of teaspoonfuls of orange flower water, and coloring with saffron, 
just as the syruj) is about to be taken from the fire. Bose Bock Candij 
is flavored with rose water, and colored with clarified carmme lake. 
Vanilla Bock Candy is perfumed with vanilla, and colored with liquid 
violet The degree of coloring may be tested by dropping a little of 
the colored syrup on a sheet of white paper. 

• Ginger Candy. — ^Dissolve 1 lb. double-refined sugar in J pint of 
spring water; set it over a clear fire, and let it boil to a thin syrup. 
Ilave ready a teaspoonful of i)owdered ginger, mix it smoothly with 
2 or 3 spoonfuls of the syrup, then stir it gradually into the whole. 
Boil the mixture into a flake, waiching it carefully, that it may not 
exceed this point; then add the freshly grated rind of a large lemon, 
and stir the sugar constantly and rapidly until it fall in a mass from 
the spoon, without sinking when dropped upon a plate. If boiled 
for a moment beyond the pomt, it will fall into a powder. Should 
this happen by mistake, add a little water, and boil to the proper con- 
sistency. Dip the candy from the kettle, and drop it in small cakes 
upon buttered pans, then set it away to cool. 



232 GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS' RECEIPTS. 

Creajvi Ca2sT)y.— -To 3 lbs. of loaf sugar add J pt. water, and set it 
over a slow fire for half an hour; then add a teaspoonful of gum 
arable dissolved, and a tablespoonful of vinegar. Boil it till it is brit- 
tle, then take it off, and flavor with vanilla, rose, or orange. Rub the 
hands with sweet butter, and pull the candy till it is wliite ; then twist 
or break it, or stretch it out into thin white strips, and cut it off. 

Red Vekdun Sugaked Almonds. — Dry the almonds in a stove by 
a slow fire. When dry enough to snap between the teeth, put them 
into a swinging basin and gum them by throwing over them a little 
gum arable solution, cold; swing them constantly till dry; then give 
them another coating of gum arabic mixed with 4 oz. sugar, and 
swmg them again till dry, using no fire. AV'hen tliey are thoroughly 
dry, set them over a moderate fire. Dissolve some sugar in orange 
or rose water, not too thin, set it over the fire 2 or 3 minutes, strain it 
through a sieve, and pour it over tlie almonds in the basin. Swing 
them till they are thoroughly coated and dried; then add another 
coatmg, composed of 2 parts of carmine, one part of gum, and one part 
of sugar, and proceed as before. If the almonds are not perfectly 
covered, give them a coating m which there is considerable gum ; and 
wlien thoroughly moistened, throw on them some sifted sugar, stir 
till the mixture is all absorbed, then add successive coatmgs of sugar 
till they are large enough, and put them into the stove to remain till 
the next day, when in order to lohiten them, you will proceed to boil 
6 or 7 lbs. of fine clarified sugar to a blister, add 1 lb. of starch after 
taking it from the fire, stiring it constantly till a paste is formed a 
little thicker than that used for pastilles; a few drops of blue lake 
may be added to produce a i^earl white. Put the almonds, warm, in- 
to the swinging basin, add enough of the prepared sugar to coat them, 
swing the basin till they are nearly dry, then set on the fire to finish 
the drying, then talte the basin oil the fire, heap them up in the mid- 
dle, so as to allow the bottom of the vessel to cool ; then add the coat- 
ing of sugar, swing and dry them as before, and continue the process 
until 4 successive coatings of equal thicloiess have been given; then 
heat them well in the basin, put them into pans, and set them in the 
stove to remain over night. You will then proceed to polish them by 
giving them a coat of the prepared sugar and starch, and shake them 
violently until they are quite dry; give them another coating and pro- 
ceed as before, and continue the process until they have received 4 
successive coatings, when they will generally be found sufficiently 
polished. When the polishmg is finished, put the almonds over a fire 
and stir gently till all are thoroughly heated, then place in a stove till 
the next day in a wicker basket lined with paper. 

Spanish Sugared Axmonds. — Make verdun sugared almonds 
about the size of pigeon's eggs, whiten and polish them by the pre- 
vious directions, and paint different designs on them when completed. 

Superfine Vanilla Sugared Almonds. — Proceed in the samo 
manner as in the manufacture of verdun sugared almonds, make 
the solution of sugar in pure water ; crush the essence of vanilla 
with a little sugar, and put in the solution. 

CoMiNiON Sugared Axmonds. — Common almonds, 20 lbs., sugar 8 
lbs. , farina, 20 lbs. , starch, 2 lbs. Heat the almonds in the swinging 
basin, when they boil, make them into a pulp with diluted starch ; 
give first a warm then a cold coating, cover them with farina, shaking 



GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS' RECEIPTS. 233 

the "basin violently ; then, when the almonds have been coated to the 
requisite size, spread them out on sieves ; after a fortnight put them 
in a stove to finish drying : whiten them, and finish by the process 
described for the fine sugared almonds. 

SuPERFrNE Chocolate Sugared Almoot)S.— Caraccasa cacao uuts, 
shelled and roasted, 20 lbs., Martinique sugar, 16 lbs., vanilla 4 drs., 
starch 10 oz. The same method is required as for the superfine 
vanilla sugar plums, but care must be taken in adding the coatings 
of gum, to touch the cacao nuts hghtly, as they are very easily broken. 

SuPERFESTE SuGARED FiEBERTS. — Filberts, 50 lbs., sugar, 4 lbs., 
starch, 4 oz. Employ the same process as for sugared almonds and 
flavor to taste. Rose water is generally preferred on account of its 
color and fragrance. 

CoRiAia)ER Sugar Pluivis.— Coriander, 2 lbs., farina, 30 lbs., sugar, 
14 lbs. The washings of the basin are added to the coriander and 
farina witliout makiug a paste, and the method is followed tliat has 
been prescribed for the common sugared almonds ; 8 lbs. of sugar 
are used to whiten them, and 6 to i^olish them ; color after being 
polished with carmine, Prussian blue, and saffron. 

Coriander ts Bottles. — Coriander, 10 lbs., farina, 10 lbs., sugar 
for the whitening, 3 lbs., starch, 1 lb. These are simply colored, and 
do not require brilliancy. They are made of the size of small peas, 
and are put into little bottles. In making these follow the receipt for 
common sugared almonds. 

Anise-seed Sugar Pi.u]MS.—Dry 2 lbs. of green anise-seed hi the 
stove ; rub it in the hands to break off the stems, winnow to rid of 
dust, then put it in a swinging basin, and coat it with sugar boiled to 
a thread, so as to render the candies hard and brittle. AVhen coated 
sufficiently, whiten and pohsh them, like the verdun sugared almonds. 
They vary in size, being generally as large as a pea. 

Mint Sugar Plutms. — Dry some peppermint seed in a stove and 
coat it in the same manner as anise seed (it must not, however, be 
whiter than rape seed), whiten and finish like anise seed. The first 
coating is sometimes composed of equal parts of pei^permint and 
sugar. 

CoMiviON Twist Candy. — Clarify 3 lbs. of common brown sugar, 
and boil it till it is brittle, take it from the fire, pour it in buttered 
pans ; rub the hands with a little butter, and as soon as it is cooled, 
pull it as you would molasses candy until it is perfectly white ; then 
twist and braid it, and cut it into sticks, 
y. Cara:mee is made by boiling clarified sugar tiU it is very brittle, 
then pouring it on an oiled slab or sheet of tin, and, as soon as it 
is cool enough to receive an impression with the finger, stamping 
it in small squares, about an inch in size, with a caramel mould ; 
then turning over the mass, wiping the bottom to remove any oil 
that may have adhered from the slab, and putting it in a dry place to 
harden. If you have no caramel mould, you may score it on the 
slab with a common case knife, after wliich they are glazed with an- 
other coating with sugar. Keep them tightly closed from the air af- 
ter they are made. 

Lemon CabameIj is made by grating the yeUow rind of a lemon 
with a lump of sugar ; add to this a few drops of lemon juice with 
water enough to dissolve the sugar completely and stir the whole in- 



234 GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS RECEIPTS. 

to the boiled syrup a few minutes before it is taken from the fire. 
Orange and Lime caramels are prepared in the same manner from 
these respective fruits. Coffee caramel ^ coffee, 2 oz., sugar 1 lb. Make 
an infusion of the coffee, using as little water as possible ; strain it 
through a cloth, and stir it gradually into the boiled syrup a few 
minutes before taking it from the fire. Chocolate caramel^ choco- 
late, 4 oz., sugar 1 lb. Dissolve the chocolate in as little water as pos- 
sible, and add it to the boiled sugar, as in the coffee caramels. Van- 
illa and Orange cream caramels are made by using the respective es- 
sences of these fruits. 

Cocoa Nut Candy.— Pare and cut cocoa-nut into slips, or grate 
on a coarse grater the white meat of cocoa-nuts until you have J a 
pound ; dissolve J lb. of loaf sugar in 2 tablespoonfuls of water ; put 
it over the fire, and, as soon as it boils, stir in the cocoa-nut. Con- 
tinue to stir it until it is boiled to a flake, then pour it on a buttered 
pan or marble slab, and cut in whatever forms you wish, when it is 
nearly cold. Lemon or other flavors may be added. 

Candy Deops or Pastilles.— Pound and sift double-refined su- 
gar, first through a coarse, and then through a fine sieve. Put the 
sugar into an earthen vessel, and dilute it with the flavoring extract, 
mixed with a little water. If too liquid, the syrup will be too thin, 
and the drops will run together ; while, if too thick, the sjTup will be 
too compact, and cannot be poured out easily. ^Vlien the sugar is 
mixed in a ratlier stiff paste, put it in a small saucepan with a spout 
and set it over the fire. As soon as it begins to bubble up the sides 
of the saucepan, stir it once in the middle, take it from the fire, and 
drop it in small lumps, of the size and shape required, upon sheets of 
tin, to stand for 2 hours, then put thera in the stove to finish drying. 
As soon as they are perfectly hard and brilliant, take them from tlie 
fire, otherwise they will lose their aroma. Color the syrup just be- 
fore taking it from the fire. 

Orange, Jas^iine, ant) Cloves Drops are made by mixing the 
above paste with these respective extracts : 

For Salad Drops. — Water distilled from lettuce is used. 

Saffron Drops. — ^l^lake an infusion of saffron, strain it, let it 
cool, use it to mix the paste, and proceed as before. 

Heliotrope Drops. — Proceed in the same manner, flavoring the 
paste with a few drops of oil of neroli, or oil of orange, jasmine and 
tube-rose, and color violet. - 

Pink Drops. — Flavor the taste with tincture of red pinks, and 
color with carmine lake. 

Cinnamon Drops. — Mix 5 drs. powdered ciunamon and 8 oz. of 
sugar with mucilage enough to make it into a paste, and proceed 
as above. 

Chewing Guar. — ^Take of prepared balsam of tulu. 2 oz, ; white 
sugar loz., oatmeal 3 oz., soften the gum in water bath and mix in 
the ingredients ; then roll in finely powdered sugar or flour to form 
sticks to suit. 

Marshmallow and Licorice drops are made the same way. 

Rose Drops. — Mix the paste witli rose Avater, and color with 
carmine lake. Proceed as above. 

Le&ion and Orange Drops. — ^Rasp off the yellow rind of an orango 
or lemon; mix the raspings with double-refined sugar; addSgrs. of 



GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS' RECEIPTS. 235 

tartaric acid to every pound of sugar, color with yeilow lake or saffron, 
and proceed as before. If too much tartaric acid is nscd, the candies 
will adhere to the sheets of tin. 

Violet Drops. — Flavor the paste with tmcture of Florence iris, 
and color with blue and carmine lakes. A few drops of tartaric acid 
may be added to sustain the blue. 

Coffee Dkops. — Substitiite a stroDg, filtered infusion of coffee 
for water, in mixing the paste. 

Chocolate Drops. — For every pound of sugar, take 5 pts. good 
chocolate, pulverize it, and mix it into a paste, as already directed, 
taking care not to boil the paste too long, lest it granulate, and become 
unfit for use. 

VA^^LLA Drops. — Mix the paste with extract of vauxx^a, or finely- 
ground vaniUa bean; to which add 2 oz. 3 grs. of tartaric acid,, dis- 
solved in water, to sustain the blue, without wliich it would disappear. 

IiMTTATiON Currant Drops. — Mix the paste with water, adding a 
little essence of raspberry and of violet, or Florence iris, with a little 
tii-taric acid dissolved in water; color with carmine, and proceed as 
above. 

Pepperivunt Drops — Dissolve finely-powdered sugar with a nttle 
strong peppermint-water in a saucepan with a spout. As soon as it is 
thoroughly dissolved, add an equal quantity of coarse-grained sugar 
Avith a few drops more of the peppermint, stir the whole for a few 
moments, then drop the mixture on paper, and dry it in the open air. 
In the same way are made lemon, rose, vanilla, and other drops. 
Citric and tartaric acid may be used to increase the acidity of lemon 
drops. 

ExTE]MPORAisT:ous Pastilles. — Make the paste as usual, without 
flavoring the water, drop the pastilles upon paper, leave them for two 
Lours, then take them off and put them into the stove to dry. AVhen 
wanted for use, put the quantity required into a large-mouthed jar, 
and flavor as desired. For instance, to make 2 lbs. of peppermint 
drops, take 5 pts. of sulphuric ether in which are diluted a few droits 
of essence of i)eppermint, and pour it over the candies, then cover 
the jar, and shake it until they are thoroughly moistened ; then place 
them on a sieve, and set them in the stove for 5 minutes, evaporate 
the ether. In this manner rose, orange, lemon, jonquil, tube-rose, 
m.ignonette, clove, cinnamon, or any other drops may be made, dis- 
eolving their essential oils in sulphuric ether. 

Ginger Cant)y Tablets. — ^Take 1 lb. loaf sugar, a few drops of 
acetic acid or the juice of half a lemon, a dessert-spoonful of essence 
of Jamaica ginger. Boil the sugar with just water enough to 
dissolve it to the ball degree, then add the acid and the essence, 
and rub the sugar with the back part of the bowl of a silver spoon 
up against the sides of the sugar-boiler to whiten or grain it suffi- 
ciently to give to the whole an opahzed appearance ; then pour it 
into very smaU-sized moulds, measuring half an inch or an inch 
oblong square, or else into a tin pan, the bottom part of which is 
marked out in small tablets, so that the candy may be easily broken 
into squares when dry. Smear the moulds slightly with oil of al- 
monds. AVhen the sugar is poured into the moulds, place in the screen 
for half an hour or more, to dry them hard. 

Orange Flower Cakdy Tablets.— Ingredients : 1 lb. loaf sugar, 



236 GKOCEES AND CONFECTIONEES' RECEIPTS. 

a tablespoonfnl of orange-flower water, and a lew drops of acetic 
acid. Proceed as directed in the preceding. No color. 

Vanilla Caistdy Tablets. — Ingredients ; 1 lb. loaf sugar, a few 
drops of essence of yanilla, sugar, and a few drops of acetic acid. 
Proceed as for ornaments ingrained sugar. 

Peppermint Candy Tablets. — ^Ingredients : 1 lb. of loaf sugar, 
a few drops of essence of peppermint, and a few drox)s of acetic acid. 
Proceed as above. No color. 

Liquor Candy Tablets. — ^Ingredients : 1 lb. of loaf sugar, and 
a gill of any kind of liquor. Boil the sugar to the crack, then in- 
corporate the liquor, and finish as in the preceding. No color. 

Cinnamon Candy Drops. — Use 1 lb. loaf sugar, and a few drops 
essence of cinnamon. Proceed as in the last. This may be colored 
rose pink, the color is to be added while the sugar is boiling. 

Clove Candy Tablets are prepared in the same way as the fore- 
going, essence of cloves being used instead of ciimamon. 

Rose Cant)Y Tablets. — Use 1 lb. loaf sugar, a few drops of es- 
sence of roses, a few drops of acetic acid, and a few drops of prepared 
cochineal. Proceed as in the preceding. 

Fruit Candy Tablets. — ^Use 1 lb. of loaf sugar, J pint of the juice 
of any kind of fruit, either currants, cherries, strawberries, rasp- 
berries &c., extracted by pressing with a spoon through a clean hair 
sieve. Boil the sugar to the crack, then incorporate the fruit juice 
by rubbing it with the sugar, as directed in the preceding, and finish 
the candies as therem indicated. 

To free Molasses from its Sharp Taste, and to render 
it fit to be used instead of Sugar. — Take 24 lbs. molasses, 24 
lbs. water, and 6 lbs. of charcoal, coarsely pulverized ; mLx them in a 
IvGttle, and boil the whole over a slow wood fire. When the mixture 
has boiled half an hour, pour it into a flat vessel, in order that the char- 
coal may subside to the bottom ; then pour off the liquid, and place it 
over the fire once more, that the superfluous water may evaporate 
and the molasses be brought to its former consistence. 24 lbs. of 
molasses will produce 24 lbs. of syrup. 

Peppermint Lozenges. — ^Ingredients : 1 oz. of picked gum traga- 
canth soaked with 5 oz. of tepid water in a gallipot (this takes some 6 
hours), and afterwards squeezed and wrung through a cloth, about IJ 
lbs. of fine icing sugar, and a teaspoonful of essence of peppermint. 
Work the prepared gum with the flattened fist on a very clean slab 
until it becomes perfectly white and elastic, then gradually work in 
the sugar, adding the peppermint when the paste has become a com- 
pact, smooth, elastic substance ; a few drops of thick, wet, cobalt 
blue should also be added while working the paste, to give a brilliant 
whiteness. The paste thus prepared is to be rolled out with fine su- 
gar dredged over the slab to the thicloiess of two penny pieces, then if 
you possess a ribbed rolling-pin, use to roll the paste again in cross 
directions, so as to imprint on its whole surface a small lozenge or 
diamond pattern. You now use your tin cutter to stamp out the loz- 
enges ; as you do so place them on sugar powdered baldng sheets to 
dry in the screen. 

Ginger Lozenges. — Proceed as in the last; use a tablespoonfnl of 
essence of ginger, or 1 oz. of ground ginger to flavor, and a few droits 
of thick wet gamboge to color the paste. Ilorehound Lozenges, In- 



GROCEKS AND CONFECTIONERS' RECEirXS. 237 

f^redients : 1 oz. of gum dragon soaked in a gill of very strong extract 
of liorehoiind, IJ lbs of fine icing sugar. Proceed as for the pepper- 
mint lozenges. Cinnamon Lozenges are prepared in the same 
manner as ginger or peppermint, with this difference only; a dessert- 
spoonful of essence of cinnamon is to be used in the flavoring of them, 
a few drops of thick, ground, wet-bumt umber should be used with a 
pinch of carmine to give the paste the tinge of cinnamon color Clove 
Lozenges. The same as peppermint lozenges, using essence of cloves 
for flavoring, and burnt umber to color the paste. Orange Lozenges. 
Ingredients : 1 oz. prepared gum, IJ lbs. sugar, 2 oz. of orange-sugar, 
the gum to be soaked in 2 oz. of orange flower water. Proceed as for 
X)eppermint lozenges. Lemon Lozenges. Ingredients : 1 oz. prepared 
gum, IJ lbs. of icing sugar, 2 oz. of lemon sugar, and a few drops of 
acetic acid. Colt' s foot Lozenges. Ingredients : 1 oz. of gum dragon 
soaked in 2 oz. of orange flower water, IJ lb. of fine icing sugar, and 
\ oz. of essence of colt's foot. Proceed as for peppermint lozenges. 
(Jayenne and Catechu Jjozenges. Ingredients : 1 oz. of gum dragon 
soaked in 2 oz. of water, 2 lbs. fine icing sugar, \ oz. essence of 
cayenne, and J oz. of prepared catechu. Proceed as for peppermint 
lozenges. 

Gum Pastilles, or Jujtjp.-rs.— Ingredients : 1 lb. of picked gum 
arable, 14 oz. of the finest f^ '• "r pounded and sifted, \ gill of double 
orange flower water, and 1 pL. tepid water to soak the gum in, which 
is afterwards to be strained off clean. Put the soaked and stramed 
gum into a sugar boiler with the sugar, and use a clean spoon to stir 
it over a very moderate fire, while it boils and reduces to the small 
I)earl degree ; then add the orange flower water, stir aU together on 
the fire, remove the i^reparation from the stove, skim off the froth, 
and use the mixture to cast the jujubes in levelled layers of starch 
X:)Owder contained in a flat box. 

Spanish Licorice Jujubes. — ^Ingredients : 1 lb. picked gum arable, 
14 oz. of sugar, and 2 oz. of Spanish licorice dissolved in a gill of hot 
water, and afterwards strained clean. First prepare the gum and 
boil it with sugar as directed in the preceding article, and when 
reduced by boiling to the small pearl degree, incorporate the prepared 
Spanish licorice with it, remove the scum from the surface, and finish 
the jujubes in the manner indicated above. Raspberry Jujubes. 
Ingredients : 1 lb. picked gum arable soaked in 1 pint of hot water 
and afterwards stramed, 14 oz. of sugar, 1 gill of filtered raspberry 
juice, and a few drops of cochmeal. Proceed as directed in the 
foregoing case, adding the raspberry and coloring last. Black Cur- 
rant Jujubes. Proceed in all respects as indicated for raspberry 
jujubes, omitting the cochineal, black currant juice being used. Red, 
Currant Jujubes. — ^Tlie same as black currant jujubes, red currant 
juice being used and a few drops of cochineal. Ordinary Jujubes. 
Ingredients : 1 lb. gum arable soaked m 1 pt. of hot water and after- 
wards strained, 14 oz. sugar, | oz. essence of roses, and a few drops 
of prepared cochineal. Let the mixture be prepared as for other 
jujubes, but instead of casting them in impressions made in starch- 
poAvder, when the preparation is ready, pour it into a very clean 
smooth tinned baking sheet to the depth of a quarter of an inch, and 
set it to dry in the screen, or hot closet (moderate heat) ; when suffi- 
ciently dried, so that on pressing the surface it proves somewhat 



238 GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS' RECEIPTS. 

elastic to the toucli, remove it from the heat, and allow it to become 
cold ; the sheet of jujube may then be easily detached, and is to be 
cut up with scissors in the shape of diamonds. 

Stick Apple Sugar. — ^Boil the sugar to caramel, flavor with apple 
juice together with tartaric or other acid, pour it on a marble slab, 
draw it into sticks, cut them of equal length, then roll them on a slab 
tUl they are perfectly cold ; when finished, wrap them in tissue-paper 
and put them in fancy envelopes. 

CuKRANT AND RASPBERRY PASTE Drops, — ^Ingredients : 1 lb. of 
pulp (the currants and raspberries in equal proportions boiled, and 
afterwards rubbed through a sieve), 1 lb. of sifted sugar. Stir both 
together in a copper sugar-boiler or preserving pan over a brisk fire, 
until the paste becomes sufficiently reduced to show the bottom of 
the preserving pan as you draw the spoon across it ; then proceed to 
lay out the drops about the size of a florin, using a spouted sugar boiler 
for the purpose. The drops should then be placed in the screen to 
dry, at a low heat for an hour or so. When the drops are dry , use a 
thin knife to remove them from the tin sheet on which you laid them 
out, and put them away between sheets of paper in closed boxes, in a 
dry place. Damson Paste Drops. — ^Ingredients : 1 lb. of damson thick 
pulp, 1 lb. bruised sugar. Stir the pulp and sugar on the fire until 
reduced to a thick i)aste, then proceed to lay out the drops on square 
sheets of polished tin ; dry them in the screen (moderate heat), and 
remove them in the manner aforesaid. These drops may be prepared 
with all kinds of plums and also with gooseberries. Pear Paste 
Drops. — Use 1 lb. pear pulp (made by peeling the pears, and boiling 
them to a pulp with J pt. of cider or perry, and rubbing this through 
a coarse sieve), 1 lb. of bruised sugar. Proceed as for damson 
paste. Apple Paste Drops. — Use 1 lb. of apple pulp (made by peel- 
ing, slicing and boiling the apples with J pt. cider), 1 lb. of bruised 
sugar. Proceed as in the foregoing cases, adding a few drops of 
cochineal to half of the paste for the sake of variety. Pine Apple 
Paste Drops. — Use 1 lb. of pine-apple pulp (made by first peeling, 
and then grating the pine-apple on a dish, using a clean coarse tin 
grater for the purpose), 1 lb. of bruised sugar. Proceed as in the 
former cases. 

Vases, Baskets, Figures, Anevials, &c., in Grained Sugar. — 
The sugar being boiled to the baU degree, add a few drops of acetic 
acid, and work the sugar with the back part of the bowl of a silver 
tablespoon up against the side of the sugar boiler, fetching up the 
whole in turns, so that every portion may acquire an opalized or 
whitish color. As soon as the sugar has been worked up to this 
state, which constitutes " graining," pour it immediately into the 
ready prepared mould ; and when it has become perfectly set firm in 
the centre, you may turn the vase, basket, animal, or whatever the 
object may be, out of its mould, and place it in the screen or hot 
closet to dry, at a verij moderate heat. Afterwards they may bo 
painted in colors to imitate nature. 

EvERTON Taffy. — ^To make this favorite and wholesome candy, 
take IJ pounds of moist sugar, 3 ounces, of butter, a teacup and a 
half of water, and one lemon. Boil the sugar, butter, water, and 
half the rind of the lemon together; and, when done, — ^which will 
be known by droi)ping into cold water, when it should be quite 



GROCERS AND CONFECTIONERS' RECEIPTS. 239 

crisp, — ^let it stand aside till the boiling has ceased, and then stir in 
the juice of the lemon. Butter a dish, and pour it in about a quarter 
of an inch in thickness. The lire must be quick, and the taffy 
stirred all the time. 

Caitdy Fruit. — Take one pound of the best loaf sugar; dip each 
lump into a bowl of water, and put the sugar into your preserving 
kettle. Boil it down, and skim it mitil perfectly clear, and in a 
•candying state. When sufficiently boiled, have ready the fruits you 
-wish to preserve. Large white grapes, oranges separated into small 
pieces, or preserved fruits, taken out of their syrup and dried, are 
very nice. Dip the fruits into the prepared sugar while-it is hot; put 
them in a cold place ; they will soon become hard. 

Jellies without Fruit. — To 1 pint of water put J oz. alum; boil 
a minute or two; then add 4 lbs. wliite sugar; continue the boiling a 
little; strain while hot; and, when cold, put in half a twenty-five 
cent bottle of extract of vanilla, strawberry, lemon, or any other 
flavor you desire for jelly. 

Prize Honey. — Good common sugar, 5 lbs. ; water, 2 lbs. bring 
gradually to a boil, skimming when cool ; add 1 lb. bees' honey and 4 
drops essence of peppermint. If you desire a better ai-ticle, use white 
sugar, and J lb. less water, J lb more honey. 

ANOTHER. — Coffee sugar, 10 lbs. ; water 3 lbs. ; cream tartar, 2ozs. ; 
strong vinegar, 2 tablespoons; white of an egg well beaten; bees* 
honey, Jib; Lubin's extract of honeysuckle, 10 drops. Put on the 
sugar and water in a suitable kettle on the fire ; when lul?:ewarm stir 
in the cream tartar and vinegar; add the egg; when the sugar is 
nearly melted put in the honey, and stir till it comes to a boil; take it 
off, let it stand a few minutes; strain, then addthe extract of honey- 
suckle last; stand over night, and it is ready, for use. Another. — 
Common sugar, 4 lbs. ; water, 1 pt. ; let them come to a boil, and 
sldm. Then add pulverized alum, J oz. remove from the fire, and 
stir in cream of tartar, J oz. and water, or extract of rose, 1 table- 
spoonful, and it is fit for use. 

To Keep Fruits Fresh. — ^Rosin 2 lbs. ; tallow, 2 oz. ; bees*-wax, 
2 oz. Melt slowly over the fire in an iron pot, but don't boil. Take 
the fruit separately, and rub it over vrith pulverized chalk or whiting 
(to prevent the coating from adhering to the fruit), then dip it into 
the solution once, and hold it up a moment to set the coating, then 
pack away carefully in barrels, boxes, or on shelves, in a cool iDlace. 
Unequalled for preserving apples, pears, lemons, &c. 

Acid Drops. — ^Pound and sift into a clean pan 8 ozs. of double 
refined sugar, add slowly as much water as will render the sugar 
sufficiently moist not to stick to the stirring spoon, place the pan 
on a small stove or slow fire, and stir tiU it nearly boils, remove 
from the fire and stir in J oz. tartaric acid. Place it on the fire for 
half a minute, then dip out small quantities from the pan, and let 
it fall in small drops on a clean tin plate; remove the drops in 2 
hours with a knife. Ready for sale in 24 hours. 

Chocolate Cream Candy. — Chocolate scraped fine, J oz., thick 
cream, 1 pt., best sugar, 3 ozs., heat it nearly boiling, then remove it 
from the fire and mill it weU ; when cold, add the whites of 4 or 5 
eggs; whisk rapidly and take up the froth on a sieve. Serve the 
cream in glasses and pile up the iio\h on top of them. 



240 LEATHER WOrwKEES', &C.j RECEIPTS. 



TANNEES, CUKRIERS, BOOT, SHOE AND EUB- 
BER MTRS, MARBLE WORKERS, BOOK^ 
BINDERS, &c. 

Best Color for Shoe a^h) IIAR^'Ess Edge. — ^Alcohol, 1 pint ; 
tincture of iron, IJ ozs. ; extract logwood, 1 oz. ; pulverized nutgalls, 
1 oz. ; soft water, ^ pint ; sweet oil, J oz. ; put this last into the alco- 
hol before adding the water. Nothing can exceed the beautiful finish 
imparted to the leather by this preparation. 

Cheap CoiiOR for the Edge. — Soft water, 1 gallon ; extract 
logwood, 1 oz. ; boil till the extract is dissolved ; remove from the 
fire, add copperas, 2 oz., bichromate of potash, and gum arable, of 
each J oz. , all to be pulverized. 

Beautiful Bronze for Leather. — ^Dissolve a little of the so-call- 
ed insoluble aniline violet in a little water, and brush the solution over 
the leather : after it dries repeat the process. 

Superior Edge Blackikg. — Soft water 5 gallons; bring to a boil, 
and add 8 oz. logwood extract, pulverized ; boil 3 minutes, remove 
from the fire, and stir in 2^ oz. gum arable, I'oz. bichromate of i)otash, 
and 80 grains prussiate of potash. 

For a small quantity of this, use water, 2 quarts ; extract of log- 
wood, I oz. ; gum arable, 96 grams ; bichromate of potash, 48 grains ; 
prussiate of potash ; 8 grains. Boil the extract in the water 2 minutes ; 
remove from the fire and stir in the others, and it is ready for use. 

For tanners' surface blacldng, which is not required to take on a 
high pohsh, the gum arable may be omitted. 

Sizing for Boots akd Shoes ix Treeixg Out. — ^Water, 1 quart; 
dissolve in it, by heat, isinglass, 1 oz. ; addmg more water to replace 
loss by evaporation ; Avhen dissolved, add starch, 6 oz. ; extract 
of logwood, beeswax, and tallow, of each, 2 oz. Rub the starch up 
first by pourmg on sufficient boiling water for that purpose. It 
makes boots and shoes soft and pliable, and gives a splendid appear- 
ance to old stock on the shelves. 

Black Var^sh for the Edge.— Take 98 per. cent alcohol, 1 
pint ; shellac, 3 oz. ; rosin, 2 oz. ; pine turpentine, 1 oz. : lampblack, J 
oz. ; mix : and when the gums are all cut, it is ready for use. This 
I)reparation makes a most splendid appearance when appb'ed to boot, 
shoe, or harness edge, and is equally applicable to cloth or wood, 
where a gloss is required after being painted. 

Waterproof Varnish for HAR]srEss. — ^India-rubber, J Ih. ; spts. 
turpentine 1 gal. ; dissolve to a jelly, then take hot linseed oil equal 
imrts with the mass, and incorporate them well over a slow fire. 

Blacking for Harness. — Beeswax. J lb. ; ivory black, 2 ozs. ; spts. 
of turpentiue, 1 oz. Prussian blue, ground in oil 1 oz. ; copal varnish, 
J oz. ; melt the wax and stir into it the other ingredients, before tlio 
mixture is quite cold ; make it into balls, rub a little upon a brush, 
apply it upon the harness, and polish lightly with silk. 

Best Harness Varnish Extant. — Alcohol, 1 gallon ; white tur- 
pentine, IJ lbs. ; gum sheUae, IJ lbs. ; Venice turpentine, 1 gill. Let 
them stand by the stove tiU the'gums are dissolved, tlieu add sweet 



LEATHER WOKKEBS', &C., RECEIPTS. 241 

oil, 1 gill ; and color it if yon Tvisli with lampblack, 2 oz. Tliis will 
not crack like the old varnish. 

HATiyEss OIL. — Neat' s-foot oil, 1 gal. ; lampblack, 4 oz. Mix well. 

BRLLiiiAifT French YAimisH foe Leather.— Spirit of wine, Jpiiit ; 
yine^ar, 5 pints ; gum Senegal in powder, J lb. ; loaf sugar, 6 oz. ; 
powdered galls, 2 oz. ; green copperas, 4 oz. Dissolve the gum and 
sugar in the water; strain, and put on a slow fire, but don't boil; now 
pnt in the galls, copperas, and the alcohol; stir well for five minutes; 
Fet off ; and when nearly cool, strain through flannel, and bottle for 
use. It is applied with a pencil brush. Most superior. 

Liquid Japah for Leather.— Molasses, 8 lbs. ; lampblack, 1 lb. ; 
sweet oil, 1 lb. ; gum arable, 1 lb. ; isinglass, 1 lb. Mix weU in 32 lbs. 
water; apply heat; when cool, add 1 quart alcohol; an ox's gaU will 
improve it. 

Waterproof Oil-Blacking. Camphene, 1 pint; add all the 
India-rubber it will dissolve; curriers' oil, 1 pint; ,tallow, 7 lbs.; 
lampblack, 2 oz. Mix thoroughly by heat. 

Shoeiviakers' Heel Balls.— Beeswax, 8 oz. ; tallow, 1 oz. ; melt, 
and add powdered gum arable, 1 oz., and lampblack to color. 

Best Heel Ball. — Melt together beeswax, 2 lbs. ; suet, 3 ozs. ; stir 
in ivory black, 4 ozs., lampblack, 3 oz., powdered gum arable, 2 oz., 
powdered rock candy, 2 oz., mix and when partly cold pour into tin 
or leaden moulds. 

Channellers axd Shoemakers' Ceiment.- India-rubber dis- 
solved to a proper consistence in sulphuric ether. 

Ceivient for Leather or Rubber Soles and Leather Belting. — 
Gutta percha, 1 lb. ; India-rubber, 4 oz. ; pitch, 2 oz. ; shellac, 1 oz. ; 
oil, 2 oz. ; melt, and use hot. 

Gerivian Blacking. — Ivory-black, 1 part; molasses, ipart; sweet 
oil, J part; mix, as before; then stir in a mixture of hydrochloric accd, 
J part; oil of vitriol, i part; each separately diluted with twice its 
weight of water before mixing them. This forms the ordinary ]#aste 
blacldng of Germany, according to Liebig. 

Oil Paste Blacking. Ivory-black, 4 lbs.; molasses, 2 lbs.; sweet 
oil, 1 lb. ; oil of vitrei 3 lbs. ; mix and put in tins. 

Gold Varnish.— Turmeric, 1 dram ; gamboge, 1 dram ; turpen- 
tme, 2 pints ; shellac, 5 oz. ; sandarach, 5 oz. ; dra^gon's blood, 8 
drams ; thin mastic varnish, 8 oz. ; digest with occasional agitation 
lor fourteen days ; then set aside to fine ; and pour off the clear. 

Grain Black for Harness Leather. — First stain in tallow ; 
then take spirits turpentine, 1 pint ; cream of tartar, 1 oz. ; soda 1 oz.; 
gum shellac, ^ oz. ; thick i^aste, reduced thixi, 2 quarts. Mix weU. 
This will finish 12 sides. 

Beautiful Stains for Boots, Shoes and Leather Goods.*^ 
Soft water 1 pt; oxalic acid, 2 tablespoonfuls or more; if required 
stronger, dissolve, and for a red color, add finely pulverized rose-pink, 
vermilion or drop lake. Blue, add finely pulverized Prussian blue, 
or indigo. Yelloio, king's yellow, yellow ochre, &c. WJiite, flake 
white. Green, blue and yellow mixed. Orange, red and yellow 
mixed. Purple, red and blue mixed. Pulverize the ingredients well 
before mixing with the water and acid. Any other shade desired 
can be selected from the " Compound colors** in the next department. 

Bridle Stain.— Skimmed milk, 1 pt. ; spirits of salts, Joz. ; spts. 

16 



242 LEATHER WOKKERS', &C., RECEirTS. 

of red lavender, Joz. ; gum ara"bic, 1 oz. ; and the juice of 2 lemons ; 
mix well together, and cork for use ; apply with a sponge ; when 
dry, polish with a hrush or a piece of flannel. If wished paler, put 
in less red lavender. 

On Rubber Goods. — As many parties require to use rubber goods 
who are entirely ignorant of the cheap mixtures which are vended 
in large quantities, at enormous profits by manufacturers, I have 
thought proper in this place to irradiate the subject with a little 
*'liglit" for the benefit of those whom "it may concern," and ac- 
cordingly present the formulae for compounding the different mix- 
tures which enter into the composition of many articles sold quite 
extensively as pwre rubber goods, but which, owing to large adulter- 
ations, in many cases cost 75 per cent, less than the prices charged 
for them. Jhe first I shall present is for 

Light Buffer SpRmos. — Grind together clear Java rubber, 25 
lbs. ; Para rubber, 5 lbs. ; common magnesia, 10 lbs. ; pure sulphnr, 25 
ozs. This is brown at first, but in a few days turns grey or white, 
and just sinks in water. Springs made from this compound, 43 x 2^ 
X 1, pressed to haK an inch, showed SJ tons on the dial. 

Grey Packing for Marine Engines, &c.— Grind tof^ethcr clean- 
ed Java rubber, 5 lbs. ; Para rubber, 25 lbs. ; oxide of zinc, 16 lbs. ; 
carbonate of magnesia, 6 lbs. ; Porcelain or Cornwall clay, 3 lbs. ; red 
lead, 2 lbs. ; pure sulphur, 30 ozs. It may be proper to state that 
good purified Java rubber might be substituted by engineers with 
good effect for Para rubber in the above and some other com- 
positions. 

Rag Packing for Valyes, Bearing Springs, &c.— This is made 
principally from the useless cuttings in the manufacture of India- 
rubber coats, when the gum is run or spread on caUco foundations. 
Proportions as follows : grind together useless scraps, 35 lbs. ; black- 
lead 18 lbs. ; Java gum, 16 lbs. ; yellow sulphur, 1 lb. 

Composition for Suction Hose for Fire Engentes, &c. — 
Grind together Java rubber, 20 lbs. ; Para do. 10 lbs. ; white lead, 14 
lbs. ; red lead, 14 lbs. ; yellow sulphur, IJ lbs. This is spread upon flax 
cloth, which weighs 10, 16, and 32 ozs.'to tlie square yard. 

CoiMMON BiiACK Packing. — Grind together, Java rubber, 15 lbs. ; 
Para do., 15 lbs.; oxide of zinc, 15 lbs.; China or Cornwall clay, 15 
lbs. ; yellow sulphur, 28 ozs. 

COiVuviON White Buffer Rings, &c. — Grind together Java rub- 
ber, 30 lbs. ; oxide of zinc, 18 lbs. carbonate of magnesia, 6 lbs. ; 
clean chalk or whiting, 6 lbs. ; flour of sulphur, 2 lbs. 

Vulcanite, or Ebonite. — ^If the amount of sulphur added to the 
prepared rubber amounts to 10 per cent, and the operations of vul- 
canizing is performed in close vessels, at a temperature exceeding 
300, or the heat required for Vulcanizing India-Rubber as de- 
cribed under that head, which see, an article wiU be produced known 
as vulcanite, or ebonite. It is a black, hard, elastic substance, re- 
sembling hoiTi in its texture and appearance, and capable of taking a 
very higli polish. It is of great use in the arts, and is largely man- 
ufactured for maldng combs, door handles, and hundreds of articles 
hitherto made In ivory or bone. Its electrical x)roperties also are 
verv great. 

Best Pure Spring, or Washers.— Grind together Para gum, 30 



LEATHER WOKKERS', &C., KECEIPTS. 243 

iibs. ; oxide of zinc, 5 lbs. ; carb. magnesia, 2 lbs. ; common chalk, 3 
lbs. ; Porcelain or Cornwall clay, 2 lbs. ; pure sulphur, 30 oz. 

CoMPAmON Quality to above.— Para rubber, 30 lbs.; oxide of 
zinc, 5 lbs. ; Porcelain or Cornwall clay, 5 lbs. ; pure sulphur, 32 oz. 

"Hypo" Cloth for Waterproof Coats. — Grind together clean 
Java gum, SO lbs. ; lampblack, 5 lbs. ; dry chalk or whiting, 11 lbs. ; 
sulphuret of lead, 5 lbs. This composition is applied to waterproof 
garments. 

To Vulcanize India Rubber.— The vulcanizing process patent- 
ed by the late Charles Goodyear consists in incorporating witli the 
rubber from 3 to 10 per cent, of sulphur, together with various me- 
tallic oxides, chiefly lead and zinc, the quantity of the latter articles 
being regulated by the degree of elasticity &c, required in the desired 
article. The goods of one large establishment are vulcanized in 
cylindrical wrought iron steam heaters, over 50 feet long and from 
5 to 6 feet in diameter. These heaters have doors opening on hinges 
at one end, and through these doors the goods to be vulcanized are 
introduced on a sort of railway carriage, then, after the door is shut, 
steam is let on, and a temperature of from 250° to 300° of heat is 
kept up for several hours, the degree of heat being ascertained by 
means of thermometers attached to the heaters. The value, solidity, 
and quality of the goods is much increased by keeptug the articles 
under the pressure of metalic moulds or sheets while undergotug this 
process. The whole process requires careful manipulation and great 
experience to conduct it properly. 

To Deodorize Rubber. — Cover the articles of rubber with char- 
coal dust, place them in an enclosed vessel, and raise the tempera- 
ture to 94° Fahr., and let it remain thus for several hours. Remove 
and clean the articles from the charcoal dust, and they will be found 
free from aU odor. 

Gutta-Percha and Rubber Waste.— The waste is cut into 
small pieces, and 100 lbs. of the same are placerd in a well-closed 
boiler with 10 lbs. of bisulphide of carbon and 4 ozs. absolute al- 
cohol, well stirred; then the boiler is closed, and left a few hours to 
soak. After this time it is found to be changed into a soft dough 
mass, which, after being ground or kneaded, is fit to be formed into 
any shape, when the solvent will evaporate. If too much of the 
latter has been used, a thick unmanageable liquid is obtained. 

To Utilize Leather Scraps. — First clean the scraps, then soak 
them in water containing 1 per cent, of sulphuric acid until the 
material becomes soft and plastic, then compress into blocks and dry 
by steam. In order to soften the blocks, 1 lb. of glycerine is added 
to 100 lbs. of the material; they are then passed through rollers, 
and brought to the proper thickness to be used as inner soles of boots 
and shoes. 

Deer Skins. — Tan^ning and Buffing for Gloves.— For each 
skin, take a bucket of water, and put it into 1 qt. of lime ; let the 
skin or skins lie in from 3 to 4 days ; then rinse in clean water hair, 
and grain ; then soak them in cold water to get out the glue ; now 
scour or pound in good soap-suds for half an hour ; after which tako 
Avhite vitriol, alum, and salt, 1 tablespoonful of each to a skin ; these 
will be dissolved in sufficient water to cover the skin, and remain in it 
lor 24 hours ; wring out as dry as convenient, and spread on with a 



244 LEATHER WORKERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 

brush i pint of curriers' oil, and hang iii the sun about 2 days ; after 
which you will scour out the oil with soap-suds, and hang out again 
until perfectly dry ; then pull and work them until they are soft ; 
and if a reasonable time does not make them soft, scour out in suds 
again as before, until complete. The oil may be saved by pourmg or 
taking it from the top of the suds, if left standing a short time. 
The buff color is given by spreading yelloAV ochre evenly over the 
surface of the sldn when finished, rubbing it well with a brush. 

Ta]st^ing with Acid. — After having removed the hair, scouring, 
soaking and pounding in the suds, &c., as in the last recipe, in place 
of the white vitriol, alum, and salt as there mentioned, take oil of 
vitriol (suli^huric acid), and water, equal parts of each, and thoroughly 
wet the flesh-side of the skin with it, by means of a sponge or cloth 
iil^on a stick ; then f oldmg up the skin, letting it stand for 20 minutes 
only, having ready a solution of sal-soda and water, say 1 lb. to a 
bucket of water, and soak the skm or skins in that for two hours, 
when you will wash in clean water, and apply a little dry salt, letting 
lie in the salt over night, or that length of time ; then remove the 
flesh with a blunt knife, or, if doing business on a large scale, by 
means of the regular beam and flesh-knife ; when dry, or nearly so, 
soften by pulling and rubbing with the hands, and also with a piece, 
of pumice-stone. This of course is the quickest way of tanning, 
and by only wetting the skins ^vith the acid, and soaking out in 20 
mmutes, they are not rotted. 

Another Method.— Oil of vitriol, J oz. ; salt, 1 teacup ; milk 
sufllcient to handsomely cover the skin, not exceeding 3 qts. ; warm 
the milk, then add the salt and vitriol ; stir the vSkin in the liquid 40 
minutes, keeping it warm ; then dry, and work it as directed in 
the above. 

Canadian Process. — The Canadians make four liquors in using 
the japonica. The first liquor is made by dissolving, for 20 sides of 
upper, 15 lbs. of terra japonica in sufficient water to cover the upper 
being tanned. The second liquor contains the same amount of ja- 
ponica, and 8 lbs. of saltpetre also. The third contains 20 lbs. of ja- 
ponica and 4J lbs. of alum. The fourth liquor contains only 15 lbs. 
of japonica, and IJ lbs. of sulphuric acid ; and the leather remams 4 
days in each liquor for upper ; and for sole the quantities and time 
are both doubled. They count 50 calf-skins in place of 20 sides of 
upper, but let them lie in each liquor only 3 days. 

To Tan Fur Skins, &c. — ^To remove the legs and useless parts, 
soak the skin soft, and then remove the fleshy substances, and soak 
it in warm water 1 hour. Now take for each skin, borax, saltpetre, 
and Glauber-salt, of each J oz., and dissolve or wet with soft water 
Buflicient to allow it to be spread on the flesh-side of the skin. Put 
it on with a brush thickest in the centre or thickest part of the skin, 
and double the skin together, flesh side in ; keei)ing it in a cool place 
for 24 hours, not allowing it to freeze. Then wash the skin clean, 
and take sal-soda 1 oz. ; borax J oz, ; refined soap 2 oz. ; melt them 
slowly together, being careful not to allow them to boil, and apply 
the mixture to the flesh side at first. Boil up again and keep in a 
warm place for 24 hours ; then wash the skin clean again, as above, 
and have saleratus 2 oz., dissolved in hot rain water sufficient to well 
saturate the sldn; take alum 4 oz. ; salt 8 oz. ; and dissolve also in hot 



LEATHER WORKEKS', &C,, RECEirTS. 245 

rain Tvater ; wlieu sufficiently cool to allow the handling of it with- 
out scalding, x^ut in the skin for 12 honrs ; then wring out the water 
v,m\ hang up for 12 hours more to dry. Repeat this last soaking and 
dryhig 2 or 3 times, according to the desired softness of the sldn when 
fmished. Lastly finish, by i)ulling and working, and finally by rub- 
bing with a piece of pumice-stone and fine sand-i)aper. This works 
like a charm on sheep-skins, fur skins, dog, wolf, bear-skins, &c. 

Process of Taxn'I]s"g Calf, Kip, and ILuiness Leather in 
FROM 6 TO 30 Days.— For a 12-lb calf-skin, take 3 lbs. of terra ja- 
X)onica, common salt, 2 lbs. ; alum, 1 lb. ; put them in a copper kettle 
mth sufficient water to dissolve the whole without boiling. The skin 
will be limed, haired, and treated every way as for the old process, 
when it will be put mto a vessel with water to cover it, at which time 
you will put in 1 pint of the composition, stirring it well, adding the 
game night and m.orning for three days, when you will add the whole, 
handling 2 or 3 times daily all the time tanning ; you can continue 
to use the tanning liquid by adding half the quantity each time, by 
keeping these proportions for any amount. If you desire to give a 
dark color to the leather, you will put in 1 lb. of Sicily sumac ; kip 
skins will require about 20 days, light horse hides for harness 30 days, 
calf-skins from G to 10 days at most. 

To Tan Raw Hide. — ^\yhen taken from the animal, spread it flesh 
>side up ; then put 2 parts of salt, 2 parts of saltpetre and alum com- 
bined, make it fine, sprinkle it evenly over the surface, roll it up, let 
it alone a few days till dissolved; then take off what flesh remains, 
and nail the skin to the side of a barn in the sun, stretch tight, to 
make it soft like harness leather, put neat's-foot oil on it, fasten it up 
in the sun again; then rub out all the oil you can with a wedge- 
shaped stick, and it is tanned with the hair on. 

To Tan Muskrat Skins avith the Fur ON.-r-First, for soaking, 
to 10 gals, cold soft water, add 8 parts of wheat bran, old soap, J pt. ; 
pulverized borax, 1 oz. ; sulphuric acid, 2 ozs. If the skins have not 
been salted, add salt, 1 pt. Green skins should not be soaked more 
than 8 to 10 hours. Dry ones should soak till very soft. The sul- 
l^huric acid hastens the soaking process. For tan Liquor, to 10 gals, 
warm soft water, add bran, J bushel ; stir well, and let it ferment in a 
warm room. Then add slowly, sulphuric acid, 2J lbs. ; stir all the 
time. Musk rat skins should remain in about 4 hours; then take out 
and rub with a fleshing knife; an old chopping knife with the edge 
taken off will do. Then work it over a beam mitil entirely dry. 

To Dye Furs. — Any dye that will color wool will also color furs, 
and an immense number of such dyes can be found under the dyers 
department. In buying furs, examine the density and length of the 
down next the sldn, this can easily be done by blowing briskly against 
the set of the fur, if it is very close and dense it is all right, but if it 
opens easily and exposes much of the skin, reject it. 

French Finish for Leather. — Take a common wooden pailful of 
scraps (the legs and pates of calf-skins are best), and put a handful 
each of salt and alum upon them, and let stand three days ; then boil 
until they get a thick paste ; in using, you will warm it, and in the 
first application put a little tallow with it, and for a second time a 
little soft soap, and use it in the regular way of finishing, and your 
leather will be soft and pliable, like French leather. 



246 LEATHER WORKERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 

French Patent Leather. — ^Work into the skin with appropriate 
tools 3 or 4 successive coatings of drying varnish, made by boilmg 
linseed oil with white lead and litharge, in the proportion of one 
pound of each of the latter to one gallon of the former, and adding a 
portion of chalk or ochre, each coating being thoroughly dried before 
the application of the next. Ivory black is then substituted for the 
chalk or ochre, the varnish thinned with spirits of turpentine, and 
five additional applications made in the same manner as before, except 
that it is put on thin and not worked in. The leather is rubbed down 
with pumice-stone, in powder, and then placed in a room at 90 degrees, 
out of the way of dust. The last varnish is prepared by boiling 4 lb. 
asphaltum with 10 lbs. of the drying oil used in the first stage of the 
process, and then stirring in 5 lbs. copal varnish and 10 lbs, of turpen- 
tine. It must have 1 month's age before using it. 

Cheat Tanning without Bark or Mineral Astringents.— The 
astringent liquor is composed of water, 17 gals. ; Aleppo galls. J lb. ; 
Bengal catechu, IJ oz. and 5 lbs. of tormentfl, or septfoil root. Powder 
the ingredients, and boil in the water 1 hour ; when cool, put in the 
skins (which must be prepared by being plunged into a prei^aration of 
bran and water for 2 days previously) ; handle them frequently during 
the first 3 days, let them alone the next 3 days, then handle three or 
four times in one day ; let them lie undisturbed for 25 days more, 
when the process will be complete. 

New Tanning Coimposition. — For harness leather, 4 lbs. catechu, 
3 i)ts. common ley, 3 oz. of alum. For loax leather (split leather), 3 
lbs. catechu, 3 pts. common ley, 3 oz. alum. For calfskins 2 lbs. 
catechu, 1 pt. ley. For sheep-skins, 1 lb. catechu, 1 pt. ley, 1 oz. alum. 
The catechu by itself will make the leather hard and brittle, the ley 
will soften it; the alum being only used for coloring, can be dispensed 
with, or other matter used m its place. The mixture is in every 
case boiled, and the leather is then immersed in it long enough to 
be thoroughly tanned, for which purpose the harness leather should 
be steeped from 18 to 20 days, wax leather from 12 to 14 days, calf- 
skins from 7 to 9 days, and sheep-skins from 2 to 4 days. 

French Polish or Dressing f.or Leather. — Mix 2 pts. best 
vinegar, with 1 pt. soft Avater; stir into it ^ lb. glue, broken up, J lb. 
logwood-chips, I oz. of finely powdered indigo, J oz. of the best soft 
soap, J oz. of isinglass ; put the mixture over the fire, and let it boil 
ten minutes or more ; then strain, bottle, and cork. When cold, it is 
fit for use. Apply with a sponge. 

Tanning. — ^The first operation is to soak the hide, as no hide can 
be properly tanned unless it has been soaked and broken on a fleshing 
beam. If the hide has not been salted add a little salt and soak it in 
soft water. In order to be thoroughly soaked, green hides should 
remain in the liquor from 9 to 12 days; of course the time varies with 
the thickness of the hide. The following liquor is used to remove 
hair, or wool, viz. : 10 gals, cold water (soft); 8 qts. slacked lime, and 
the same quantity of wood ashes. Soak until the hair or wool will 
pull olf easily. As it frequently happens it is desirable to cure the 
hide and keep the hair clean, the following paste should be made, 
viz : equal parts of lime and har<i wood ashes (lime should be slaked) 
and made into a paste with soft water. This should be spread on the 
flesh side ul the liide and the skin rolled up flesh side in and placed 



LEATHER WORKERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 247 

in a tub just covering it with water. It sliould remain 10 days or 
until the liair will piill out easily, then scrape with a knife. The 
skins of animals are composed mainly of glue or gluten. This is soluble, 
and the principle derived from tlie bark, tannin or tannic acid is also 
to a considerable extent soluble ; when tlie latter is allowed to act 
upon the former, chemical combination takes i)lace, and leather is i)ro- 
duced, which is insoluble. 

CuiiRiERs' Size.— Take of sizing, Iqt. ; soft soap, 1 gill; stuffing, 
1 giU ; sweet milk, J pt. ; boil the sizing in water to a proper consistence, 
strain, and add the other ingredients ; and when thoroughly mixed, it 
}s ready for use. 

CunRiERs' Paste.— J'irs^ Coat. — Take of water, 2 qts. ; flour, 
pint; Castile soai), 1 oz. ; make into paste. Second Coat. — Take o 
iirst paste, J pt. ; gum tragacanth, 1 gill; water, 1 -pt. ; mix all together. 
This will finish 18 sides of upper. 

Curriers' Skirting.— This is for finishing skirting and the flesh 
of harness leather, in imitation of oak taiming. Take of chrome 
yellow, J lb. ; yellow ochre, 1 lb. ; cream of tartar, 1 oz. ; soda, J 
oz. ; paste 5 qts. ; mix weU. This will finish twelve sides. 

Skirting. — For the grain to imitate oak tan. Take of chrome 
yellow, J lb. ; yellow ochre, J lb. ; cream of tartar 1 oz. ; soda, 1 
oz. ; paste 2 qts. ; spuits of turpentine, 1 pt. ; mix well. This 
will finish twelve sides. 

Dyes for Morocco and Sheep Leather.— (i?hfe. )— Blue is 
given by steepuig the subject a day in urine and indigo, then boiling it 
with alum ; or, it may be given by temperuig the indigo, with red 
wine, and washing the slun therewith. — Another. — Boil elderberries or 
dwarf-elder, then smear and wash the skins therewith and wring them 
out ; then boU the elderberries as before in a solution of alum water, 
and wet the sktus in the same manner once or twice, dry them, and 
they will be very blue. — {Eed.) — ^Red is given by washing the skin and 
laying them 2 hours in gall, then wringing them out, dipping them 
in a liquor made with ligustrum, alum, and verdigris, in water, and 
lastly in the dye made of Brazilwood boiled with ley. (Purple. ) — Pur- 
ple is given by wetting the sktus with a solution of roche alum in 
warm water, and when dry, again rubbing them with the hand with a 
decoction of logwood in cold water. (Green.) — Green is given by 
smearing the skin with sap-green and alumboUed. (Dark Green.y- 
Park green is given with steel-filings and sal-ammoniac, steeped hi 
wine tiU soft, then smeared over the skin, which is to be dried in the 
shade. ( Yelloio. ) — ^Yellow is given by smearing the skin over with aloes 
and linseed-oil dissolved and strained, or by infusing in weld. (Light 
Orange.) — Orange color is given by smearing it with fustic berries 
boiled in alum water, or for deep orange, with turmeric. (Sky-color. ) 
Sky-color is given with indigo steei3ed in boiling water, and the next 
morning warmed and smeared over the skin. See Dyers' Department. 

To Marble Books or Paper. — Provide a wooden trough 2 inches 
deep and the length and width of any desired sheet ; boil in a brass 
or copper pan any quantity of linseed and water until a thick mucil- 
age is formed ; strain it into the trough, and let cool ; then grind on a 
marble slab any of the following colors in small beer. For Blue. — 
Prussian blue or indigo. Red. — ^Rose-pinlc, vermilion, or drop lake. 
Yellow. — King's yellow, yellow ochre, &c. IF/uYc— Flake white. 



248 LEATHER WORKERS', &C.j RECEirTS. 

BlacJc. — ^bumt ivory or lamb black. Brown. — ^Timber, burnt do. ; 
terra di sienna, burnt do. Blacky mixed with yelloAv or red, also 
makes brown. Green. — Blue and yellow mixed. Orange. — Red and 
yellow mixed. Purple. — ^Red and blue mixed. For each color you 
must have two cups, one for the color after grinding, the other to mix 
it with ox-gall, which must be used to thin the colors at discretion. 
If too much gall is used, the colors wiU spread ; when they keep their 
place on the surface of the trough, when moved with a quill, they are 
fit for use. All things in readiness, the colors are successively 
sprinlded on the surface of the mucilage in the trough with a brush, 
and are waved or drawn about with a quill or a stick, according to 
taste. When the design is just formed, the book, tied tightly between 
cutting boards of the same size is lightly pressed with its ed^e on the 
surface of the liquid pattern, and then withdrawn and dried. The 
covers may be marbled in the same way only letting the liquid colors 
run over them. In marbling paper the sides of the paper is gently 
applied to the colors in the trough. The Aim of color in the trough 
may be as thin as possible, and if any remains after the marbling it 
may be taken off by ai^plying paper to it before you prei^are for 
marblmg again. To diversify the effects, colors are often mixed with 
a little sweet oil before sprinkling them on, by which means a light 
halo or circle appears around each spot. 

Bookbinders' Varnish. — Shellac, 8 parts ; gum benzoin, 3 
parts ; gum mastic, 2 parts ; bruise, and digest in alcohol, 48 parts ; 
oil of lavender, J part. Or, digest shellac, 4 parts ; gum mastic, 
2 parts; gum dammer and white turpentine, of each, 1 imrt; with 
alcohol (95 per cent. ), 28 parts. 

Red SrRiNKLE for Bookbinders* Use. — Brazilwood (groimd), 4 
parts; alum, 1 part; vinegar, 4 parts; water, 4 parts. Boil until 
reduced to 7 parts, then add a quantity of loaf sugar and gum ; bot- 
tle for use. Blue. — Strong sulphuric acid, 8 oz. ; Spanish indigo, 
powdered, 2 oz. ; mix in a bottle that will hold a quart, and place it in 
a warm bath to promote solution. For use, dilute a little to the 
required color in a tea-cuj). Black. — No better black can be procured 
than that made by the receipt for edge blacking, in this work, ichich 
see. Orange color. — Ground Brazilwood, 16 parts; annatto, 4 parts, 
alum, sugar, and gum arable, each 1 part; water, 70 parts, boil, strahi, 
and bottle. Purple. — Logwood chips ; 4 parts, powdered alum, 1 part ; 
soft water, 24 paits ; boil until reduced to 16 parts, and bottle for use. 
Green. — ^French berries, 1 part; soft water, 8 parts. Boil, and add a 
little powdered alum, then bring it to the required shade of green, by 
adding liquid blue. Broion. — Logwood chips, 1 part; aimatto, 1 part 
boil in water, 6 imrts; if too light add a x)iece of copperas the size 
of a pea. 

Thee-Marble. — ^A marble in the form of trees may be done by 
bending the boards a little on the centre, using the same method as 
the common marble, having the covers previously prepared. The end 
of a candle may be rubbed on different parts of the board to form 
knots. Rice-Marhle. — Color the cover with spirits of wine and tur- 
meric, then place on rice in a regular manner, throw on a very fine 
sprinkle of copperas water till the cover is nearly black, and let it re- 
main till dry. The cover may be spotted with the red liquid or 
potash-water, very freely, before the rice is thrown off the boards. 



LEA.TnER WORKEKSV &C., EECEIPTS? 249 

Spotted Marble for Books, etc. — After the fore-edge of the book is cat, 
let it remain in the press, and throw on linseeds in a regular manner, 
Bprinkle the edge with any dark color till the paper is covered, then 
shake off the seeds. Various colors may he used ; the edge may be 
colored with yellow or red before throwing on the seeds, and sprink- 
ling with blue. The seeds will make a fine fancy edge when i^laced 
very thick on different parts, with a few slightlj^ thrown on the vspaces 
between. Japan Colorinrj for Leather Book-covers, etc. — After tho 
book is covered and dry, color the cover with potash-water mixed 
with a little paste: give 2 good coats of Brazil wash, and glaze it; put 
the book between the hands, allowing the boards to slope a little; 
dash on copperas-water, tlien with a sponge full of red liquid press 
out on the bad?: and on different parts large drops, which will run 
down each board and make a fine shaded red; when the cover is drj^ 
wash it over 2 or 3 times with Brazil wash to give it a brighter 
color. {See the various dyes for leather.) 

Gold Sprestcle for Books. — Put in a marble mortar J oz. pure 
honey and one book of gold leaf, rub them avcII together until they 
are very fine, add J pint clear water, and mix well together ; when tho 
water clears, pour it off, and put in more till the honey is all extracted, 
and nothing remains but the gold ; mix one grain of corrosive sub- 
limate in a teaspoonf ul of spirits of wine, and when dissolved, put tho 
same, together Avitli a little gum water, to the gold, and bottle for use. 
The edges of the book may be sprinkled or colored very dark, with 
green, blue, or purple, and lastly witli the gold liquid in small or 
large spots, very regular, shaking the bottle before using. Burnish 
the edges '^hen dry, and cover them with i:)aper to prevent the dust 
falling thereon. This sprinkle will have a most beautiful appearance 
on extra work. 

To Gild the Edges of Books. — Armenian bole, 4 parts; sugar can- 
dy, 1 part ; wliite of Q^g to mix. Apply this composition to the edgo 
of the leaves, previously firmly screwed in the cutting-press ; when 
nearly dry, smooth the surface with the burnisher; then take a 
damp sponge and pass over it, and with a loiece of cotton wool, take 
the leaf from the cushion and apply it to the work; when quite dry, 
burnish, observing to place a piece of silver or India paper between 
the gold and the agate. 

CiiiNESE Edge for Books. — Color the edge with light liquid blue 
and dry; then take a sponge charged with vermilion and dab on spots 
according to fancy ; next throw on rice, and finish the edge with dark 
liquid blue. 

To make Paper into PARCiorENT. — ^To produce this transforma- 
tion, take unsized paper and plunge it into a solution of two parts of 
concentrated sulphuric acid combined with 1 part water; withdraw 
it immediately, and wash it in clean water, and the change is com- 
plete. It is now fit for writing; for the acid supphes the want of size, 
and it becomes so strong tliat a strip 2 or 3 inches wide will bear 
from 60 to 80 lbs. weight, while a like strap of parchment wiU bear 
only about 25 lbs. 

To Ma^^tjfacture Glue. — This article is usually made from tho 
j)arings and waste pieces of hides and skins, the refuse of tanneries, 
the tendons and other oft'al of slaughter houses. They ought to be 
obtained and kept in the dry ^tate, to x>reYent decomposition. For 



250 LEATHEPv workers', &C., RECEIPTS. 

use, tliey are first steeped for 14 or 15 days in milk of lime, and then 
drained and dried ; tlis constitutes the cleaning or the preparation. 
Before conversion into glue they are usually steeped in weak milk of 
lime, well worked in water, and exposed to the air for 24 hours. 
They are then placed in a copper boiler § filled with water and fur- 
nished with a perforated false Dottom, to prevent them from burning, 
and as much is pUed on as will fill the vessel and rest on the top of 
it. Heat is next applied, and gentle boUing continued until tho 
liquor on cooling becomes a gelatinous mass. The clear portion is 
'then run off into another vessel, where it is kept hot by a water bath, 
and all around to repose for some hours to deposit, when it is run into 
the congealing boxes and placed in a cool situation. The next morn- 
ing the cold gelatinous mass is turned out upon boards wetted with 
water, and are cut horizontally in thin cakes with a stretched j)iece of 
brass wire, and into smaller cakes with a moistened flat knife. These 
cakes are placed upon nettings to dry, after which they are dipped 
one by one in hot water and slightly rubbed with a brush wetted 
with boiluig water, to give them a gloss ; they are lastly stove dried 
for sale. During this time the undissolved sldns, &c., left in the cop- 
per is treated with water and the whole operation is repeated agaui 
and again, as any gelatinous matter is extracted. The first runnings 
produce the finest and best glue. The refuse matter from the tan- 
ners and leather dressers yields on the average, when dried, 50 per 
cent of its weight in glue. 

To Dye Leather Yei^low.— Picric acid gives a good yellow 
without any mordant ; it must be used in very dilute solution, and 
not warmer than 70° Fahr., so as not to penetrate the leathe 

Green Dye for Leather. — Aniline blue modifies picric acid to 
a fine green. In dyeing the leather, the temperature of 85° Fahr., 
must never be exceeded. See Aniline Dyes in Dyers' Dep't. 

Dyes for Ivory, Horn, and Bone.— U^ac^. — 1. Lay the articles 
for several hours in a strong solution of nitrate of silver, and expose 
to the light 2. Boil the article for some time in a strained decoction 
of logwood, and then steep in a solution of per-sulphate or acetate of 
iron. 3. Immerse frequently in ink until of sufficient depth of color. 
Blue.—l. Immerse for some dilute solution of sulphate of indigo, partly 
saturated with potash, and it will be fully stained. 2. Steep in a 
strong solution of sulphate of copper. Green. — 1. Dip blue-stained 
articles for a short time in a nitro-hydrochloratc of tin, and then in a 
hot decoction of fustic. 2. Boil in a solution of verdigris in vinegar 
until the desired color is obtained. Red. — 1. Dip the articl e first in a tin 
mordant used in dj^eiug, and then plunge in a hot decoction of Brazil 
Avood — \ lb. to a gallon of water or— cochineal. 2. Steep in red ink 
till sufficiently stained. Scarlet. — Use lack dye instead of the pre- 
ceding. Violet — Dip in the tin mordant, and then immerse in a decoc- 
tion of logwood. Yelloio. — Boil the articles in a solution of alum, 1 lb. 
to i a gallon, then immerse for half an hour in the following mixure : 
Take J lb. of turmeric, and J lb. pearlash ; boil in 1 gal. water : when 
taken Irom this, the bone must be again dipped in the alum solution. 

Mother of Pearl Work. — This delicate substance requires great 
care in its workmanship, but it may be cut with the aid of saws, files 
and drills, with the aid of muriatic or sulphuric acid, and it is polished 
by colcothar, or the brown red oxide of iron left after the distillation 



LEATHER AYORKERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 251 

of the acid from sulphate of iron. In all ornamental work, where 
pearl is said to be used, for flat surfaces, such as inlaying, mosaic 
work, &c. , it is not real pearl, but mother of pearl that is used. 

To Polish Pearl. — Take finely pulverized rotten stone and make 
into a thick paste by addhig olive oD. ; then add sulphuric acid a 
sufficient quantity to make into a thm paste, apply on a velvet cork ; 
rub quickly and, as soon as the pearl takes the polish, wash it. 

To PoLisn Ivory. — Remove any scratches or file marks tlxat may 
be present with finely pulverized pumice-stone, moistened with 
water. — Then wash the ivory and polish with prepared chalk, applied 
moist upon a piece of chamois leather, rubbing quickly. 

Etching Fluid for Ivory, — Take dilute sulphuric acid, dilute 
muriatic acid, equal parts : mix. For etching varnish take white wax, 
2 parts ; tears of mastic, 2 parts : mix. 

To gild Ivory. — Immerse it in a solution of nitro-muriate of gold, 
and then expose it to hydrogen gas whUe damp. Wash it afterwards 
in clean water. 

To Silver Ivory. — Pound a small piece of nitrate of silver in a 
mortar, add soft water to it, mix them well together, and keep in vial 
for use. When you wish to silver any article, immerse it in this 
solution, let it remam till it turns of a deep j^ellow ; then place it in 
clear water, and expose it to the rays of the sun. If you wish to 
depicture a figure, name, or cipher, on your ivory, dip a camel' s-hair 
pencil in the solution, and draw the subject on the ivory. After it has 
turned a deep yellow, wash it well with water, and place it in the 
punshine, occasionally wettmg it with pure water. In a short time it 
will turn of a deep black color, which, if well rubbed, will change to 
a brilliant silver. 

To Soften Ivory. — ^In 3 oz. spirits of nitre and 15 oz. of spring- 
water, mixed together, i)ut your ivory to soak ; and in three or four 
days it will obey your fingers. 

To Whiten Ivory. — Slake some lime in water ; put your ivory in 
the water, after being decanted from the grounds, and boil it till it 
looks quite white. To polish it afterwards, set it ui the turner's wheel ; 
and, after having worked, take rushes and pumice-stones, subtile 
powder, with water, rub it till it looks perfectly smooth. Next to 
that, heat it by turning it against a piece of linen or sheep-skm leather : 
and when hot, rub it over with a little dry whiting diluted in oil of 
olive ; then with a little dry whiting alone : finally with a piece of 
soft white rag. When all this is performed as directed, the ivory will 
look very white. 

Another way to Bleach Ivort.— Take 2 handfuls of lime, slake 
it by sprinkling it vdth water : then add 3 pts. of water, and stir the 
whole together ; let it settle ten minutes, and pour the water into a 
I)an for your purpose. Tlien take your ivory and steep it in the lime- 
water for 24 hours, after which, boil it in a strong alum- water 1 hour, 
and dry it in the air. 

Horn in Imitation of Tortoise-Shell. — First steam and then 
press the horn into proper shapes, and afterwards lay the following 
mixture on with a small brush, in imitation of the mottle of tortoise- 
shell ; Take equal parts of quick lime and litharge, and mix with 
strong soap-lees ; let this remain until it is thoroughly dry ; brush off, 
and repeat two or three times if necessary. Such parts as are required 



252 LEATHER workers', &c., receipts. 

to be of a reddish brown sliould be covered with a mixture of whiting 
and the stain. 

To CUT AND roiiisH Mabele. — The marble saw is a thin plate of 
soft iron, continually supplied, during its sawing motion, with water 
and the sharpest sand. The sawmg of moderate i^ieces is performed 
by hand : that of large slabs is most economically done by a proper 
mill. The first substance used in the polishing process is the sharpest 
sand, which must be worked Avithtill the surface becomes perfectly 
Hat. Then a second and even a third sand, of increasing fineness, is 
to be applied. The next substance is emery, of progressive degrees 
of fineness ; after which, tripoli is emi3loyed ; and the last polish is 
given AYith tin putty. The body with which the sand is rubbed upon 
the marble is usually a i)late of iron ; but, for the subsequent process, 
a plate of lead is used, with fine sand and emery. The polishing- 
rubbers are coarse linen cloths, or bagging, wedged tight into an iron 
planing tool. In every step of the operation, a constant trickling 
supply of water is required. 

PowERFUii Cement for Broken Marble. — Take gum arable, 1 
lb. ; malce into a thick mucilage: add to it powdered i^laster of l*aris, 
IJ lb. ; sifted quick lune, 5 oz. ; mix Avell ; heat the marble, and a^)- 
ply the mixture. 

Sev^en Colors For Staining ^Iarble.— It is necessary to heat 
the marble hot, but not so hot as to injure it, the x)roper heat being that 
at which the colors nearly boil. Blue ; alkaline indigo dye, or turn- 
sole with alkali. Red ; Dragon's blood in spirits of wine. Yellow ; 
gamboge in spirits of wine. Gold Color ; sal-ammoniac, sulphate of 
i:inc, and verdigris equal parts. Green ; sap green in spirits of pot- 
xish. Brown ; tincture of logwood. Crimson ; alkanet root in tur- 
pentine. Marble may be veined according to taste. To stain marble 
well is a difficult ojperation. 

Perpetual, Ink for Tomstont:s, etc.— Pitch, 11 lbs. ; lampblack, 
1 lb. ; turpentine sufficient ; mix with heat. 

To Clean Old Marble. — Take a bullock's gall, 1 gill soap lees, 
half a gill of turpentine ; make into a paste with pipeclay, apply it to 
the marble ; let it dry a day or two, and then rub it off, and it will 
appear equal to new ; if very dirty, repeat the application. 

To extract Oil from Marble or Stone.— Soft soap, 1 part ; 
fullers earth, 2 parts ; potash, 1 part ; boiling water to mix. Lay it 
on the spots of grease, and let it remain for a few hours. 

To Gild Letters on Marble. — Apply first a coatmg of size and 
then several successive coats of size thickened with fiiiely powdered 
whiting until a good face is produced. Let each coat become dry and 
rub it down with fine glass paper before applying the next. Then go 
over it thinly and evenly with gold size and apply the gold leaf, burn- 
ishing with an agate ; several coats of leaf will be required to give a 
good effect 

To Clean Marble. — ^Take two parts of common soda, 1 part pum- 
ice-stone, and 1 part of finely powdered chalk ; sift it through a 
fine sieve, and mix it with water ; then rub it well all over the mar- 
ble, and the stains wiU be removed ; then wash the marble over with 
soap and water, and it will be as clean as it was at first. 

To MAKE a Chemical Barometer. — ^Take a long narrow bottle, 
and put into it 2^ drs. of camphor j siiirits of wine 11 drs. When the 



CABINETMAKERS, PAINTEKS', &C., nECEIFIS. 253 

camplior is dissolved, add to it the following mixture : -water 9 drs. , 
saltpetre, 38 grs. ; sal-ammoniac, 38 grs. Dissolve these salts in the 
water prior to mixing with the camphorated spirit ; then shake all 
well together, cork the bottle well, wax the top, but afterwards make 
a very small aperture in the cork with a red-hot needle. By obser^-- 
ing the different appearances which the materials assume as the 
weather changes, it becomes an excellent prognosticator of a com- 
ing storm or of a suimy sky. 

Trappers' axd Axgi^ers' Secret for Gaime and Fish. — A few 
drops of oil of anise, or oil rhodium, on any trai3per's bait, will en- 
tice any wild animal into the snare trap. India cockle mixed with 
flour dough, and sprinkled on the surface of still water, will intox- 
icate fish, rendermg them insensible ; when coming up to the surface 
they can be lifted in a tub of fresh water to revive them, when they 
may be used without fear. Fish may also be caught in large numbers 
during the winter season by watching them through the ice and striking 
it witii a mallet directly over Avhere they happen to be. The shock 
stuns them, and they wiU rise, belly ujDwards towards the surface, 
when they are easily secured by breaking a hole in the ice. 



PAINTERS, CABINET5IAKEES, GILDERS, 
BRONZERS, GLASS STAINERS, &c. 

CoiMPOirNT) CoLOKs— 1)2 Tents — Blue.--^ Giind Prussian blue in 
turps, other blue, very fine in linseed oil ; mix with white paint to the 
color required. Straw.— A mixture of chrome yellow and white lead, 
oil and turps. Steel. — Mix ceruse, Prussian blue, fine lac, and 
vermilion, with oil and turps. Purple. — ^White lead, Prussian blue 
and vermilion, with oil and turps. French Gray. — ^^Vhite lead and 
Prussian blue tinged with vermihon, and for the last coat substitute 
carmiue or lake for vermihon. Drah. — White lead with a little 
Prussian blue and French yellow, Imseed oil and turps. Another 
Drah. — White lead with a Uttle Prussian blue and lampblack, linseed 
oil and turps. Dark Bed, for common purposes. — ^]\Iix English Venetian 
red, in boiled oil, with a httle red lead and litharge, to give a drying 
quality. Lighter Red. — Mix together equal parts of Venetian red and 
red lead in boiled oil and turjos. Imitation of Vermilion. — Grind togeth- 
er, in oil, red lead and rose pink. Deep Red. — Mix in oU, vermilion with 
a dust of Venetian red, or red lead. Unfading Orange — This is a mix- 
ture of orange lead (orpiment) and French or stone yeUow, oil and 
turps. Bright Yellow^ for floors. — White lead and linseed oil, mixed 
with some French yellow, and a little chrome yellow to heighten it, 
some red lead, burnt white vitriol and litharge, added to give it a dry- 
ing quahty. This color mixed with equal parts of bohed oil and 
turpentine, and used very thin. Dark Yellow. — Mix French yellow in 
boiled oil, adding to it a little red lead or litharge to give the paint a 
drying quality. Light Yellow. — This is a mixture of French yellow 
and white lesbd, with oil and turpenttue. Another. — French yellow, 



254 CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS', &C,, RECEIPTS. 

Tvliite lead and red lead. Another. — ^Tliis is a mixture of Prussian blue, 
French yellow, a small poition of Turkey umber, and a litttle burnt 
vitriol. Gromid the same way. Another, in oil. — Mix Prussian blue 
and chrome yellow. Groimd the same. Another Shade. — A mixture 
of Prussian blue and French yellow, with a small quantity of white 
lead and Turliey umber; add burnt vitriol, ground the same. An- 
other, light. — White mixed with verdigris. A variety of shades may 
be obtained by using blue and yellow with white lead. Another. 
Olive. — Black and blue mixed with yellow, in such quantities as to 
obtain the colors or shades required. For distemper, use indigo and 
yellow i)ink mixed with whiting or white lead powder. Freestone 
color. — A mixture of red lead, Venetian red, French yellow and lamp- 
black, (varying the shade according to taste,) with luiseed oil and 
turpentine. Olive Green. — Grind separately, Prussian blue and 
French yellow, in boiled oil, then mix to tlie tints required with a little 
burnt white vitriol to act as a dryer. A cheap and handsome color for 
outside work, such as doors, carts, wagons, railings, &c. Light 
Gray is made by mixing white lead with lampblack, using more or 
less of each material, as you wish to obtain a lighter or a darker shade. 
Buff is made from yellow ochre and white lead. Silver or Pearl 
Gray. — ^INIix wliite lead, Prussian blue, and a very slight portion of 
black, regulating the quantities you wish to obtain. Flaxen Gray is 
obtamed by a mixture of white lead and Prussian blue, with a small 
quantity of lake. Brick Color. — ^Yellow ochre and red lead, with a 
little white. Oak Wood Color. — J white lead and J part umber and 
yellow ochre, proportions of the last two ingredients being determined 
by tbe desired tints. Walnut-tree Color. — § white lead, and J red 
ochre, yellow ochre, and umber, mixed according to the shade sought. 
If veining is required, use different shades of the same mixture, and 
for the deepest places, black. Jonquil. — ^Yellow, pinlc, and white 
lead. This color is only proper for distemper. Lemon Yelloio. — 
Realgar and orpiment. Tbe same color can be obtained by mixmg 
yellow pink with Nai)les yellow ; but it is then only fit for distemper. 
Orange Color. — ^Red lead and yeUow ochre. Violet Color. — ^Vermilion, 
or red lead, mixed with black or blue, and a small portion of white. 
Vermilion is preferable to red lead in mixing this color. Purple. — 
Dark red mixed with violet color. Carnation. — Lake and white. 
Gold color. — Massicot, or Kaples yellow, with a small quantity of 
realgar, and a very little Spanish white. Olive Color may be obtained 
by black and a little blue, mixed vrith yellow. Yellow-pink, with a 
little verdigris and lampblack; also ochre and a small quantity of 
white will produce an oUve color. For distemper, indigo and yellow- 
pmk, mixed with white lead or Spanish white, must be used. If 
veined, it must be done with umber. Lead Color. — Prussian blue and 
white. Chestnut Color. — ^Red ochre and black, for a dark chestnut. 
To make it lighter, employ a mixture of yellow ochre. Light timber 
Color. — Spruce ochre, white, and a little umber. Flesh Color. — Lake, 
white lead, and a little vermilion. Light Willoio Gi^een. — ^White, 
mixed with verdigris. Grass Green. — ^Yellow-pink mixed with vir- 
digris. Stone Color. — ^White, with a little spruce ochre. Dark Lead 
Color. — Black and white, with a little Prussian blue. Faxon Color. — 
White lead, stone ocnre, with a little vermilion. Chocolate Color. — 
Lampblack and Spanish brown. On account of the fatness of lamp- 



CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 255 

R'lck, mix some litharge and red lead. Portland Stone Color.— 
Umber, yellow ochre, and white lead. Rose Color. — White lead and 
carmine or lake. Salmon Color. — White lead and hlue, yellow, and 
red. Pearl Color. — ^AVhite lead, Prussian blue, and red. Slate Color. 
— AVhite lead, black, red, and blue. Pea Green. — White lead and 
Chrome, or Paris green. Cream Color. — ^AVhite lead, yellow and red. 
Straw Color. — White lead and yellow. Peach Blossom Color. — ^^Vhite 
lead and vermilion. Brown. — ^Venetian red and lampblack. Dark 
Green. — Lampblack and chrome green. Olive Color. — Red, green, or 
black, yellow and red. Snuff Color. — ^YelloAV, sienna, and red. 

Feesco Painting. —Steep good glue over night in water to soften, 
then melt in a suitable pot or kettle, applying the heat cautiously, so 
as not to boil, as boiling will render it unfit for use. Then take as 
much Paris whitmg as you think you will use for your first coat, beat 
it up thick with water to a perfect pulp to get rid of lumps, &c. Now 
put in a pail as much of this whiting mixture as will be required for 
your work and proceed to mix in the colors required to produce the 
desired shade. The colors, previously ground in water, should be 
cautiously mixed with the hand, and the shade tested by drj^mg a 
little on a shingle or white j)aper; if too dark, add more whitmg, if 
too light, more color. Now add enough of your melted glue to bind 
or fix the color very hard so as not to rise or wash up with your 
second coat, and test this on paper or wood also, otherwise you may 
ruin your work. For Yelloio, chrome yellow of differeat tints may 
be used. Buf or Drab can be got by a mixture of yellow ochre, red, 
blue, or black, and sometimes umber is intermixed with good effect. 
Buff or drab colors may be produced by yellow ochre, chrome 
yellow, or raw siemia, intermixed with Turkey umber. For Green ^ 
mineral or Paris greens are first class. Any good chrome green will 
suit very well. For Blue^ use cobalt ultramarine blue, Prussian blue 
and verditer. For Grai/, use composition of white, blue, red, and 
black. For Bed, use vermilion, Indian red, Venetian red, lake, and 
carmine. For Pink or Bose tints, use a mixture of red with Avhite, 
if not wanted bright, use Indian red, if a strong rich color is desired, 
use carmine, lake, Venetian red, or vermilion. For Black, use blue 
black and the Frankfort, or pure ivory black. For Browns for 
shading, &c., use burnt sienna, burnt ochre, purple brown, colcother, 
burnt umber, Vandyke brown. For other tints, see Co:mpound 
CoLOES. French Size for Gilding Ornaments, Ceilings, &c. Mix 
thick glue to the proper consistence, with a little pure honey, this 
imparts a beautiful color to the gold, and gives a splendid effect to 
the work. Previous to using the distemper colors, give the waUs and 
ceilings, if new and clean, a good coat of paint, which should be 
mixed about § turpentine and J linseed oil, using as much Japan 
drj^er as will dry it hard ; be careful of adding too much oil, as it Vt-ilL 
spoil the subsequent work. 

In preparing vestibules, halls, &c. , to stand washing, go over the 
walls with oil paint for the firot coat, but for the last coat no oil 
should be used, only spirits of turpentine. A harder surface will bo 
given to the wall by addmg 1 tablespoonful of good pale copal 
varnish to each 25 lbs. of paint used for the last coat. Previous to 
the wall receiving the last two coats, let the design or panelling be all 
correctly laid out. 



256 CABIXET3IAKEKS, PAINTEKS', &C., KECEirTS. 

To prepare old walls or ceilings ; if there are any stains or cracks 
in the plaster, repair with size putty, if small, or use plaster of Paris 
and a little putty lime if the cracks are larsje, damping the places 
with a brush and water, then applying the plaster with a small 
trowel, afterwards smoothing off neatly. When all is dry and hard 
prepare the walls or ceilings with a coat of paint prepared as before 
directed, or with a preparation coat in size made of whiting with an 
extra quantity of melted glue containmg a small quantity of alum. 
Give the Avails a good coat of this, let it harden well, then apply 
another ; this ought to be sufficient if good flowing coats are ai)plied. 

Now mix the colors to the proper tints (in oil), lay in the panels 
first ; then the stiles, and when dry, x)ut on the flat or last coat (spirit 
color). AVhen the work is dry for panelling, use the following for 
mixing the fhiishing colors: Turpentine, a little mastic varnish, a 
little white wax, and a little pale damar. Yamish, use but little 
varnish, else too much gloss will be produced, the only use being to 
cause the color to set quickly to permit rapid work. 

The fresco painter will find continued use for a book of designs to 
illustrate the different orders of architecture, pillars, columns, scrolls, 
borders, &c. and should make a particular study in the line of sketch- 
ing anything and every thmg calculated to assist him in the business. 

House Painting. — Priminrf^ f^jpply ^s thick as the pamt will 
spread easily, rubbing out well witii the brush. Use litharge as a 
dryer. After sandpapering and dusting, putty up all the nail heads 
and cracks ^Yit\\ a putty-knife. Outsme second Coat. Mix your 
paint with raw oil, using it as thick as possible consistent with easy 
spreading. After it is api^lied, cross-smooth the work until it is level 
and even, then finish lengthwise with long light sweeps of the brush. 
Outside third Coat, Make a little thinner than the last, rub out well, 
cross-smooth and finish very lightly with the tip of the brush. 
Inside second Coat. MLx your pamt as thick as you can work it, 
usmg equal parts of raw oil and turpentme, rub this out well and 
carefully Avith the brush, cross-smooth and finish even and nice. 
Inside third Coat. IMLx Avith 3 parts turpentine and 1 part of 
raw oil, rub out Avell and smooth off with great care. Fourth Coat^ 
Flatting. Mix with turpentine alone thin enough to admit of spread- 
ing before it sets. Apply quickly AA^ithout cross-smoothing, and 
finish lengthwise Avith light touches of the tip of the brush, losing no 
time, as it sets rapidly. Drawn Flatting. Ground Avhite lead is 
mixed Avith turpentine almost as thin as the last-named mixture. 
The lead Avill soon settle and the oil and turpentine riso to the top, 
liour it off, and repeat the mixture imtil what rises to the top is clear 
turx)entine. The oil being all withdrawn by this process, the lead is 
mixed with turpentine, and applied thickly and evenly with great 
care. This is used as a fourth coat, and the room must be kept shut 
and free from draught, as the color sets as fast as it is put on. See 
PoKCELAiN Finish for Parlors. Plastered Walls. Give them a 
coat of glue size before painting in oil. Killing Smolcij Walls or 
Ceilings. Wash over the smoky or greasy Avails Avitli nitre, soda, or 
thin lime whitewash, the last is the best. 

UsEFUii Hints to Painters. — Painters^ Colic. To 2J gals, 
spruce or table beer add 1 dram of sulphuric acid, mix well aiid let it 
stand 3 hours. A tumbler full 2 or 3 times per day is said to be very 



CABINETMAKERS, TAINTERS', &C., RECEirXS. 257 

beneficial in cases of lead colic." Sweet oil and milk are also good, 
but acid, fruits, spirituous liquors, and vinegar should bo avoided in 
every illness caused by paint. Avoid inhaling the dust when handle- 
ing dry colors, or drinking water which has stood long in a painted 
room or paint shop. Kever eat or sleep without washing the hands 
and face, and rinsmg the mouth, cleaning well out imder the nails. 
Bathe the whole body every few days, avoid spattering your clothes, 
and either wear overalls or change your garments every week, well 
airing those you put off. Keep your paint shop clean , well ventilated, 
and avoid sleeping m it at any time. To Remove Paint from Cloth- 
ing. Saturate the spots with equal parts turpentine and spirits of 
ammonia until they become soft, then wash out with soapsuds. To 
dissolve Paint Skins, Cleanings of Pots, Brushes,^ &c. Save them 
caref uUy, and dissolve them by boiling them in oil. To Clean 
Brushes. Use turpentine first, then wash in warm soapsuds. To 
Clean Paint Pails, &c. Use strong ley, hot. Sanding. The per- 
forated sprinkler of a watering pot attached to the nozzle of a pair 
of bellows, is a first-rate contrivance for applying sand to painted 
work. Apply on the fourth or fifth coat, with another coat on the 
sand. To remove old putty, apply nitric or muriatic acid. 

Prussian Blue. — ^Take nitric acid, any quantity, and as much 
iron shavings from the lathe as the acid wiU dissolve ; heat the iron 
as hot as can be handled with the hand; then add it to the acid in 
small quantities as long as the acid wiU dissolve it; then slowly add 
double tlie quantity of soft water that there was of acid, and put 
in iron again as long as the acid will dissolve it. 2d. Take prus- 
siate of potash, dissolve it in the hot water to make a^strong solution, 
and make sufficient of it with the first to give the depth of tint de- 
sired, and the blue is made. Another Method.— X very passable 
Prussian blue is made by taking sulprate of iron (copperas) and 
prussiate of potash, equal parts of each ; and dissolving each separately 
in water, then mixing the two waters. 

Chrome Yellow.— 1st. Take sugar of lead and Paris white, of 
each 5 lbs.; dissolve them in hot water. 2d. Take bichromate of 
potasli, GJ oz.: and dissolve it in hot water also; each article to be 
dissolved separately; then mix all together, putting in the bichro- 
mate last. Let stand twenty-four hours. 

Chrome Green. — Take Paris white, GJ lbs.; sugar of lead, and 
blue vitriol, of each SJ lbs. ; alum, lOJ oz. ; best soft Prussian blue, and 
chrome yellow, of each 3^ lbs. Mix thoroughly while in fine powder, 
and add water, 1 gal., stirring well, and let stand three or four hours, 
Another Green, durable and cheap. — Take spruce yellow, and color it 
with a solution of chrome yellow and Prussian blue, imtil you give it 
the shade you wish. Another Method. — Blue vitriol, 5 lbs. ; sugar of 
lead, GJ lbs. ; arsenic, 2^ lbs. ; bichromate of potash, IJ oz. ; mix them 
thoroughly in fine powder, and add water 3 parts, mixing well again 
and let stand three or four hours. 

Pea Browx.— 1st. Take sulphate of copper any quantity, and 
dissolve it in hot water. 2d. Take prussiate of potash, dissolve it in 
hot water to make a strong solution; mix of the two solutions, as in 
the blue, and the color is made. 

Rose Pink. — Brazil wood 1 lb., and boil it for two hours, havin;^ 1 
gal. of water at the end ; then strain it, and boil alum, 1 lb., in the 

17 



258 CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS*, &C., RECEIPTS. 

water until dissolved; "wlien suiSciently cool to admit the hand, add 
muriate of tin, g oz. Now have Paris white, 12 J lb. ; moisten up to a 
salvy consistence, and when the first is cool, stir them thoroughly- 
together. Let stand twenty-four hours. 

Patent Yellow.— Common salt, 100 lbs., and litharge, 400 lbs., 
are ground togetlier with water, and for some time in a gentle heat, 
water being added to supply the loss by evai:)oration ; the carbonate 
of soda is then Avashed out with more water, and the Avhite residuum 
heated till it acquires a fine yellow color. 

Naples Yelloav. — No 1. Metallic antimony, 12 lbs. ; red lead, 8 
lbs. ; oxide of zinc, 4 lbs. Mix, calcine, triturate well together, and 
fuse in a crucible : the fused mass must be ground and elutriated to 
a, fine powder. 

Cheap Yellow Paint.— Whiting, 3 cwt. ; ochre, 2 cwt. ; ground 
^hite lead, 25 lbs. Factitious linseed oil to grind. 

Stone Color Paint.— Road-dust sifted, 2 cwt.; ground white 
lead, I cwt. ; whiting, 1 cwt. ; ground umber, 14 lbs. ; lime water, G 
gals. Factitious linseed oil to grind. 

Glazieb's Putty.— Whiting, 70 lbs.; boiled oil, 20 lbs. Mix; if 
too thui, add more whiting; if too thick, add more oil. 

To Imitate Brown FIieestone.- First make a pretty thick oil 
pahit of the same color as the stone to be imitated, which may be 
done in different ways, the basis is white lead or zinc white, colored 
with umber and mars red, or any other pigments which suit you ; put 
it on as usual, and while yet sticky throw common white sand against 
it ; this will not affect the color and will make a rough, sandy coat 
imitating the surface of the stone. 

German Carmine. — Cochineal, 1 lb. ; water, 7 gals. ; boil for 5 
minutes, then add alum, 1 oz. Boil for 5 minutes more, filter and set 
aside the decoction in glass or porcelain vessels for 3 days, then decant 
the liquor and dry the carmine in the shade. The remaining liquor 
will still deposit of an inferior quality, by standing. 

Stain for Floors. — ^To strong ley of wood-ashes add enough 
copperas for the required oak shade. Put this on with a mop and 
and varnish afterwards. 

Lead Color for Iron. — Take litharge and place it over a fire in a 
ladle ; sprinkle over it flour of brimstone to tuni it dark ; giind it in 
oil. It dries quick and stands well in any weather. 
• A Good Imitation of Gold. — Mix white lead, chrome yellow and 
burnt sienna until the proper shade is obtamed. 

Beautiful White Paint. — For inside work, which ceases to 
smell, and dries in a few hours. Add 1 lb. of frankincense to 2 qts. 
turpentine ; dissolve it over a clear fire, strain it, and bottle it for use; 
then add 1 pt. of this mixture to 4 pts. bleached linseed oil, shake 
them well together, grind white lead in spirits of turpentme, and 
strain it ; then add sufficient of the lead to make it proper for paint- 
ing ; if too thick in using, thin with turpentine, it being suitable for 
the best internal work on account of its superiority^ and expense. 

For a Pure White Paint. — Nut-oil is the best : if linseed oil is 
used, add one-third of turpentine. 

To Mix Common White Paint.— Mix or grind white lead in lin- 
seed oil to the consistency of paste ; add turpentine in the proportion 
of one quart to the gallon of oil ; but these projwrtions must be va- 



CABINETMAKEKS, PAINTERS*, &C., RECEIPTS. 259 

ried according to circumstances. Remember to strain your color for 
the better sorts of work. If the work is exposed to the sun, use more 
turpentine for the ground-color, to prevent its blistering. 

Invisible Green for Outside Work.— Mix lampblack and 
French yellow with burnt white vitriol. These colors mix in boiled 
oil. Burnt vitriol is the best drier for greens, as it is powerful and 
colorless, and, consequently, will not injure the color. 

Bright Varnish Green, iFOR Inside blinds. Fenders, &c.— The 
work must first be painted over with a light lead color, and, when 
dry, grind some white lead in spirits of turpentine ; afterwards take 
about J in bulk of verdigris, which has been ground stiff in linseed 
oil ; then mix them both together, and put into a little resin varnish,, 
sufficient only to bind the color. When this is hard, which will be the 
case in 15 minutes, pour into the color some resin to give it a good 
gloss. Then go over the work a second time and, if required, a third 
time. Thus you will have a cheap and beautiful green, with a high 
polish. It possesses a very drying quality, as the work may be com- 
pleted in a few hours. The tint may be varied according to taste, by 
substituting mineral green for verdigris ; and if a bright grass-green 
is required, add a little Dutch pmk to the mixture. N.B. — This color 
must be used when quite warm, to give the varnish a uniform ex- 
tension. 

Compound Greens. — ^This is a mixture of whiting, indigo and 
Dutch pink, the intensity of which may be increased or diminished by 
the addition of blue or yellow. These mixtures Avill not admit of any 
fixed rules in regard to the quantities of the matters used in their 
composition. They must depend on the taste of the artist and the 
tone he is desirous of giving to the color. 

Pea Green. — Take one pound of genuine mineral green, one jwimd 
of the i)recipitate of copper, one pound and a half of blue verditer, 
three pounds of white lead, three ounces of sugar of lead, and three 
ounces of burnt white vitriol. Mix the whole of these ingredients in 
linseed oil, and grind them quite fine. It will produce a bright mineral 
pea-green paint, preserve a blue tint and keep any length of time in 
any climate, without injury, by putting water over it. To use this 
color for house or shii^ painting, take one pound of the gi'een paint 
with some pale boiled oil, mix them well together, and this will pro- 
duce a strong pea-green paint. The tint may be altered at pleasure, 
by adding a proportionate quantity of white lead to the green, which 
may be ground in linseed oil, and thmned with spirits of turpentine 
for use. It may also be used for pamting Venetian window blinds, by 
adding white lead and mixing the color with boiled oil. For all the 
aforesaid preparations it will retain a blue tint, which is very desir- 
able. 

For Knotting. — One pint of vegetable naphtha, 1 tablespoonful of 
red lead, J pint of japanners' gold size, 7 ozs. of orange shellac, mix 
all together, set in a warm place to dissolve, and frequently shake. 
Anothe7\—MiK white lead, or red lead powder, in strong glue size, 
and apply it warm. 

White Lead. — The most usual method of manufacturing white 
lead is that known as the Dutch method. It consists in exposing lead, 
cast in thin gratings, to tlie combined action of acetic acid, moist air 
and carbonic acid gas. The gratings are supported a little above tho 



260 CABINETMAKEKS, FAINTERSV &C., EECEIPTS. 

bottcrm of earthen pots, similar to flowerpots, in each of which a small 
quantity of weak acetic acid is placed. The pots are built up in al- 
ternate layers with spent tanners' hark, until a stack is formed, each 
layer of pots being covered with a board. Fermentation soon takes 
place in the tan, and serv^es the double place of generating heat and 
supplying carbonic acid. After the lapse of six or eight weeks, the- 
metallic lead is found converted into white masses of carbonic mixed 
with hydrated oxide. It is then levigated, washed, dried, and ground 
with oil. 

To Cuke Damp Walls. — Boil 2 ozs. of grease with 2 quarts of 
tar, for nearly twenty minutes, in an iron vessel, and have ready 
pounded glass, 1 lb. ; slaked lime, 2 lbs. ; well dried in an iron pot 
and sifted through a flour sieve ; add some of the lime to the tar and 
glass, to make it the thickness of thin paste, sufficient to cover a 
square foot at a time, as it hardens so quick. ApjDly it about an 
eighth of an inch thick. 

To Protect Wood and Brick work from Damp Weather^ 
—Take 3 pecks of lime, slaked in the air, 2 peclts of wood-ashes^- 
and 1 peck of white sand. Sift them fine, and add linseed oil suffi- 
cient to use with a paint brush : thin the first coat ; use it as thick as 
it will work for the second coat, grind it fine, or beat it in a trough, 
and it is a good composition. 

, Putty for Repairing Broken Walls. — The best putty for walls 
is composed of equal parts of whitmg and plaster of Paris, as it quicl?:- 
ly hardens. The walls may be immediately colored upon it. Some 
painters use whiting with size ; but this is not good, as it rises above 
the surface of the walls, and shows the patches when tlie work is 
finished. Lime must not be used as putty to repair walls, as it will 
destroy almost every color it comes in contact with. 

Instructions for Sign AVriting, with the Colors to be 
USED FOR the Ground AND LETTERS. — Oil an oak ground, orna- 
mental letters, in ultramarine blue, filled in with gold and silver leaf, 
blocked up and shaded with burnt sienna. Another, — Gold letters 
on a white marble ground, blocked up and shaded with a transparent 
brown or burnt sienna. On glass. — Gold letters, shaded with burnt 
sienna. Another. — Gold letters, shaded with black, on a scarlet or 
chocolate ground. On a rich blue ground, gold letters, double shaded, 
black and white. White letters on a blue ground, shaded with black, 
look very well. On a purple ground, pink letters shaded with white. 
Mix ultramarine and vermilion for a ground color, white letters 
shaded Avith a light grey. Vermilion ground, chrome yellow, stained 
with vermilion and lake, for the letters, shaded black. A substitute 
for the above colors: Hose pink and red lead; and for the letters, 
stone yellow, white lead and Venetian red. A good substitute for 
gold is obtained by grinding white lead, chrome yellow, and a dust of 
vermilion together. Mix your colors for writing in boiled oil, and 
use for drier gold size. Other good grounds for gold letters are: 
blues, vermilion, lake, and Saxon. When your sign is ready for 
gilding, follow the directions given under the head of "To Gild 
Xetters on Wood." 

To Give Lustre to a Light Blue Ground. — After the letters 
are written and dry, paint the ground over again, between the letters, 
with the same color, and wliile wet take iiulverized Prussian bine .';ii'l 



CABIKET^IAKERS, PAINTERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 2G1 

Bift over the surface; glass, frost, or smalts may be used instead of or 
with the blue. When dry, brush off the loose particles. 

GuLDERs' GoiiD Size. — Drying or boiled linseed oil, thickened 
with 3'ellow ochre, or calcined red ochre, and carefully reduced to the 
utmost smoothness by gi-mdmg. Thin with oil of turpentine. 

To Gild Letters on Wood, &g.— When your sign is prepared as 
smooth as possible, go over it Avith a sizing made by white of an egg 
dissolved in about four times its weight of cold water; adding a small 
quantity of fuller's earth, this to prevent the gold sticking to any 
part but the letters. AVhen dry, set out the letters and commence 
Avriting, laying on the size as thiiily as possible, with a sable pencil. 
Let it stand until you can barely feel a slight stickiness, then go to 
work with your gold leaf, knife, and cushion, and gild the letters 
Take a leaf up on the pomt of your knife, after giving it a slight puff 
into the back part of your cushion, and spread it on the front part of 
the cushion as straight as possible, giving it another slight puff with 
your mouth to flatten it out. Now cut it into the proper size, cutting 
viith the heel of your knife forwards. Now rub the tip lightly on 
your hair; take up the gold on the point, and place it neatly on the 
letters ; when they are all covered get some very fine cotton wool, 
and gently rub the gold until it is smooth and bright. Then wash 
the sign Avith clean water to take off the egs size. See Gilding on 
Wood. 

To Use Smalts.— For a gold lettered sign, lay out on a lead color 
or white surface the line of letters, and roughly size the shape of 
each letter with/a< oil size. This must be allowed at least 12 hours 
to get tacky and ready for gilding. After the gold leaf is laid and 
perfectly .dry, mix up (for blue smalts) Prussian blue and keg lead 
with oil, adding a little dryer. Outline carefully around the letters, 
and fill up all the outside Avith blue paint; then with a small sieve 
sift on the smalts, allowing the sign to lay horizontally. Cover every 
part with plenty of smalts, and allow it to remain unmolested until 
the paint is dry. Then carefully shake off the surplus smalts, and 
the Avork is done. 

Superfine Size for Gilding. — Good drying oil, lib. ; pure gum 
animi, powdered, 4 ozs. ; bring the oil almost to the boiling point in a 
covered metal pot, add your gum gradually and cautiously to the oil, 
stirring all the time to dissoh'e completely. Boil to a tarry con- 
sistency and strain while warm through silk into a warm bottle with 
a wide mouth ; keep it well corked ; use as required, thinning with 
turpentine. This is the celebrated Birmingham " secret size," and is 
unequalled for tenacity and durability. Size to fix the Pearl on Glass 
Sic/ns. 1. Copal varnish 1 part, Canada balsam 2 parts. 2. Pure 
mastic varnish. 3. Pale, quick drying copal varnish. 

To Paint Banners, &c. , on Cloth or Silk. — Stretch the fabric 
upon a frame, and finish your design and lettering. Use a size made 
of bleached shellac dissolved in alcohol, tlihmed to the proper 
consistence, go over such parts as are to be gilded or painted, over- 
rmming the outlines slightly, to prevent the color from spreading. 
For inside work the white of an egg makes a good size ; lay the gold 
AA'hile the size is still wet, when dry, dust off the surplus gold, and 
proceed with the shading, painting, &c. A little honey, combined 
Avith thick gluo, is another good size. 



262 CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS*, &C., RECEIPTS. 

jArANNED Tin Signs.— Draw your letters on paper to suit your 
piece of tin, having first cleaned it with diluted alcohol and a piece of 
cotton. This will remove any grease or other matter that might hold 
the gold. Then take some whiting and rub it over the back of the 
paper upon Avhich your design is made and lay it upon the Japanned 
tin. Next place a weight upon the fonr comers of the paper, or 
otherwise fix it securely to the tm ; then, with a fine pointed piece of 
hard wood, trace the design carefully, bearing upon the paper with 
the point just hard enough to cause the whiting on the under side of 
the paper to adhere to the tin, and after going carefully over the 
whole, you will have transferred the entire design in fine white out- 
line to the tin you are to finish it upon. Now size with oil size, and 
when dry enough for gilding, lay on the gold leaf and dab it down 
thoroughly, afterwards brushing off the loose gold with your flat 
camel-hair brush or cotton. 

Changeable Signs. — Make a wooden sign in the usual manner, 
and have a projecting moulding around it. Now cut thm grooves 
into the moulding, an inch apart, allowing each cut to reach to the 
surface of the sign. In each of these grooves insert strips of tin one 
inch wide ; and long enough to reach quite across the sign board. 
When all are fitted, take out the tin strips, and placing them edge to 
edge on a level table, paint any desired words on their united 
surface ; when dry, reverse them and paint other words on the 
opposite side. Now finish your lettering as usual on the wooden 
sign board, and when dry, insert the painted tm strips in correct 
order in the grooves. This will present the curious novelty of three 
s\gns in one, as viewed from different positions. 

Tkanspaiient Cloth. — Dissolve together white rosm, pijlverized, 
8 ozs., bleached linseed oil G ozs., white beeswax IJ ozs., add the 
turpentine while hot. Apply to both sides of the "cloth while it 
is stretched tight. A good vehicle for mixing colors for painting on 
cloth or paper is gum shellac dissolved in alcohol. 

Tinselled Letter Glass Signs.— Paint the ground-work of your 
sign, on glass, any desired color, but be careful to leave the lettering 
or design naked, after it is dry, take any of the fancy colored copper 
or tin foils, crumple them in your hand and apply them over the 
black lettering, &c., after partially straightening them out. 

To Inceust Window Glass with Jewels. — Dissolve dextrine 
in a concentrated solution of sulphate of magnesia, sulphate of zinc, 
sulphate of copper or other metallic salts, strain the liquid and 
brush a thin coat of it over the glass and dry slowly at the ordinary 
temperature, keeping the glass level. For protection it may be 
varnished. The effect produced is that of an incrustation of dia- 
monds, sapphires, &c., according to the color of the salt used. 

To Paint in Imitation of Ground Glass. — Grind and mix 
white lead in three-fourths of boiled oU and one-fourth spirits of tur- 
pentme, and to give the mixture a very drying quality, add sufficient 
quantities of burnt white vitriol and sugar of lead. The color must 
be exceedingly thin, and put on the panes of glass with a large sized 
paint brush in as even a manner as possible. When a number of the 
panes are thus painted, take a dry duster quite new, dab the ends of 
the bristles on the glass in quick succession, till you give it a uniform 
appearance. Repeat this operation till the work appears very soft 



CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 263 

and it will then appear like ground glass. When the glass requires 
fresh painting, get the old coat off first by using strong pearl-ash 
water. Another Method. — Spirits of salts, 2 ozs. ; oil of vitriol, 2 ozs. ; 
sulphate of copper, 1 oz. ; gum arable, 1 oz. ; mix all well together, 
and dab on the glass with a brush. Another. — Dab your squares 
regularly over with putty; when dry, go over them again; the imita- 
tion will be complete. 

Painting on Glass. — Take clear rosin, 1 oz., melt in an iron ves- 
sel. When all is melted, let it cool a little, but not harden; then add 
oil of turpentine sufficient to keep it in a liquid state. When cold, 
use it with colors ground in oil. 

Hard Drying Paint.— Grind Venetian red, or any other color 
you wish, in boiled oil; then thin it with black japan. It will dry 
very hard for counter tops, &c. . 

Paste for Paper Hangings, Books, Paper Boxes, &c.— Good 
wheat flour, sifted, 4 lbs., make it into a stiff batter with cold water 
in a pail, beat it well to break the lumps, then add pulverized alum, 
2 ozs. Into this pour boiling water, hissing hot from the fire, stirring 
the batter thoroughly all the time. As it cooks it swells and loses its 
white color, and when cold, will make about f of a pail of thick paste. 
Thin with cold water to adapt it for easy use with the brush. For 
painted or varnished walls, add 4 oz., pulverized rosin to each 2 qts. 
paste, and reduce the mass with thin gum arable or glue water. A 
little pulverized corrosive sublimate will enhance the keeping qualities 
of paste, but alum used as above will do very well. 

To Remove Old Paint. — Sal soda, 2 lbs. ; lime, J lb. ; hot water, 
1 gal. ; rummage all together and apply to the old paint while warm. 
It will soon loosen the paint so that you can easily remove it. Ano- 
ther simj)ie method is to sponge over your old paint with benzine, set 
it on the fire, and you can then flake off the paint as quick as you like. 
Do not attempt to go over too much surface at a time, otherwise you 
might get more to do than you can attend to. 

Refuse Paint and Paint Skins.— Dissolve sal soda, J lb., in 
rain water, 1 gal. ; cover the refuse paint for 2 days, then heat it, 
adding oil to reduce it to a proper consistence for painting and strain- 
ing. 

Spirit Graining for Oak. — Two pounds of whiting, quarter of 
a pound of gold size, thinned down with spirits of turpentine ; then 
tinge your whiting with Vandyke brown and raw sienna, ground fine. 
Strike out your lights with a fitch dipped in turpentine, tinged with a 
little color to show the lights. If your lights do not appear clear, add 
a little more turpentine. Turpentine varnish is a good substitute for 
the above mentioned. This kind of graining must be brushed over 
with beer, with a clean brush, before varnishing. Strong beer must 
be used for glazing up top-graining and shading. 

Oil for Graining Oak. — Grind Vandyke brown in turpentine, 
add as much gold size as will set, and as much soft soap as will make 
it stand the comb. Should it set too quickly, add a little boiled oil. 
Put a teaspoonf ul of gold size to half a pint of turpentine, and as 
much soap as Avill lie on a twenty-five cent piece, then take a little 
soda mixed with water and take out the veins. 

To Prepare the Ground for Oak Rollers.— Stain your white 
lead with raw siemia and red lead, or with chrome yellow and Vene- 



264 CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 

tianrcd; tliin it with, oil and turps, and strain for use. When the 
ground worlc is dry, grind in beer, Vandyke brown, whiting and a 
little burnt sienna, for the graining color; or you may use raw sienna 
with a little whiting, umbers, &c. 

To lanTATE Old Oak.— To make an exceedmgly rich color for the 
imitation of old oak, the ground is a composition of stone ochre or 
orange chrome and burnt sienna; the graining color is burnt umber 
or Vandyke brown, to darken it a little. Observe that the above 
colors must be used whether the imitation is in oil or distemi)er. 
When dry, varnish. 

To Imitate Old Oak, in Oil. — Grind Vandj^ke and whiting in 
turpentine, add a bit of common soap to make it stand the comb, and 
thin it with boiled oil. 

To Imitate Pollakd Oak. — The ground color is prepared witli a 
mixture of chrome yellow, vermilion, and white lead, to a rich liglit 
buif . The graining colors are Vandyke brown and small portions of 
raw and burnt sienna and lake gromid in ale or beer. Fill a large 
tool with color, spread over the surface to be grained, and soften with 
the badger hair brush. Take a moistened sponge between the thumb 
and finger, and dapple round and romid in kind of Imobs, then soften 
very lightly; then draw a softener from one set of knobs to the other 
while wet, to form a multiplicity of grains, and finish the knots with 
a hair pencil, in some places in thicker clusters than others. AVlien 
dry put the top grain on in a variety of directions, and varnish with 
turps and gold size ; then glaze up with Vandyke and strong ale. To 
fijiish, varnish with copal. 

To Imitate Mottled Mahogany. — The ground is prepared with 
the best English Venetian red, red lead, and a small i)ortion of white 
lead. Tke graining colors are burnt sienna, ground in ale, with a 
small portion of Vandyke brown, sufficient to take away the fiery ap- 
l^earance of the sienna. Cover the surface to be grained, soften with 
the badger hair brush, and while wet take a mottling-roller and go 
over the lights a second time, in order to give a variety of shade, then 
blend the whole of the work with the badger softener. Put the top 
grain on with the same color. When dry, varnish. 

To Imitate Rosewood. — Mix vermilion and a small quantity of 
white lead for the ground. Take rose piuk, tinged with a little 
lampblack, or Vandyke brown, and grind very fine in oil, then take 
a flat graining brush, with the hairs cut away at unequal distances, 
and cut down the grain as if wending round a knot. When nearly 
dry, take a graming comb that is used for oak, and draw down the 
grain. This will'give it the appearance of nature. AVhen dry, 
vaniish. Another. — ^The ground color is prepared with vermilion 
and smaU quantities of white lead and crimson lake. When the 
ground is dry and made very smooth, take Vandyke brown, ground 
in oil, and with a small tool spread the color over the surface in dif- 
ferent directions forming kiud of knots. Before the work is dry, take 
a piece of leather, and with great freedom strike out the light veins; 
having previously prepared the darkest tint of Vandyke brown, or 
gum asphaltum, immediately take the flat graining brush with few 
hairs in it, draw the grain over the work and soften. When varnished, 
the imitation will be excellent. 

Another Rosewood Imitation in Size.— Mis Venetian red, 



CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 265 

white lead powder, Yermilion and common size, the consistency of 
which, when cold, must be tliat of a weak trembling jelly. With 
this composition paint the work twice over. When the ground is dry, 
take some lampblack, finely ground in beer, and beat the white of an 
egg into it ; take the flat graining brush, dipped in the black, and put 
on the grain. W^hen drj% stain the first coat of varnish with rose 
pink, finely gromid in tui^entine, and finish the work by giving it a 
coat of clear varnish 

To Imitate Bird's-eye Maple. — The ground is a light buff, pre- 
pared with white lead, chrome yellow, and a little vermilion or Eng- 
lish Venetian red, to take off the rawness of the yellow. The grain- 
ing color is equal parts of raw umber and sienna ground in oil to the 
proper consistency. Spread the surface of the work with this color, 
and, having some of the same prepared a little thicker, immediately 
take a sash tool or sponge, and imt on the dark shades, and soften 
T\dth the badger' s-hair brusli before the color is dry i)ut on the eyes 
by dabbing the dotting machine on the work. When dry, put on the 
grain with the camel' s-hair pencil on the prominent parts, to imitate 
the small hearts of the Avood. When dry, varnish. 

To Imitate Curled Maple. — Prepare a light yellow for the 
g^round, by mixing chrome yellow and white lead, tinged with Vene- 
tian red. The graming color is a mixture of equal portions of raw 
sienna and Vandyke, ground in ale ; spread the surface to be grained 
in an even manner ; then with a piece of cork rub across the work to 
and fro, to form the grains which run across the wood. ^Yhen dry, 
varnish. 

Cctrled Maple in Oil for Outside Work.— Prepare a rich 
ground by mixing chrome yeUow, white lead and burnt sienna. For 
the graining color, grind equal parts of raw sienna and umber with a 
little burnt copperas in turpentine, and mix witli a small quantity of 
grainer's cream. Thin the color with boiled oil; then fill a tool and 
spread the surface even, and rub out the lights with the sharp edge 
of a piece of buff leather, which must now and then be wiped to keei) 
it clean; soften the edges of the work very lightly, and when dry, 
put on the top grain with burnt umber and raw sienna, ground in ale, 
with the white of an egg beat into it. When dry, varnish. 

Satinwood. — This ground is prepared with white lead, stone ochre, 
and small quantities of chrome yeUow and burnt sienna. The grain- 
ing color is one-third of raw sieima and whitiug, ground in pale ale, 
very thhi ; then spread the color over the surface to be grained. 
While wet, soften, and have ready a wet roller or mottling brush, in 
order to take out the lights; blend the whole with the badger' s-hair 
brush. When the work is dry, take the flat brush, and with the same 
color, put on the top again. When dry, varnish. 

To tvnTATE Yew T^iee. — The ground is a reddish buff. For the 
graining color grind in ale equal portions of Vandyke brown and 
burnt siemia, with a small quantity of raw sienna. W^hen the gromid 
is dry, spread the surface even with the color, and soften ; then with 
a i^iece of cork with a sharp edge, rub the work cross and cross in 
order to form the fine grain. When dry, dip the tip of your fingers 
in the grainmg color to form the eyes or knots, and put in the small 
touches with a camel' s-hair pencil. When dry, put on the top grain, 
and when this is dry, varnish. 



266 CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS', «fcC., RECEIPTS. 

To IiRHTATE Black akd Gold Mahble.— This description of 
marble is now in great demand. The gronnd is a deep jet black, or a 
dead color, in gold size, drop black and tnrps : second coat, blaclc 
japan. Commence veining ; mix white and yellow ochre with a small 
quantity of vermilion to give a gold tinge ; dip the pencil in this color, 
and dab on the ground with great freedom some large patches, from 
which small threads must be drawn in various directions. In the 
deepest parts of the black, a white vein is sometimes seen running 
witli a great number of small veins attached to it; but care must be 
taken that these threads are connected with, and run in some degree 
in the same direction with the thicker veins. If durability is not an 
object and the work is required in a short time, it may be executed 
very quick in distemper colors, and when varnished, it will look 
well. 

Red Marble. — ^For the ground, put on a white tinged with lake or 
vermilion; then apply deep rich reds in patches, filling up the inter- 
mediate spaces with bro\vn and white mixed in oil; then blend them 
together; if in quick drying colors, use about half turps and gold 
size. AVlien dry, varnish; and while the varnish is wet, put in a 
multitude of the fine white threads, crossing the whole work in all 
directions, as the wet varnish brings the pencil to a fine point. 

Jasper Marble. — ^Put on a white ground lightly tinged with blue ; 
then put on patches of rich reds or rose pmk, leaving spaces of the 
white grounds ; then partly cover those spaces with various browns 
to form fossils, in places running veins ; then put in a few spots of 
white in the centre of some of the red patches, and leaving in places 
masses nearly all white. AVhen dry, use the clearest varnish. 

Blue and Gold Marble. — For the ground put on a light blue; 
then lake blue, with a small piece of white lead and some dark com- 
mon blue, and dab on the ground on patches, leaving portions of tho 
ground to shine between ; then blend the edges together with duster 
or softener; afterwards draw on some white veins in every direction, 
leaving large open spaces to be filled up with a pale yellow or gold- 
paint; finish with some fine white running threads, and a coat of 
varnish at last. 

To Imitate Granite. — ^For the ground color, stain your white 
lead to a light lead color, with lampblack and a little rose pink. 
Throw on black spots, with agraniting macliine, a pale red, and fill up 
with white before the ground is dry. 

Another. — A black ground, when half dry, throw in vermilion, a 
deep yeUow and white spots. 

To Imitate Hair WooD.—For the ground color, take white lead 
and thin it with turpentine, and slightly stain it with equal quantities 
of Prussian blue and lampblack. For the graining color, grind in ale 
a mixture of Prussian blue and raw sienna; when the ground is dry, 
spread a transparent coat of the graining color on the surface of the 
work, and soften ; then with the cork, mottle by rubbing it to and 
fro across the work, to form the fine long grain or mottle. Wlien 
this is done, soften and top grain in wavy but perpendicular direc- 
tions ; varnish when dry. 

Substitute for AVhite Lead. — Sulphate of barytes ground in oil 
and applied like paint. It can also be used to reduce white lead to 
any desired extent 



CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS', i&C, RECEIPTS, 267 

Paint for Black Boards ik Schools.— Common glue, 4 oz. ; 
flour of emery, 3oz. ; and just lampblack enough to give an inky 
color to the preparation. Dissolve the glue in 5 qt. of warm water, 
put in the lampblack and emery, stir till there are no lamps, then 
apply to the board with a woollen rag smoothly rolled. Three coats 
are amply sufficient. 

Co]MPOUNi> Iron Paint. — ^Finely pulverized iron filing?;, 1 part; 
brick dust, 1 part; and ashes, 1 part. Pour over them .i;iue-water or 
size, set the whole near the fire, and, when warm, stir tbom well 
together. With this paint cover all the wood work which may be in 
danger; when dry, give a second coat, and the wood will be rendered 
incombustible. 

Filling Coisipositions — 12 kinds.— 1. Work finished in oil should 
receive a substantial filling consisting of equal parts by weight of 
whiting, plaster of Paris, pumice-stone, and litharge, to which may 
be added a littlo French yellow, asphaltum, Vandyke brown, and 
tenxi di sienna. Mix with 1 part japan, 2 of boiled oil, and 4 of tur- 
penthie. Grind fine in a mill. Lay the filling on with a brush, rub 
it in well, let it set 20 minutes, then rub off clean. Let it harden for 
some time, rub smooth, and if required, repeat the process. ^Vheii 
the filling is all right, finish with linseed oil, applying with a brush, 
wipe off, and rub to a polish with fine cotton, and finish with any fine 
fabric. Some fill with rye flour, wheat flour, corn starch, Paris 
white, &c., ground fine in oil and turpentine, but when work is to be 
varnished, such filling should previously receive one or two good 
coats of sheUac. 2. Boiled linseed oil, 1 qt. ; turpentine : 3 qts. ; corn 
starch, 5 lbs. ; japan, 1 qt. ; calcined magnesia, 2 oz. Mix thoroughly. 
3. Whiting, G ozs. ; Jai^an, J pt. ; boiled linseed oil, J pt. ; turpen- 
tine, \ pt. ; com starch, 1 oz. : mix well together and apply to the 
wood. On walnut wood add a little burnt umber; on cherry a little 
Venetian red, to the above mixture. 4. On furniture apply a coat of 
boiled linseed oil, then immediately sprinkle dry wliiting upon it, and 
run it in well with your hand or a stiff brush, all over the surface; 
the wliiting absorbs the oil, and fills the pores of the wood completely. 
For black walnut, add a little burned umber to the whiting; for 
cherry, a little Venetian red, &c., according to the color of the wood. 
Turned work can have it applied while in motion in the lathe. Furni- 
ture can afterwards be finished with only one coat of varnish. 5. Ter- 
ra alba is a very good and very cheap filling. INIany painters have 
been most shamefully imposed on by parties selling the stuff at a high 
price. 6. Furniture Pastes. — Beeswax, spts. turpentine and linseed 
oil, equal parts ; melt and cool. 7. Beeswax, 4 ozs. ; turpentine, 10 
ozs.; alkanetroot to color; melt and straiu. 8. Beeswax, 1 lb.;lin« 
seed oil, 5 ozs. ; alkanet root, J oz., melt and add 6 ozs. turpentine, 
strain and cool. 9. Beeswax, 4 ozs. ; rosin, 1 oz. ; oil of turpentine, 

2 ozs. ; digest until sufficiently colored, then add beeswax tiU dissolved, 
then add beeswax scraped small, 4 ozs. ; put the vessel mto hot water, 
and stir till dissolved. If wanted pale the alkanet root should be 
omitted. 10. (White. ) White wax, 1 lb. ; liquor of potassa, J gal. ; 
boil to a proper consistency. 11. Beeswax, 1 lb. ; soap, J lb. ; pearlash, 

3 ozs., dissolved in water, \ gal. ; strain and boil as the last 12. Yel- 
low wax, 18 parts; rosin, 1 part; alkanet root, 1 part; turpentine, 6 
parts; linseed oil 6 parts. First steep the alkanet in oil with heat, 



268 CABINETMAKERS, TAIXTERS', AC, RECEIPTS. 

and, -wlien well colored, pour off the clear on the other ingredients, 
and again heat till all are dissolved. 13. Fttrniture Cream. — Bees- 
wax, 1 lb. ; soap, 4 ozs.; pearlash, 2 ozs. ; soft water, 1 gal., boil to- 
gether until mixed. 

To Repair the Silvering of Mirrors.— Pour upon a sheet of 
tin foil 3 drs. of quicksilver to the square foot of foil. Rub smartly 
with a piece of buckskin until the foil becomes brilliant. Lay the 
glass upon a flat table, face downwards, place the foil upon the 
damaged portion of the glass, lay a sheet of paper over the foil, and 
place upon it a block of wood or a piece of marble with a perfectly 
flat surface; put ui)on it sufficient weight to press it down tight; let it 
remain in this position a few hours. The foil will adhere to the 
glass. 

Pencils for Writing on Glass.— Stearic acid, 4 pts. ; mutton- 
suet, 3 pts. ; wax 2 pts ; melt together and add 6 parts of red lead, and 
1 pt. purified carbonate of potassa, previously triturated together; set 
aside for an hour in a warm situation, stirring frequently; then pour 
into glass tubes or hollow reedg. 

Polishes— 15 kinds.— 1. Centers' PolisJi.— White resin," 2 oz. ; 
seedlac, 2 oz. ; spirits of wine, 1 pt. Dissolve. It should be laid on 
warm. Avoid moisture and dampness when used. 2. French Polish. 
— Gum shellac, 1 oz. ; gum arable, J oz. ; gum copal, ^ oz. Powder, 
and sift through a piece of muslin; put them in a closely corked bot- 
tle with 1 pt. spirits of wine, in a verj^ warm situation, shaking every 
day till the gums are dissolved ; then strain througli muslin, and cork 
for use. 3. Polish for Dark-colored Woods. — Seedlac, 1 oz. ; gum 
guaiacum, 2 drs. ; dragon's blood, 2 drs. ; gum mastic, 2 drs. ; put in 
a bottle Avitli 1 pt. spirits of wine, cork close, expose to a moderate 
heat till the gums are dissolved ; strain into a bottle for use, with J 
gill of linseed oil; shake together, r 4. Waterproof Polish.— Gum 
benjamin, 2 ozs. ; gum sandarac, J oz. ; gum anima, J oz. ; spirits of 
wine, 1 pt. ; mix in a closely stopped bottle, and place either in a sand 
bath or in hot water till the gums are dissolved, then strain off the 
mixture, shake it up with J gill of the best clear poppy oil, and put it 
by for use. 5. Finishing Polish. — Gum shellac, 2 drs. ; gum benja- 
min, 2 drs. ; put into J pt. best rectified spirits of wine in a bottle 
closely corked; keep in warm place, shaking frequently till the gums 
are dissolved. "When cold, shake up with it two teaspoonf uls of the best 
clear poppy oil. G. Polish for Removing Stains, Spots, and Mildeio 
from Furniture. — Take of 98 per cent, alcohol, J pint; i)ulverized 
resin and gum shellac, of eac£, J^oz. Let these cut in the alcohol; 
then add linseed oil, f pt. ; shake well, and apply with a sponge, 
brush, or cotton flannel, or an old newspaper, rubbing it Avell after 
the application, which gives a nice polish. 7. Polish for Reviving 
Old Furniture. — Take alcohol, IJ oz. ; spirits of salts (muriatic acid), 
I oz. ; linseed oil, 8 oz, ; best vinegar, J pt. ; and butter of antimony, 
IJ oz. ; mix, putting in the vinegar last. 8. Jet or Polish for Wood 
or Leather, Black, Bed, or Blue- — ^Alcohol (98 per cent.), 1 pt. ; sealing 
wax, the color desired, 3 sticks ; dissolve by heat, and have it warm 
when applied. A sponge is the best to applj^ it with. 9. Polish for 
Turners' TFbrA:.— Dissolve sandarac, 1 oz., m spirit of wine, J pt; 
next shave beeswax, 1 oz. ; and dissolve it in a sufficient quantity of 
Bpirits of tui"pentine to make it into a paste, add the former mixture 



OAIilKETMAKERS, TAIKTEHS'. &C., RECEIPTS. 269 

by degrees to it, then with a woolen cloth apply it to the work while it 
is in motion in the lathe, and with a soft linen rag polish it. It wil 
appear as if highly varnished. 10. Furniture Polish. — Beeswax, J 
lb., and J of an oz. of alkanet root; melt together in a pipkin until 
the former is well colored. Then add linseed oil and spirits of tur- 
l^entine, of each half a gill ; strain through a piece of coarse muslin. 
11. French Polishes.— 1. Shellac, 3 lbs. ; wood naphtha, 3 pts. ; dis- 
solve. 2. Shellac, 2 lbs. ; powdered mastic and sandarac, of each 1 
oz. ; copal varnish, J pint; spirits of wine, 1 gal. Digest in the cold 
till dissolved. 12. Black Walnut Polish. — Take pnlverized asphal- 
tum ; put it in a jar or bottle, pour over it about twice its bulk of tur- 
pentine or benzole, put in a warmijlace, and shake oocasionally; 
Avhen dissolved, strain, and apply it to the wood with a cloth or stiff 
brush ; should it i:)rove too dark, dilute with turpentine or benzole. 
If desired to bring out the grain still more, apply a mixture of boiled 
oil and turpentine ; this is better than oil alone When the oil is dry, 
the wood can be polished with the following: shellac varnish, 2 parts, 
boiled oil, 1 part ; shake it well before using Apply with a cloth, rub- 
bing briskly. 13. To Polish Wood. — Take a piece of pumice-stone and 
water, and pass repeatedly over the work until the rising of the grain 
is cut down. Then take powdered tripoli and boiled linseed oil, and 
polish the work to a brig' t surface 14. Clock Case and Picture 
Frame Finish. — Copal vamibii, 2 lbs. ; linseed oil varnish, J oz. ; mix 
well, shake often, and place in a warm spot The wood to be var- 
nished is prepared with a thin coat of glue-water, and rubbed down 
with fine pumice-stone or something equivalent In light-colored 
wood, a light pigment, such as chalk, is added to the glue-water; 
in dark wood, a dark pigment is added When ready, the articles are 
varnished with the above mixture, and, after drying, rubbed with a 
solution of wax in ether, thereby receiving a high polish 15 Wliite 
Polish for Wliite Woods. — ^AVliite bleached shellac, 3 ozs. ; white 
gum benzoin, 1 oz. ; gum sandarac, J oz. ; spirits of wine or naphtha, 
Ipt. Dissolve. 

OHi Finishes. — 1. Linseed oil, IG ozs. ; black resin, 4 ozs. ; vinegar, 
4ozs. ; rectified spirits, 3 ozs.; butter of antimony, 10 ozs.; spirit of 
salts, 2 ozs. ; melt the resin, add the oil, take it off the fire, and stir in 
the vinegar; let it boil for a few minutes, stirring it; when cool, put 
it into a bottle, add the other ingredients, shaking all together. 2. 
Linseed oil, 1 pt. ; oil of turpentine, J pt. ; rectified spirits, 4 ozs. ; pow- 
dered resin, l| oz. ; rose pink, J oz. ; mix. 3. Acetic acid, 2 drs. ; oil 
of lavender, J "dr. ; rectified spirits, 1 dr. ; linseed oil, 4 ozs. 4. Linseed 
oil, 1 pt. ; allianet root, 2 ozs. ; heat, strain, and add lac varnish, 1 oz. 
.5. Linseed oil, 1 pt. ; rectified spirits, 2 ozs. ; butter of antimony, 4 ozs. 
6. Linseed oil, 1 gal. ; alkanet root, 3 ozs. ; rose puik, 1 oz. Boil them 
together ten minutes, and strain so that the oil be quite clear. 

Fakcy Figures o^ Wood. — Slake some lime in stale urine. ; Dip 
a brush in it, and form on the wood figures to suit your fancy. When 
dry, rub it well with a rind of pork. 

Stains for Wood. — 1. Cheap Black Walnut Stain. — Burnt um- 
ber, 2 parts; rose pink, 1 part; glue, 1 part; water sufficient; heat all 
together and dissolve completely, apply to the work first with a 
sponge, then go over it with a brush, and varnish over with shellac. 
2. Ebony Stain.— Dio]} black, 2 parts; rose pink, Ipart; turpentine, a 



270 CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS*, &C., RECEIPTS. 

suflEicient quantity. 3. Bright Yellow Stain. — 1. Brush over with the 
tincture of turmeric. 4. Warm the work, and brush it over with weak 
aquafortis; varnish or oil as usual. 5. A very small hit of aloes put 
into the varnish will give a rich yellow color to the wood. G. Extra 
Black Stain for Wood. — ^Pour 2 quarts boiluig water over 1 oz. of 
powdered extract of logwood, and, when the solution is affected, 1 dr. 
of yellow chromate of potash is added, and the whole well stirred. 
It is then ready for use as a wood-stain, or for writing ink. When 
rubbed on wood, it produces a pure black. Repeat with 2, 3, or 4 
applications, till a deep black is produced. 7. Imitation of Mahogany, 
Let the first coat of painting be white lead, the second orange, and 
the last burnt umber or sienna ; imitating the veins according to your 
taste and practice. 8. To Imitate Wainscot. — Let the first coat be 
white ; the second, haK white and yellow ochre ; and the third, yellow 
ochre only; shadow with umber or sienna. 9. To Imitate Satin 
Wood. — ^Take white for your first coating, light blue for the second, 
and dark blue or dark green for the third. 10. Rosewood Stain, very 
bright shade— Used Cold. — ^Take alcohol, 1 gal.; camwood, 2 oz. ; 
set them in a warm place 24 hours ; then add extract of logwood, 3 
oz. ; aquafortis, 1 oz. ; and when dissolved, it is ready for use ; it 
makes a very bright ground hke the most beautiful rosewood; 
1, 2, or more coats as you desire. 11. Chei^y Stain. — ^Rain water, 3 
qts. ; annatto, 4 oz. ; boil in a copper kettle till the annatto is dis- 
solved, then put in a piece of potash the size of a walnut; keep it on 
the fire about half an hour longer, and it is ready to bottle for use. 
12. Rosewood Stain, very bright shade. — ^Equal parts of logwood and 
redwood chips, boil well in water sufficient to make a strong stain ; 
apply it to the furniture while hot; 2 or 3 coats according to the depth 
of color desired. 13. Rose Fink Stain and Varnish. — Put 1 oz. of 
potash in 1 qt. water, with red sanders, IJ ozs. ; extract the color from 
the wood and strain : then add gum shellac, Jib., dissolve it by a 
brisk fire. Used upon logwood stain for rosewood imitation. 14. 
Blue Stain for Wood. 1. Dissolve copper fiUngs in aquafortis, brush 
the wood with it, and then go over the work with a hot solution of 
pearlash (2 oz. to 1 pt. of water) till it assumes a perfectly blue color. 
15. Boil 2 ozs. of indigo, 2 lbs. wood, and 1 oz. alum, in 1 gal. water, 
brush well over until thoroughly stained. 16. Imitation of Botany- 
Bay Wood. — Boil J lb. French berries (the unripe berries of the 
Rhamnus infectorius) in 2 qts. water till of a deep yellow, and while 
boiling hot, give 2 or 3 coats to the work. If a deeper color is desired, 
give a coat of logwood decoction over the yellow. When nearly dry, 
form the grain with No. 8, black stain, used hot, and, when dry, rust 
and varnish. 17. Mahogany Color — Dark. — 1. Boil ^ lb. of madder 
and 2 ozs. logwood chips in a gallon of water, and brush well over 
while hot; when dry go over the whole with pearlash solution, 2 
drs. to the quart. 2. Put 2 ozs. dragon's blood, bruised, into a quart 
of oil of turpentine ; let the bottle stand in a warm place, shake fre- 
quently, and, when dissolved, steep the work in the mixture. 18* 
Box-wood Brown Stain. — ^Hold your work to the fire, that it may re- 
ceive a gentle warmth ; then take aquafortis, and, with a feather, 
pass it over the work till you find it change to a fine brown (always 
keeping it near the fire), you may then varnish or polish it. 19. 
Light Red Brown. Boil h lb. madder and J lb. fustio in 1 gal. water; 



CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 271 

brush over the work, when boiling hot, until properly stained. 20. 
The surface of the work being quite smooth, brush over with a weak 
solution of aquafortis, ^ oz. to the pint ; then finish with the follow- 
ing :— Put 4J ozs. dragon's blood and 1 oz. soda, both well bruised, to 

3 pts spirits of wine, let it stand in a warm place, shake frequently, 
strain and lay on with a soft brush, repeating until of a proper color; 
polish with linseed oil or varnish. 21. Purple, — Brush the work 
several times with the logwood decoction used for No. 6 Black ; and, 
when dry, give a coat of pearlash solution, 1 dr. to a quart; lay it on 
evenly., 22. Red. — 1. Boil 1 lb. Brazil wood and 1 oz. pearlash in a 
gal. of water ; and, while hot, brush over the work nntil of a proper 
color. Dissolve 2 ozs. alum in 1 qt. water, and brush the solution 
over the work before it dries. 23. Take a gallon of the above stain, 
add 2 ozs. more pearlash ; use hot, and brush over with the alum 
solution. 24. Use a cold solution of archil, and brush over with the 
pearlash solution for No. 1, Dark maliogany. 25. ikahogany Stain on 
Wood. — ^Take nitric acid, dilute with 10 i)arts of water, and wash the 
wood with it. To produce rosewood finish, glaze the same with car- 
mine of Munich lake. Asphaltum, thinned with turpentine, forms an 
excellent mahogany color on new work. 26. Mahogany Stain on 
Maple. — ^Dragon's blood, J oz. ; alkanet, J oz. ; aloes, 1 dr. ; spirits of 
wine, 16 ozs. ; apply it with a sponge or brush. 27. Crimson Stain 
for Musical Instruments. — Ground Brazil wood, 1 lb. ; water, 3 qts. ; 
cochineal, ^ ounce ; boil the Brazil with the water fbr an hour, strain, 
add the cochineal; boil gently for half an hour, when it will be fit for 
use. If you wish a scarlet tint, boil an ounce of saffron in a quart of 
water, and pass over the work before you stain it. 28. Pmple Stain. 
— Chipped logwood, 1 lb. ; water, 3 qts. ; i:)earlash, 4 omices ; powdered 
indigo, 2 oimces. Boil the logwood in the water half an hour, add 
the pearlash and indigo, and when dissolved, you wiU have a beauti- 
ful purple. 29. Green Stain. — Strong vinegar, 3 pts. ; best verdigris, 

4 ounces, ground fine ; sap green, J ounce ; mix together. 

Black Stains for Wood. — 1 Drop a little sulphuric acid into a 
small quantity of water ; brush over the wood and hold it to the fire ; 
it will be a fine black and receive a good polish. 2. For a beautiful 
black, on wood, nothing can exceed tlie hlack Japan mentioned under 
Tinsmiths' Department. Apply two coats ; after which, varnish and 
polish it. 3. To 1 gal vinegar, add a quarter of a pound of iron rust ; 
let it stand for a week ; then add a pound of dry lampblack, and 
three-quarters of a pound copperas ; stir it up for a couple of days. 
Lay on five or six coats with a sponge, allowing it to dry between 
each ; polish with linseed-oil and a soft woollen rag, and it will look 
like ebony. Incomparable for iron work, ships' guns, shot, &c- 4. 
Vinegar, |gal ; dry lampblack, Jib. ; iron-rust sifted, 3 lbs.: mix and 
let stand for a week. Lay three coats of this on hot, and then rub 
with linseed oil, and you will have a fine deep black. 6. Add to the 
above stain, nut-galls, 1 oz. ; logwood-chips, J lb. ; copperas, J lb. ; 
lay on three coats ; oil well, and you wijl have a black stain that wiU 
stand any kind of weather, and is well adapted for ships* combings, 
&c. 6. Logwood-chips, i lb. ; Brazil-wood, J lb. ; boil for IJ hours in 
1 gal. water. Brush the wood with this decoction while hot ; make a 
decoction of nut-galls, by gentle simmering, for three or four days, a 
quarter of a pound of the galls in 3 qts. water ; give the wood three 



272 CABINETMAKERS, PAINTEKS', &C,, RECEIPTS. 

coats, and, while wet, lay on a solution of sulphate of iron (2 ozs. to a 
quart), and, when dry, oil or varnish. 7. Give three coats with a 
solution of copper filings in aquafortis, and repeatedly brush over 
with the logAVOod decoction until the greenness of the copper is 
destroyed. 8. Boil J lb. logwood-chips in 2 quarts water ; add an 
ounce of pearlash, and apply hot with a brush. Then take 2 qts. of 
the logwood decoction, and h oz. of verdigris, and the same of cop- 
peras ; strain, and throw in { lb. of iron rust. Brush the work well 
with this, and oil. 

Black Walnut Stain. — Spirits of turpentine, 1 gal. ; pulverized 
asphaltum, 2 lbs. ; dissolve in an iron kettle on a stove, stirring con- 
stantly. Can be used over a red stain to imitate rosewood. To make 
a perfect black add a little lampblack. The addition of a little varnish 
with the turpentine improves it. 

Crystal Varnish, for Maps, &c. — Canada balsam, 1 oz. ; spirits 
of turpentine, 2 oz. ; mix together. Before applying this varnish to 
a drawing or colored print, the paper should be placed on a stretcher, 
and sized with a thin solution of isinglass in water, and dried. Apply 
with a soft camel' s-hair brush. 

To Ebontze Wood. — Mix up a strong stain of copperas and log- 
wood, to which add powdered nut-gall. Stain your wood with this 
solution, dry, rub down well, oil, then use French polish made toler- 
ably darlc with indigo or finely powdered stone blue. 

Miscellaneous Stains. — Yelloio is produced by diluted nitric 
acid. Red is produced by a solution of dragon's blood in spirits of 
wine. Black is produced by a strong solution of nitric acid. Green is 
produced by a solution of verdigris in nitric acid ; then, dipped in a 
hot solution pearlash produces a Blue sialn. Ihirple is produced by 
a solution of sal-ammoniac in nitric acid. 

Beautiful Varnish for Violins, &c. — Rectified spirits of wine, 
h gal. ; add 6 oz. gum sandarac, 3 oz. gum mastic, and l^ pt. turpen- 
tine varnish ; put the above in a tin can by the stove, frequently 
shaking till well dissolved : strain and keep for use. If you find it 
harder than you wish, thin Avith more turpentine varnish. 

Another. — ^Heat together at a low temperature 2 qts. of alcohol, \ 
pt turpentine varnish, and 1 lb. clean gum mastic ; when tlie latter is 
thoroughly dissolved, strain through a cloth. 

Varnish for Frames, etc. — Lay the frames over with tin or 
silver foil by means of plaster of Paris, glue or cement of some kind, 
that the foil may be perfectly adlierent to the wood ; then apply your 
gold lacquer varnish, "which is made as follows : Ground turmeric, 1 
lb. ; powdered gamboge, IJ ounces ; powdered sandarac, 3J lbs. ; 
powdered sheUac, J lbs. ; spirits of wine, 2 gals. ; dissolve and strain ; 
then add turpentine varnish, 1 pt. ; and it is ready for use. 

Dyes for Veneers. — A fine Black. — Put 6 lbs. of logwood chips 
into your copper, with as many veneers as it will hold without press- 
ing too tight, fill it with water, let it boil slowly for about 3 hours, 
then add J lb. of x>oiodered v^rdir/ris, J lb. copperas, bruised gall-nuts 
4 ozs. ; fill the copper up with vinegar as the water envaporates ; let 
it boil gently 2 hours each day till the wood is dyed through. A fine 
Blue. — Put oil of vitriol, 1 lb., and 4 ozs. of the best powdered indigo 
in a glass bottle. Set it in a glazed earthen pan, as it will ferment. 
Now put your veneers into a copper or stone trough ; fill it rather 



CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS , &C., RECEIPTS. 273 

more than one-third with water, and add as much of the vitriol and 
indigo (stirring it about) as will make fine blue, testing it Avitli a 
piece of white paper or wood. Let the veneers remain till the dye 
has struck through. Keep the solution of indigo a few weeks before 
using it ; this improves the color. Fine reZ^oit?.— Reduce 4 lbs. of the 
root of barberry to dust by sawing, which put in a copper or brass 
trough ; add turmeric, 4 ozs. ; water, 4 gals. ; then put in as many 
white holly veneers as the liquor will cover. Boil them together 3 
hours, often turning them. When cool, add aquafortis, 2 oz., and 
the dye will strike through much sooner. Bright Green. — Proceed as 
in the previous receipt to produce a yellow ; but, instead of aqua- 
fortis, add as much of the vitriolated indigo (see above, under blue 
dye) as will i)roduce the desired color. Bright Red. — Brazil dust, 2 
lbs. ; add water, 4 gals. Put in as many veneers as the liquid will 
cover ; boil them for 3 hours, then add alum, 2 oz., aquafortis, 2 oz.; 
and keep it luke-warm until it has struck through. Fmyle. — ^To 2 
lbs. of chip logwood and J lb. Brazil dust, add 4 gals, of water ; and 
after putting in your veneers, boil for 3 hours ; then add pearlash, 9 
ozs., and alum 2 oz. ; let them boil for 2 or 3 hours every day thl the 
color has struck through. Orange. — ^Take the veneers oiit of the 
above yellow dye, while still wet and saturated, transfer them to the 
bright red dye till the color penetrates throughout. 

To nupROVE THE CoLOR OF Stains. — Nitric acid, 1 oz. ; muriatic 
acid, J teaspoonful; grain tin, J oz. ; rain water, 2 oz. Mix it at least 
2 days before usmg, and keep your bottle well corked. 

Strong Glue for Inlaying or Veneering. — Select the best 
light brown glue, free from clouds and streaks. Dissolve this in wa- 
ter, and to every pint add half a gill of the best vinegar and J oz. of 
isinglass. For other glues see Engineers' Department 

Inlaid Mother of Pearl Work, on sewing machines and other 
fancy work, is performed by selecting the thin scales of the shell 
and cementing them to the surface of the material ; the rest of the 
surface is covered with successive coats of Japan varnish, generally 
black, being subjected to a baking process after each application. 
When the varnish is as thick as the shell, it is polished, the gUding 
and painting added, and a flowing coat of varnish put over the whole. 

Another Method. — Prepare the job with a heavy coat of black Japan, 
then, before it is dry, procure flakes of i)earl and lay them on the 
black surface, pressing them into the Japan until they are level with 
the surface; then with colors form vines and flowers, allowing the 
pearl to form the body of the flower leaf, and shade up all nicely. 

Transparent Painting on Wintdow Shades. — ^The muslin is 
spread on a frame and secured tightly with tacks, then sized with a 
mixture of fine flour paste, white glue, and white bar soap ; the soap 
renders the muslin pliable and soft. A thin coat is applied, which is 
nearly invisible when dry. A coat of pure linseed oil, diluted with 
spirits of turpentine, is then appUed, to the whole, or part, as desired; 
lay it on quickly and smoothly, to insure an even transparent surface. 
The colors used are, ivory black, ultramarine, Paris green, sienna, 
umber, verdigris, asphaltum, or other suitable colors. An outline of 
the design is drawn with a small pencU with black or umber, after 
which the colors may be applied, more or less diluted, as more or less 
transparency is desired. In general, tlie brightest colors should be 

18 



274 CABINETMAKEKS, TAINTERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 

applied first, and the darker shades over tliem. These colors must be 
laid evenly and smoothly ^vith soft brushes, and should any part be 
made too dark, the best way is to scrape off with a stick before the 
color gets too dry. The best designs for shades consists of landscape 
views, and should always be designed to accommodate the form and 
position of the ground on which they are drawn. Stencils will be 
found useful on this work, in makmg comers or stripes for borders. 

To Paint Magic Lantern Sides.— Transparent colors only are 
used for this work, such as lakes, sap-green, ultramarine, verdigris, 
gamboge, asphaltum, &c., mixed in oil, and tempered with light 
colored varnish (white Demar). Draw on the paper the design de- 
sired, and stick it to the glass with water or gum ; then with a fine 
pencil put the outlines on the opposite side of the glass with the prop- 
er colors; then shade or fill up with black or Vandyke brown, as you 
find best. 

Marine Paint for Metai^s in Salt Water.— Red lead 65 parts; 
quicksilver, 30 parts; thick turpentine, 7 parts. Mix with boiled 
linseed oil to tlie proper consistency. Tne quicksilver must be 
thoroughly amalgamated with the thick turpentine by grinding or 
rubbing, and this mixture must be ground with red lead and more 
boiled oil. As little oil as is necessary to make the paint lay well must 
be used. To make the paint adhere more firmly, a previous coat of ox- 
ide of iron paint may be used. 

To Imitate Tortoise Shell. — ^Paint a ground of salmon color; 
then when dry and smoothed off, coat it over with rose pink, mixed in 
varnish and turpentine; then with a flat piece of glass, press on the 
surface, and remove the glass quickly, being careful not to push it 
over the paint so as to disturb the curious figures which the pressure 
will form thereon. Varnish when dry, and you will find you have a 
beautiful imitation of tortoise shell. 

Banner Painting. — Lay out the letters very accurately with 
charcoal or crayon, then saturate the cloth with water to render the 
painting easy. On large work a stencil will be found useful. Take 
a piece of tin, lay the straight edge to the mark, brush over with a 
sash tool, and by this means you will make a very clean-edged 
letter. Use stiff bristle pencils in painting on canvas. 

Oil Cloth Painting. — To paint canvas for floors, the canvas 
should first be saturated with glue-water or flour paste, and allowed 
to dry first. Then paint it with any color desired. To put in the 
figures, cut out designs in tin plates or stiff paper, and stencil them 
on in various colors. 

To Imitate ISIarble, — For tchite marble, get up a pure white 
ground, then hold a lighted candle near the surface, and allow tlio 
smoke to form the shades and various tints desired. This will 
make a very handsome imitation. Black marble imitation is made 
by streaking a black surface with colors, using a feather and pencU. 
Another plan is to get up a smooth black surface ; then take the colors, 
green, yellow, red, white, &c., ground thick in gold size, and streak 
the surface with a stick or pencil. Allow it to dry, and apply a heavy 
coat of lampblack and yellow ochre, mixed with rough stuff. When 
all is hard, rub down to a level surface with lump pumice-stone, 
varnish, and a beautiful varigated marble will be the result. 

Etching on Glass.— Druggists* bottles, bar-tumblers, signs, and 



CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS , «fcC., RECEIPTS. 275 

glassware of every description, can be lettered in a beautiful style of 
art, by simply giving the article to be engraved, or etched, a thin coat 
of the engraver's varnish (see next receipt), and the application of 
fluoric acid. Before doing so, the glass must be thoroughly cleaned 
and heated, so that it can hardly be held. The varnish is then to bo 
applied lightly over, and made smooth by dabbing it with a small 
ball of silk, filled with cotton. When dry and even, the lines may bo 
traced on it by a sharp steel, cutting clear through the varnish to the 
glass. The varnish must be removed clean from each letter, other- 
wise it will be an imperfect job. When all is ready, pour on or apply 
the fluoric acid with a feather, filling each letter. Let it remain until 
it etches to the required depth, then wash off with water, and remove 
the varnish. 

Etching Varnish. — ^Take of virgin wax and asphaltum, each 2 
oz. ; of black pitch and Burgundy pitch, each J oz. ; melt the wax and 
pitch in a new earthenware glazed pot, and add to them, by degrees, 
the asphaltum, finely powdered. Let the whole boil, simmering 
gradually, till such time as, taking a drop upon a plate, it will break 
when it is cold, or bending it double two or three times betwixt the 
fingers. The varnish, being then boiled enough, must be taken off 
the fire, and, after it cools a little, must be poured into warm water 
that it may work the more easily with the hands, so as to be formed 
iato balls, which must be kneaded, and put into a piece of taff ety for 
use. The sand blast is now in extensive use for ornamenting on glass. 

Fluoric Acid to Make for Etching Purposes. — ^You can 
make your own fluoric (sometimes called hydro-fluoric) acid, by 
getting the fluor or Derbyshire spar, pulverizing it, and putting all of 
it into sulphuric acid wmch the acid will cut or dissolve. Inasmuch 
as fluoric acid is destructive to glass, it cannot be kept in common 
bottles, but must be kept in lead or gutta percha bottles. 

Glass-Grinding for Signs, Shades, &c. — After you have 
etched a name or other design upon uncolored glass, and wish to have 
it show off to better advantage by permitting the light to pass only 
through the letters, you can do so by taking a piece of flat brass suffi- 
ciently large not to dip into the letters, but pass over them when gild- 
ing upon the surface of the glass; then, with flour of emery, and 
keeping it wet, you can grind the whole surf ace, very quickly, to look 
like the ground-glass globes often seen upon lamps, except the letter, 
which is eaten below the general surface. 

To Drill and Ornament Glass. — Glass can be easily drilled 
by a steel drill, hardened but not drawn, and driven at a high velo- 
city. Holes of any size, from the 16th of an inch upwards, can be 
drilled, by using spirits of turpentine as a drip ; and, easier still, by 
using camphor with the turpentine. Do not press the glass very 
hard against the drill. If you require to ornament glass by turning 
in a lathe, use a good mUl file and the turpentine and camphor drip, 
and you will find it an easy matter to produce any shape you choose. 

Gilding Glass Signs, &c. — Cut a piece of thin paper to the size 
of your glass, draw out your design correctly in black lead-pencil on 
the paper, then prick through the outline of the letters with a fine 
needle; tie up a little dry white lead in a piece of rag; this is a 
pounce-bag. Place your design upon the glass, right side up, dust it 
with the pounce-bag; and, after taking the paper off, the design will 



276 CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 

appear in white dots upon the glass; these will guide you in laying? 
on the gold on the opposite side, which must be loell cleaned prepar;i 
tory to laying on the gold. Preparing the size. — Boil perfectly clca. 
water in an enamelled saucepan, and while boiling, add 2 or 3 shreds 
of best selected isinglass, after a ie^Y minutes strain it through a 
clean linen rag ; when cool, it is ready for use. Clean the glass per- 
fectly. — ^When this is done, use a flat camel' s-hair brush for laying 
*on the size ; and let it drain oif when you put the gold on. When the 
gold is laid on and perfectly dry, take a ball of the finest cotton wool 
and gently rub or polish the gold ; you can then lay on another coat 
of gold if desirable, it is now ready for writing. In doing this, mix a 
little of the best yegetiible black with black japan; thin with turpen- 
tine to proper working consistency; apply this when thoroughly dry; 
wash off the superfluous gold, and shade as in sign-writmg. r- 

Glass Gilding, Akother Method. — Clean and dry the glass 
thoroughly, then lay out the lines for letters with a piece of hard 
scented soap, then i)amt the letters on the right side of the glass- 
with lampblack mixed with oil, in order to form a guide for the work, 
then on the inside lay on a coat of the size mentioned in the preced- 
ing receipt, using a camel' s-hair brush, covering the whole of the let- 
ters ; next lay on the gold leaf with a tip, until every part of the let- 
ters is covered well. Let the leaf remain until the size is dry, when 
you will find that the letters on the front side can be easily seen and 
traced. This is done with quick drying black, mixed with a little 
varnish. Paint over the whole directly over the gold ; allow it to dry ; 
then wipe off with soap and water the lampblack letters from the 
front side ; with i)ure cold water and a clean sponge, wash the su- 
perfluous gold leaf and size from the back, and you will have a splen- 
did gold letter on the glass ; next, shade your letter to suit the taste, 
always remembering to shade to the edge of the gold, for then you 
have only one edge to make straight. The other edge may be left 
rough, and when dry may be straightened by scraping with a knife. 

Ornamental Designs on Glass.— In making scrolls, eagles &c., 
on glass, some painters put on the outlines and shades first, and then 
lay the gold leaf over aU ; another good way is to scratch the shades 
on to the gold leaf after it is dry, and put the colors on the back of the 
gold. Silver leaf may be used in the same manner as gold, but it 
will not wear as well. A very pretty letter may be made by incor- 
I)orating silver with gold ; take paper and cut any fancy design to 
fit the parts of the letter ; stick it on the size before laying the leaf, 
allowing it to dry and wash off as before; then with a penknife raise 
the paper figure, and the exact shape or form of the figure wlQ 
be found cut out of the gold letter ; clean off nicely, apply more size, 
and lay silver leaf to cover the vacant spots ; wash off when dry, and 
a very handsome letter will be the result. Colors may be used in- 
stead of silver, if desired, or a silver letter edged or " cut up" with 
gold, will look well. 

Glass and Porcelain Gilding. — Dissolve in linseed oil an equal 
weight either of copal or amber ; add as much oil of turpentine as 
will enable you to apply the compound or size thus formed, as thin 
as possible, to the parts of the glass intended to be gilt. The glass 
is to be placed in a stove till it will almost bum the fingers when han- 
dled ; at this temperature the size becomes adhesive, and a jnece of 



CABINETMAKERS, PAINTEKS', AC, RECEIPTS. 277 

gold leaf, applied in the usual way, mil immediately stick. Sweep 
aff the supcrtluous portions of the leaf, and when quite cold it may be 
burnished ; taking care to interpose a piece of India paper between 
the gold and the burnisher. 

Dkilling China, Glass, &c.— To drill china use a copper drill 
and emery, moistened Avitli spirits of turpentine. To drill glass, use 
a steel drill tempered as hard as possible and camphor and water as 
a lubricant. 

Gold Lustre for Stoneware, China, &c. — Gold, 6 parts; aqa- 
regia, 36 parts-. Dissolve, then add tm, 1 part ; next add balsam of 
sulphur, 3 parts ; oil of turpentine, 1 part. Mix gradually into a 
mortar, and rub it until the mixture becomes hard ; then add oil of 
turpentine, 4 parts. It is then to be applied to a ground prepared for 
the purpose. 

Gilding China and Glass, — ^Powdered gold is mixed with borax 
and gum-water, and the solution applied with a camel' s-hair pencil. 
Heat is then applied by a stove until the borax fuses, when the gold 
is fixed and afterwards burnished. 

Useful Hints for Carriage Painters. — It is usual to apply 
three coats of oil paint as a priming to commence with, and it is safe 
to use, say § drying oil and J turpentine, with a little fine litharge 
ground in, about 2 ozs. to every 20 lbs. of paint. This hardens the 
priming better than patent dryer, and works better under the sand- 
paper. When the first coatmg is hard and dry, rub dovra. with your 
sand-paper and be sure to make perfectly level work among the 
irregularities, deficiencies and ridges on the surface of your work. 

Next dust your work caref uUy, and with your putty knife go over 
the whole surface and putty up every crevice, split, crack or knot- 
hole with the hard drying putty hereafter mentioned. Be very care- 
ful not to overlook the slightest flaw, but bring every spot to a true 
and perfect level. Now dust off the work again, preparatory to 
second coating. Thin your color with turpentine, if too stout or 
thick, but do not use thin colors, for it neither covers well, nor rubs 
down well. For dark colors, use a dark lead color for the oil coats, 
but, for preparing for such a color as light green, let the color be 
light lead color, if for a yeUow, begin with white, or slightly tinted 
with chrome yellow. 

Be careful with your second coat, to lay it fair, regular, and equal, 
over each and every part of the work, and when it is thoroughly dry, 
rub down Avith a finer quality of sand-paper than the last, being 
careful to make the surface perfectly smooth and even. Now com- 
mence to give the third coat (after dusting ofC),» putting on the paint, 
not lavislily, but rub it out well. 

The next step, when the last is hard and dry, is to apply the filling 
up coats. For a good composition see receipt for " Rough Stuff'* for 
carriage work. Another good filling consists of dry French yellow, 
a small quantity of white lead, the same amount of whiting, a little 
red lead, about one-sixteenth of litharge, and of drying Japan enough 
to nearly mix it, put in a very little drying oil, and turpentine to thin 
to a suitable thickness to make it spread like a stiff coat of paint. 
Thm so that it can be applied easily, and flow on full and free. 
Apply this composition, giving the body, shafts, wheels, springs, &c., a 
good coat levelling off any hollows, &c., existing in the parts, and when 



278 CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS', ifcC, RECEIPTS. 

this coat becomes perfectly hard give it another. The next step, after 
this last coat dries hard, is to rub it down with lump pumice-stone, 
first rubbing the pumice flat upon a stone before commencing to uso 
it. In rubbing down with lump pumice use plenty of water, freely 
supplied from the sponge in your left hand ; be very cautious to 
avoid cutting through, and feel the parts frequently as the work 
progresses, to ascertain when all is sufficiently smooth and hard, then 
witii your sponge wash off the work nicely, and with your wash 
leather wrung out, dry it off clean and smooth. 
. The next step is to paint the carriage. See to it that your colors 
are freshly ground, your paint miU, pots, tins, brushes, &c., per- 
fectly clean. Apply your color the proper thickness, expeditiously 
and neatly, so that the work will present a good clean appearance. 
The following directions will be found useful in mixing the desig- 
nated colors. Dark Green^ Olive Shade. Take deep chrome yellow 
and powdered drop black, mix in a pot with the drying Japan, and a 
little turpentine, grind all together, test to be sure that the color is 
right, if wished lighter, add more chrome yellow, if^ darker, more 
drop black, grade the color to the proper thickness and apply at 
once. Two coiits will be required. Ultramarine blue. For your 
ground color, grind good Prussian blue in oil, and add to white lead 
as much of the blue as will make it sufficiently dark to form a 
ground for the ultramarine blue, two coats of this will be required. 
When hard and dry, grind some of the best ultramarine blue on the 
stone with a quantity of varnish, add enough of this to your body 
flowing varnish to impart the right color. Two good coats of this 
beautiful color will be necessary; use sugar of lead as a dryer. 
Before giving the second coat rub down with ground pumice and 
water, using a cloth ; the next coat will flow all the better for tliis 
treatment. After a few days rub down again with groimd pumice 
and water, wash, and dry with your chamois skin, when the work 
will be aU ready for picking out and striping. Claret or Lake. 
Vermilion and rose i)ink, in oil, same as the last, for first coat. 
When hardened dry, give another light coat, previously rubbing 
down with ground pumice and water, as directed for blue. For a 
rich light claret be sparing of your rose pink in the ground color; for 
dark claret, use more rose pink. For darker shades use more rose 
pink in the ground color, then use the best crimson lake, same way 
as for the light claret two good coats will do. For a purple shade of 
claret use vermilion, rose pink a spice of ultramarine blue, for a 
ground color. Then add the proper quantity of ground purple lako 
to body flowing varnish and apply two coats. Japan Broicn, 
Grind drop black in Japan using enough vermilion to be visible. 
Chrome Greens. Grind your greens in Japan, or use greens com- 
posed of chrome yellow and Prussian blue. Carmine Color on Fire 
Engines^ &c. Cheap method. For a ground, use the best English 
vermilion, then add pure carmine, ground in a little drying oil, to 
your body flowing varnish, and apply two coats carefully. This 
method extends the precious color so that an ounce will suffice for a 
carriage or machine. Oxford Brown. Use a little chrome yellow, 
India red, best ochre, white lead, burned umber, just white enough 
to be seen ; yellow is the leading color ; red to warm it, and umber 
to impai-t the brown shade, lilch Purple. Vermilion and Prussian 



CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS , &C., RECEIPTS. 279 

'blue, with a little wliite, a very cheap, nice color. Fawn Color. TJsfl 
yejlow, red, a little black, a little tierra de sienna, or burned umber 
znsij be added to obtain the right shade. Drab Color. White and 
raw umber form a cool drab which may be varied with chrome, or 
red, as may be desired. Plum Brown, Drop black and vermilion 
makes a very good color at a cheap rate. 

Striping or " Picking Out,'* for Carriage Work. — Great 
care is required in this part of the work to carry a steady hand so 
that the lines may be drawn equidistant, clean and neat. For fine 
lines, grind the color in drying oil, as it makes the best work. Japan 
color will do for broad or coarse lines, on blue ground. If a large 
carriage, with heavy wheels, draw lines with Frankfort-black, Japan 
mixed color from three quarter inch to one inch broad, on all parts of 
the carriage, wheels, sprmgs, spokes, hubs, &c., then draw fine lines 
of light orange or light primrose color about three-eighths or a quarter 
inch from the broad black line, with one fine line around the edges of 
the black nuts and bolt heads. On superior work, pure white, gold, 
or deep orange lines may be drawn down the middle of the black 
lines, producing a very fine effect; on greens^ pick out with black, if a 
light green, black lines will be sufficient, if desired better, run up the 
centre of the black fines with white, not too fine. On dark green, 
pick out with black, running very fine lines on each side of the black 
three-eighths of an inch off the black. This also sets off a very bright 
green to good advantage. On Clarets^ pick out with black, with ver- 
miUon or rich orange fine side lines, or light orange side lines with 
vermiUon line run up the centre of the black ; or light gold line up 
tlie centre of one large black line. On Oxford Brown, pick out with 
"black, fine line with vermilion or medium tint of chrome yellow with 
sfight tint of red in it ; or part the black line with white down the 
centre. On Fawn Colors, pick out with broad black, fine line with 
white on each edge, or brown drab shade. On Japan or Plmn 
Browns, vermilion line has the best appearance. On Olives or Qua- 
kers' Greens, pick out with black, ^ith white for fine lines, or orange 
or fight green. On Drabs, pick out with black, fine line with vermii- 
ion, or liigh colored orange, or white centre fine for extra finish. On 
Purple, pick out mth black, fine line witli a bright tint of orange or 
vermifion. 

Varnishing of Coaches and Carriages.— In this, as weU as in 
the painting department, absolute cleanliness is indispensable, as 
regards brushes, pots, freedom from dust, &c. WTien your work 
is ready, if it is the under carriage, apply a good f uU coat of carriage 
varnish, and when through with this part of the process, go over it 
again, this time using body varnish. After it is hard and dry proceed 
to " flat " the work by lightly removing the gloss with ground pumice, 
water, and a woollen cloth, being careful not to cut into the fines or 
gTound ; then clean away all the pumice, and diy off nicely with the 
chamois leather slightly wet. If you have cut through in any part, 
repair with Japan color previous to second coating. Let your second 
coat be very full and well laid on, but be careful that it does not run. 
A very superior gloss will be obtained on the wheels, if after the 
appUcation of a good coat you spin them until the varnish is nearly 
ret. 

If the second coat is not satisfactory, repeat the flattening process 



280 CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 

"witli your pumice, cloth and water, clean off as before and yamish 
again. 

In more costly polished work, commence with the very finest 
ground pumice or Tripoli, rub until you bring the work to a very 
smooth state, then wash off very clean and nice, dry and dust weU. 
Use every precaution against dust, by sweeping and sprinkling your 
floor in every stage of polishing and varnishing. The next step in 
polishing is to use a fine cloth for a rubber, rotten-stone, sifted fine 
through muslin and mixed with olive oil ; rub with this until the 
gloss is restored, occasionally examining the progress of the work. 
This step being finished, wipe off with a perfectly clean cotton cloth, 
with a piece of the finest flax full of fine wheat flour or putty powder 
go over the work, rubbing well to polish it still farther, and remove 
-every particle of the oil and rotten-stone previously used. Finish off 
by rubbmg the work briskly with an old silk handkerchief, which 
wiU induce a beautiful fine gloss. In every instance when a polish 
and varnish finish is required, do not omit to lay on an extra coat of 
varnish, as it will greatly enhance the appearance of the work. 

Gilding and Ornamenting Carriages.— Enghsh gold size is the 
best for this purpose. If you cannot get it ready prepared, make a 
substitute by using English varnish and Japan in equal parts. If 
the gilding is for striping, you should mix a little chrome yellow 
with it, to be able to see the lines the better, but for lettering no 
coloring is required. Rub your job down smoothly, take a piece of 
muslin and tie up m it a little whitening to foiTQ a "pounce bag ;" 
with this dust over every part of the work where the gold leaf is to 
be put, to prevent the leaf sticking to the surface not covered by 
the size, or wash the job over with starch water, or rub it over with 
the raw surface of a potato cut in halves ; the juice of the potato 
soon dries, and leaves a thm film to which the gold will not adhere. 
Either of the above methods "v\all do, and the coating will wash off 
when the gilding is dry. The surface prepared, take the size and 
put on the stripes, figures, or ornaments, and allow it to dry just 
enough to enable you to pass your finger over it without sticking, 
but if it is "tacky" when you place your finger upon it, it is 
ready for the gold leaf, \^hich is to be applied in the way directed 
for gilding letters on wood. The gold letters may be shaded with 
ultramarine, carmine, asphaltum, lake, Paris green, verdigris, &c., to 
suit the taste. 

Bronzing. — Gold bronze is used on carriage parts for striping and 
ornamenting, using the same size as that used for gold leaf. For 
taking up and applymg the bronze, take a piece of plush or velvet 
and make a " pounce bag,'* by tying up a wad of cotton, rubbing the 
bronze gently over the size. To vary the appearance, a mixture of 
copper, gold, and silver bronze may be applied. For fancy work in 
bronze, cut out any desired pattern on thin sheet brass, pasteboard, 
or paper, and apply it to any nearly dry varnished surface ; rub the 
bronze on through the apertures in the pattern. 

Good Colors for Business Wagons. — No. 1. Body. — Chrome 
green ; frame or ribs black striped with white or cream color. 
Running gear. — Cream color striped with red, blue or dark green, or 
black, and red fine line. No. 2. i>o^?/.— Yellow ; frame black, striped 
with blue or white. Running grear.-— Light vermilion, striped with 



CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS', «fcC., RECEIPTS. 281 

black and -white. No. 3. Body. — Carmine glaze over Indian red. 
Running gear. — ^A^ermilion. No. 4. Body. — Deep vermilion. Run- 
ning gear. — Light vermilion. 

Mixture to remove old Paint. — ^Dissolve i ib. potash in 3 pts. 
water over the fire, then add yellow ochre or some common dry i)aint 
until it is as thick as rough stuff ; spread this over your old paint, 
and after a little it will come off quite easily, then Avash the wood 
with soap and water to remove all the potash, dry off and sand-paper, 
then give a coat of clean raw oil. Another method is to heat a heavy 
piece of iron and apply to the paint, which will cause it to become 
loose and soft, so that it may be scraped off with a knife. Still another 
method is to direct the flame of a spirit lamp (which may be con- 
structed for the purpose) on the old paint, scrapmg it off as it softens. 

To BiiEACH Oil. — Pour as much linseed oil into a shallow earthen 
vessel as will stand one inch deep, then pour in 6 inches of water; 
cover with a fine cloth, and let the whole stand in the sun for a few 
weeks until the liquid becomes thick, when it should be poured into 
a i)hial and submitted to a gentle heat ; after whic-h the clear is to ba 
poured off and strained through a flamiel cloth. \ 

To Copy an Ornament. — Place the paper or other article "contain- 
ing the ornament against a pane of glass ; then laying a sheet of thin 
paper over it, you can copy it exactly with a lead pencil. 

Ornaments, in the shape of decalcomine or other gilded pictures.- 
may be easily transferred to carriages or coaches by following the 
directions given in transferring pictures. See farther on. 

Vermilion. — To prevent vermilion from fading, add to tne dry 
color, before mixing, J part of flour of sulphur. Light English ver- 
milion is used for stripmg, ornamenting or lettering ; the deep vermil- 
ion havuig less body, will not cover good. English vermilion gives 
the best color on carriage work when mixed A^dth rubbing varnish 
and oil. American vermilion should not be ground, as the process 
would change it to an orange color ; while green, Indian red, chrome 
yellow, and all heavy body colors are all the better for being ground 
as fine as possible. Raw oil is preferable to boiled, as it is more 
volatile, and penetrates and fills the pores of the wood better. 

Priming for Carriage AYork. — First coat of lead. Mix white 
lead Avith raw oil, 2 parts, Japan, 1 part, to make it proper for a thick 
coat, adding a very little tuipentine to make it work easily. For 
carriage iDaits add a little Indian black, but not for bodies. — Second 
coat of lead. Mix Avhite lead with 1 part raw oU and 2 parts Japan, 
and a little turpentine, as before, adduig lampblack for carriage parts, 
but none for the body. — Third and fourth coat. Mix white lead into a 
thick paste with turi^entine, add a little oil, Japan and rubbiug varnish 
to biud the paint weU ; add, for the carriage parts, a little lampblack 
and a little red lead. 

Hard drying Putty. — For carriage loorh. Mbc dry white lead 
with Japan and rubbiug varnish equal pai-ts, to the proper consistency, 
beating it with a small mallet to bruise the lumps. Keep it, when 
not in use, in water, to prevent it drying. 

Rough Stuff. — For carriage loork. Take 3 parts of English filling 
(ground state), 2 parts dry white lead, 1 part white lead in oH. Mix 
with Japan, 2 pai-ts, rubbing varnish, 1 part. Mix and crush thor- 
oughly by running all through the mill together. 



282 CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 

Facing Lead for Carriage Work. — Mix dry white lead Tvith 2 
parts Japan, 1 part rubbing varnish, and thin with spirits of turpen- 
tine, adding a Uttle lampblack to make a clean lead color, and run all 
through the mill. 

Coach Painting. — The panels of such work are generally painted 
in color, while the pillars, top strip, quarters, deck, &c., are always 
black ; umber colors, lakes, greens, and blues are some of the best 
colors used on this work. To prepare the body for any of these 
colors, a ground color is used in the place of lampblack on black 
'work. The following are a few approved grounds. Lake. — ^Indiau 
red and vermilion mixed to a dark brown, but some prefer a black 
ground for lake. Ultramarine. — Mix a medium blue with white lead 
and Prussian blue. Vermilion. — ^A light pink color is generally used 
as a ground for vermilion. Green. — Green and all heavy-bodied 
colors will cover weU on the lead colors without any gromid color. 
Victoria lake and black Japan makes a fine color for carriages. 

Prepared Oil for Carriages, &c. — To 1 gal. linseed oil add 2 
lbs. gum shellac ; litharge, i lb. ; red lead, J lb. ; umber, 1 oz. Boil 
slowly as usual until the gums are dissolved; grind your paints in this 
(any color), and reduce with turpentine. 

Porcelain Finish, very fine for Parlors. — ^To prepare the 
wood for the finish, if it be pine, give one or two coats of transparent 
varnish, which prevents the pitch from oosing out, causing the finish 
to turn yellow ; next, give the room at least four coats of pure zinc, 
which may be ground in only sufficient oil to enable it to grind prop- 
erly; then mix to a proper consistence with turpentine or naphtha. 
Give each time to dry. When it is dry and hard, sand-paper it to a 
perfectly smooth surface, when it is ready to receive the finish, which 
consists of two coats of French zinc ground in, and thinned with 
Demar varnish, until it works properly under the brush. 

Japan Drier Best Quality. — ^Take linseed oil, 1 gal. ; put into 
it gum shellac, | lb. ; litharge and burned Turkey umber, each J lb. ; 
red lead, J lb. ; sugar of lead, 9 oz. Boil in the oil tiU all are dissolv- 
ed, which will require about 4 hours; remove from the fire, and stir in 
spirits of turpentine, 1 gal., and it is done. 2. Linseed oil, 5 gals.; 
add red lead and litharge, each 31 lbs. ; raw umber, li lbs. ; sugar of 
lead and sulphate of zinc, each, \ lb. ; pulverize all the articles to- 
gether, and boil in the oil tiU dissolved ; when a little cool, thin with 
turpentine, 6 gals. 3. Linseed oil, 4 gals, red lead and umber, of each 
8 ozs. ; sulphate of zinc, 4 ozs. ; sugar of lead, 4 ozs. Boil until it will 
scorch a feather, when it is ready for use. 4. Nut or linseed oU, 1 
gal., ; litharge, 12 oz. ; sugar of lead and white vitriol, of each 1 oz. ; 
simmer and skim until a pellicle forms ; cool, and, when settled, de- 
cant the clear. 5. Oil 1 gal. ; htharge, 12 to 16 oz. ; as last. 6. Old 
nut or linseed oU, Ipint; litharge, 3 oz. Mix; agitate occasionally for 
10 days ; then decant the clear. 7. Nut oil and water, of each 2 lbs. : 
white vitriol, 2 oz. ; boil to dryness. 8. Mix oil with powdered snow 
or ice, and keep it for 2 months without thawing. 

To Reduce Oil Paint with Water — Take 8 lbs. of pure un- 
slaked lime, add 12 qts. water, stir it and Jet it settle, turn it off gently 
and bottle it; keep it corked tiU used. This will mix with oil, and in 
proportion of half will render paint more durable. 

Oil Paint. — To reduce with Water.— Gum shellac, 1 lb. ; sal- 



CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 283 

Boda, J lb. ; -water, 3 parts ; boil all together in a kettle, stirring tiU 
dissolved. If it does not all dissolve, add a little more sal-soda ; wlien 
cool, bottle f 01* use ; mix u^) 2 quarts of oil paint as usual, any color 
desired, using no turpentine ; put 1 pint of the gum shellac mixture 
with th'^ oil paint vrhen if becomes thick ; it can then be reduced with 
water to a proper thickness to lay on with a brush. 

AnotheIi Method. — Soft water, 1 gal. ; dissolve it in pearlash, 3 
oz. ; bring to a boil, and slowly add shellac, 1 lb. ; when cold, it is 
ready to be added to oil paint in equal proportions. 

Fi.ExiBLE Paint fok Canvas.^YcIIow soap, 2^ lbs.; boiling 
water, IJgals. ; dissolve; grind the solution while hot with good oil 
painty IJ cwt. 

Painters* Creari. — Pale nut oil, 6 oz. ; mastic, 1 oz. ; dissolve; 
add of su^ar of Jead, J oz., previously gi'ound in the least i)ossible 
quantity oi oil; tlien add of water q. s. gradually, until it acquires the 
consistency of cream, working it well all the time. Used to cover the 
unfinished work of painters. It will wash off with water. 

Smalt. — ^Roast cobalt ore to drive off the arsenic ; make the resi- 
duum into a paste with oil of vitriol, and heat it to redness for an 
hour ; powder, dissolve in water, and precipitate the oxide of iron by 
carbonate of potash, gradually added until a rose-colored powder 
begins to fall ; then decant the clear, and precipitate by a solution of 
silicate of potash, prepared by fusmg together for 5 hours a mixture 
of 10 parts of potash, 15 parts of finely-ground flints, and 1 part char- 
coal. The precipitate, when dry, may be fused and powdered very 
fine. It is much the cheapest way to buy smalts ready made. 

Factitious Linseed Oil. — Fish or vegetable oil, 100 gallons ; 
acetate of lead, 7 lbs. ; litharge, 7 lbs. ; dissolved in vinegar, 2 galls. 
AVell mixed with heat, then add boiled oil, 7 gallons ; turpentine, 1 
gallon. Again well mix. 

Varnishes. — Common Oil Varnish. — Resm, 4 lbs. ; beeswax, 
\ lb. ; boiled oil, 1 gallon ; mix with heat ; then add spirits of turpea- 
tine, 2 quarts. Chinese Varnish. — Mastic, 2 oz. ; sandarac, 2 oz. ; 
rectified spirits, 1 pt. ; close the matrass with bladder, with a pin- 
hole for the escape of vapor ; heat to boiling in a sand or water l^ath, 
and when dissolved, strain through linen. Metallic Varnish For 
Coach Bodies. — Asphaltun, 56 lbs. ; melt, then add litharge, 9 Pbs., 
red lead, 7 lbs. Boil, then add boiled oil, 12 gals. ; yellow resin, 12 lbs. 
Again boil until, in cooling, the mixture may be rolled into pills ; then 
add spts. of turpentine, 30 gals. ; lampblack, 7 lbs. Mix well. 
Mastic Varnish. — Mastic, 1 lb. ; white wax, 1 oz. ; spirits turpen- 
tine, 1 gallon ; reduce the gums small ; then digest it with heat in a 
close vessel till dissolved. Turpentine Fa^-nisTi.— Resin, 1 lb. ; boiled 
oil, 1 lb. ; melt ; then add turpentine, 2 lbs. Mix well. Pale Var- 
nis/i.— Pale African copal, 1 part ; fuse. Then add hot ])ale oil, 2 
parts. Boil the mixture tiU it is stringy ; then cool a little, and add 
spirits of turpentine, 3 parts. Lacquer Varnish.— A good lacquer is 
made by coloring lac varnish with turmeric and annatto. Add as 
much of these two colormg substances to the varnish as will give the 
proper color; then squeeze the varnish, through a cotton cloth when it 
forms lacquer. Gold Vaimish.— Digest shellac, sixteen parts, gum 
sandarac, mastic, of each three parts ; crocus, one part ; gum gam- 
boge, two pai-ts ; all bruised, with alcohol, one hundred and forty- 



284 CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 

four parts. Or, digest seedlac, sandarac, mastic, of eacli ci^lit 
jiarts ; gamboge, two parts ; dragon's blood, one part ; white turpen- 
tine, six parts ; turmeric, four parts ; bruised with alcohol, one 
hundred and twenty x^arts. Deep Gold-Colored Lacquer. — Seed lac, 
3 oz. ; turmeric, 1 oz. ; dragon's blood, one-fourth ounce ; alcohol, 1 
pt. ; digest for a week, frequently shaking : decant, and Alter. Lac- 
quers are used upon polished metals andAvood to impart the appear- 
ance of gold, if yellow is required, use turmeric, aloes, saffron or 
gamboge ; for red, use annatto, or dragon's blood, to color. Turmeric, 
■gamboge, and dragon's blood generally afford a suificient range of 
colors. Gold LacqiLcr. — Put into a clean 4 gal. tin 1 lb. of ground 
turmeric, IJ oz. of gamboge, Sg lbs. powdered gum sandarac, 2 
pound of shellac, and 2 gals, of spirits of wine. Wiien shaken, dis- 
solved, and strained, add 1 pint of turpentine Tarnish, well mixed. 
Varnish For Tools. — Take tallow, 2 oz. ; resin, 1 oz . ; and melt to- 
gether. Strain while hot, to get rid of specks which are in the resin ; 
apply a slight coat on your tools with a brush, and it will Iveep off 
rust for any length of time. Gold Varnish. — Turmeric, 1 dram ; 
gamboge, 1 dram ; turpentine, 2 i3ints ; shellac, 5oz. ; dragon's blood, 
8 drams ; thin mastic varnish, 8 oz. ; digest with occasional agitation 
for 14: days ; then set aside to fine, and pour off the clear. Beautiful 
Pale Amber Varnish. — Amber, pale and transparent, 6 lbs. ; fuse ; 
add hot clarified linseed oil, 2 gals. ; boil till it strings strongly, cool a 
little, and add oil of turi^entine, 4 gals. This soon becomes very hard 
and is the most durable of oil-varnishes. When Avanted to dry 
quicker, drying oil may be substituted for linseed, or "driers" maybe 
added during the cooling. Blade Coach Varnish. — Amber, 1 lb. ; 
fuse ; add hot dnjing oil, \ pt. ; powdered black resin and Naples 
asphaltum, of each 3 oz. When properly incorporated and consid- 
erably cooled, add oil of turpentine, 1 pt. Body Varnish. — Finest 
African copal, 8 lbs. ; fuse carefully ; add clarified oil, 2 gals. ; boil 
gently for 4^ hours, or until quite stringy ; cool a little, and thin with 
oil of turpentine, 3^ gals. Dries slowly. Carriage Varnish. — San- 
darac, 19 oz. ; pale shellac, 9 J oz. ; very jiale transparent resin, 12 A- 
oz, ; turpentine, 18 oz. ; 85 per cent, alcohol. 5 pts. : dissolve. Used 
for the internal parts of carriage, &c. Dries in ten minutes. Cabinet- 
tnaTcers' Varnish. — Very pale shellac, 5 lbs. ; mastic, 7 oz. ; alcohol, 
90 per cent. 5 or 6 pts. ; dissolve m the cold Avith frequent stirring. 
Used for French polishing, &c. Japanners* Copal Varnish. — ^l^ilo 
African copal, 7 lbs. ; fuse ; add clarified linseed oil, J gal. ; boil five 
minu es, remove it into the open air, add boiling oil of turpentine, 2 
gals, ; mix well, strain it into the cistern, and cover it up immediately. 
Used to varnish furniture, and by jai^anners, coach -makers, &c. Copal 
Varnish. — ^Pale hard copal, 8 lbs. ; add hot and pale drying oil, 2 gals. ; 
boil till it strings strongly, cool a little, and thin Avith hot rectified oil 
of turpentme, 3 gals. ; and strain immediately into the store can. 
Very fine. Gold Varnish of Watin, for Gilded Articles. — Gum lac in 
grains, gamboge, dragon's blood, and annatto, of each 12 J oz. ; saffron, 
3^ oz. Each resin must be dissolved separately in 5 pts. of 90 per 
cent, alcohol, and 2 separate tinctures must be made with the dragon's 
blood and annatto in a like quantity of spirits ; and a proper propor- 
tion of each mixed together to produce the required shade. Trans- 
parent Varnish for Ploughs, &c.— Best alcoliol, 1 gal. ; gam san- 



CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 285 

darac, 2 lbs. ; gum mastic, J lb. ; place all in a tm can which admits 
of being corked ; cork tight, shake, it frequently, occasionally placing 
the can in hot water. When dissolved, it is ready for use. Ftm 
Black Varnish for Coaches. — Melt in an iron pot, amber, 32 oz. ; 
resin, 6 oz. ; asphaltum,6 oz. ; drying linseed oil, 1 pt. ; when partly 
cooled, add oL of turpentine, warmed. 1 iDint. Mordant Varnish. — 
dissolve 1 oz. mastic, 1 oz. sandarac, 4 oz. ^um gamboge, and J oz. 
turpentine in 6 oz. spirits turpentine. One of the simplest mordants is 
that procured by dissolving a little honey in thick glue. It has tlio 

{effect of greatly heightening the color of the gold, and the leaf sticks 
extremely well. Changing Varnish. — To imitate Gold or Silver, &c. 
f Put 4: oz. best gum gamboge into 32 oz. spirits of turpentine ; 4 oz. 
dragon's blood into 32 oz. spirits of turpentine ; and 1 oz. of annatto 
into 8 oz. spirits of turpentine. Make the 3 mixtures in different 
vessels. Keep them in a warm place, exposed to the sun as much as 
possible, for about 2 weeks, when they will be fit for use. Add to- 
gether such quantities of each liquor as the nature of the color you arc 
desirous of obtaining will pomt out. Transparent Varnish, for 
Wood. — Best alcohol, 1 gal. ; nice gum shella,c, 2^ lbs. Place the jug 
or bottle in a situation to keep it just a little warm, and it will dis- 
solve quicker than if hot, or left cold. Patent Varnish for Wood or 
Canvas. — ^Take spirits of turpentine, 1 gal ; asphaltum, 2J lbs. ; put 
them into an iron kettle which will fit upon a stove, and dissolve tho 
gum by heat. When dissolved and a little cool add copal varnish, 1 
pt. ; and boiled linseed oil, 1 pt ; when cold, it is ready for use. 
Perhaps a little lampblack would make it a more perfect black, 
i Mosaic Gold Powder fok Bronzing, &c. — Melt 1 lb. tin in a 
crucible, add J lb. of purified quicksilver to it : when this is cold, it 
is reduced to. powder, and ground, with J lb. sal-ammoniac and 7 oz. 
flour of sulphur, till the whole is thorouglily mixed. They are then 
calcined in a matrass ; and the sublimation of the other ingredients 
leaves the tin converted into the mosaic gold powder which is found 
at the bottom of the glass. Remove any black or discolored particles. 
The sal-ammoniac must be very white and clear, and the mercury of 
the utmost purity. When a deeper red is required, grind a very small 
quantity of red lead with the above materials. True Gold Powder. — 
rut some gold leaf, with a little honey, or thick gum water made 
with gum arable, into an earthen mortar, and pound the mixture tUl 
the gold is reduced to very small particles ; then wash out the honey 
or gum repeatedly with warm water, and the gold in powder will be 
left behind. When dry, it is fit for use. Dutch Gold Powder is 
made from Dutch gold leaf, which is sold in books at a yery low 
price. Treat in the manner described above for true gold powder. 
When this inferior powder is used, cover the gilding with a coat of 
clear varnish, otherwise it will soon lose its bright appearance. Cop- 
per Poicder is prepared by dissolving filings or slips of copper with 
nitrous acid in a receiver. When the acid is saturated, the slips are to 
be removed; or, if filings be employed, the solution is to be poured 
off from what remains undissolved. Small bars are then put in, which 
will precipitate the copper powder from the saturated acid; and, 
the liquid being poured from the powder, this is to bo washed clean 
off the ciystals by repeated waters. 
Bronze Powder of apa?e gold color is produced from an alloy of 



286 CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS, &C., RECEIPTS. 

13J parts of copper and 2| parts zinc, of a crimson metallic lustre from 
copper, of a, paler color, copper, and a \ery little zinc, gi^een bronze 
witii a proportion of yerdigris, of a fine orange color, by 14^ parts cop- 
per and 1| imrts zinc ; another orange color, 13| parts copper and 2i 
zinc The alloy is laminated into very fine leaves with careful anneal- 
ing, and these are levigated into impalpable powders, along with a 
film of fine oil, to prevent oxidizement, and to favor the levigation. 

General Directions for Bronzing. —The choice of the above 
powders is of course determined by the degree of brilliancy you wish 
to obtain. The powder is mixed with strong gum water or isinglass, 
and laid on with a brush or pencil ; and, not so dry as to have still 
certain clamminess; a piece of soft leather wrapped round the finger 
is dipped into the powder, and rubbed over the work. When the work 
has been all covered with the bronze, it must be left to dry, and and 
loose powder then cleared away by a hair-pencil. 

Bronzing Iron. — The subject should be heated to a greater de- 
gree than the hand can bear, and German gold, mixed with a small 
quantity of spirit of wine varnish, spread over it with a pencil; should 
the iron be already polished, you must heat it well, and moisten it 
with a linen rag dipped in vinegar. 

Gilder's Parchment Size. — The best is made from cuttings of 
fine parchment. Wash them clean, cover them with water, and al- 
low them to simmer for about 2 hours over a slow fire : when brought 
to the proper strength or tenacity, which may be tested by the trial of 
a portion between tlie thumb and finger; if it proves adhesive pour 
it into a clean vessel for use. When solidified, it resembles a jelly; 
if very stiff, it will require dilution with water. Some gilders use a 
lactometer and a deep glass to determine the proper strength of size. 
When the float indicates a little higher than 1, for burnish size, and 
near 2, for matt gold size, excellent work will result. In the United 
States, some gilders substitute a ichite glue for parchment cuttings 
in the making of size. For Oil Gold Size, consult that item. 

Matt Gold Size is usually purchased from dealers ready made; 
it is prepared for use by intermixture, (in a clean vessel) over a slow 
fire, with parchment size, to the density of a thickish cream, and used 
while warm. 

Burnish Gold Size is often bought ready made from the deal^ 
er. Good results may be obtained by using red chalk, black lead, 
and deer suet, of each 2 ozs., finely ground to a stiff paste^ with 2 Ibsv 
of pipe clay, and for use prepared like matt size. 

Thick White for application to the i)arts intended to be burnish- 
ed, previous to putting on the burnish size, is a composition of parch-_ 
ment size and whitening, about the density of cream. 

Gilder's Ormolu. — ^Red Sanders wood 2 drs., turmeric 1 dr., 
garnet shellac 1 oz., spirits of wine J pt. : mix all together thoroughly 
and strain. This is added to medium strength parchment size in or- 
der to impart a more beautiful appearance to the matt and oil gilding. 

Clay for Gilder's Use is usually purchased from the dealers 
and is prepared similar to burnish size. 

The Stopping Composition used for filling holes and deficiencies 
in the work is a compound of size and whitening, brought to the 
density of putty. 

To Whiten Mouldings. — On gilded work to be exposed to the 
weather, paint is used as a foundation, and the gilding is done in oil 



CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS, &C., RECEIPTS. 287 

as burnished gilding is unfit to withstand exposure. This last named 
description of work must have a good base of whitening applied to the 
moulding previous to gilding. First apply a very hot thin priming 
coat of fine whitening and parchment size ; after this is dry, fill the 
holes, blemishes, and irregularities with the stopping composition; 
then apply a good coat of thick white, dry, and apply another. After 
applying several coats of the thick white, which should be in all about 
l-16th of an inch in thickness, pumice-stone should be applied to 
smooth off all irregularities and the surplus whiting. Make thorough 
work to ensure a fine smooth surface on the moulding, paying great 
attention to the different hollows, beads, &c. 

Composition for Ornaments. — Best glue, 9 lbs. 6 ozs. ; water 
5 pts. ; rosin (white) 4 lbs. ; raw linseed oil 4 pts. Boil the glue in the 
water until dissolved ; dissolve the rosin in the oil, add the whole to 
the glue mixture. Boil the whole slowly for 25 minutes longer, and 
pour the mixture into a large vessel among finely sifted whiting, and 
mix up to the consistency of thin putty. Set away in a damp place, 
and cover with a wet cloth ready for use. The ornaments are made 
by selecting a portion of the mixture, steaming it to a soft plastic con- 
dition (for the mixture becomes very hard when cold), and pressing 
witn the hands into a boxwood mould, previously well lubricated or 
smeared with oil and turpentine. The composition being fitted into 
the mould, a board thoroughly wet, is place. I against the mixture out- 
side the mould, and the whole is submitted to pressure in an iron 
screw press, which drives the mixture into the minutest parts of the 
mould. This done, the pressure is relaxed, and the mould taken from 
the press and the ornament withdrawn from it. The ornaments may be 
attached to the frame with glue or white lead ; and when they com- 
pose the corners on frames, require to have the vacant space between 
hacked or filled up with composition softened in boiling water. 

Gilding in Oil — The ornaments being properly adjusted and al- 
lowed full time to harden on the frame, the first step taken by the 
gilder is to wash and cleanse them, together with the frame, from the 
adherent oil and dust. This done, when dry, apply a uniform coat of 
thin white to the frame, and, after drying, fiU all the holes and defect- 
ive parts with the stopping described above. When this becomes 
hard, go over every part of the work and bring it to the utmost 
smoothness with fine glass paper. This part of the work must not be 
slighted if a good job is wanted, for it cannot be dispensed with. Now 
dust off the work and apply the clay prepared as described above ; al- 
low it to dry and rub smooth with fine glass paper once more. A coat 
of clear cole is now applied, consisting of parchment size diluted to a 
thinnish consistency with water. It is usual to apply 2 coats of this 
size in a warm condition. It effectually prevents the absorption of 
the succeeding coat of oil size. The gilder prepares the oil size (boiled 
linseed oil and ochre weU ground together) by bringing it to a creamy 
consistency, and purifies it by straining through a clean rag held un- 
der pressure, squeezing out the size. This preparation is spread very 
evenly over the prepared surface, and allowed to stand until it be- 
comes slightly sticky or tacky, when the knife, cushion and gold leaf 
are brought into requisition, and the leaf applied with the tip to the 
entire surface covered with the size. This process requires careful 
management ; the gilder blows the gold leaf out on the cushion with 
his breath, djvidps and subdivides it with his knife to cover the differ- 



288 CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS, &C., RECEIPTS. 

eiit wants of various parts of the work. The leaf is dabbed down 
with a dabber of cotton wool or other soft material, and finished with 
a badger. See Gilding Letters on Wood. The frame being now co^^- 
ered with the leaf, is brushed off to clear it from the small gold parti- 
cles still adhering, and is finally finished by applying the finish, size 
evenly with a hog's-hair brush over the work. The finish consists of 
a soniewhat weak, clear size, which may be tempered with a little or- 
molu if it is desired to 'impart a finer color to the gold. 

Water and Oil Gilding on Large, Broad^ Fraimes, &c.— Re- 
move all dust and dirt from the frame and ornaments, by thorough 
washing and brushing with plenty of clear water, being careful not to 
damage the ornaments while doing so, dry, and apply a coat of thin 
white, fill all holes and defects by stopping, and treat the parts in- 
tended to be burnished with three or four coats of tliick white, smooth- 
ing down the last coat when nearly dry, by passing the fingers over it. 
When dry, go over it with glass paper, making a complete smooth job ; 
next apply a coat of clmj, and smooth down with elass paper once 
more. Next, apply an even coat of size, and w^hen dry, apply another. 
The frame is next " put in oil" as above described, and subsequently, 
the parts intended to be burnished, which have received the coats of 
thick white, must be thoroughly cleaned from oil by careful rubbing 
with a wet piece of cotton applied by the finger, turning the rag at 
short intervals so as to present a clean surface to the work. Guard 
against touching any other parts of the frame with the wet cloth, as 
the mistake will have to be corrected with the oil brush. To make 
sure that no trouble will result from grease, it is necessary before lay- 
ing the gold, to apply clay to all i)arts intended to be burnished, in 
order to prevent any of the gold leaf from sticking, as it w^ould have 
to be removed with glass paper previous to applying other prepara- 
tions. The frame is then gilded as previously described, the leaf 
pressed into the cavities of the ornaments, &c., the defects corrected, 
the work brushed off, and size finished as above. The parts to be 
burnished or loater gilded, previously noted as being coated with clay, 
must now be treated to three or four coats of mat gold size, laid on 
evenly with a camel' s-hair brush. When dry, polish with fine glass 
paper, brush down, and pass over it afterwards with a damp sponge. 
Now apply 2 even coats of burnish gold size, and apply the leaf as 
soon as the last coat becomes dry. This is applied in a manner en- 
tirely different from that previously described. The frame being ele- 
vated at a proper angle to allow the surplus water to drain off, and 
the gold leaf, cushion, knife, tip, camel' s-hair pencils, glass of clean 
water, &c., being ready, i)roceed to gild the bead which passes around 
the frame between those parts which have previously been oil-gilt, by 
dipping a proper sized camel' s-hair pencil into the glass of water, wipe 
it on the edge, commence at the left hand extremity of the bead, wet- 
ting it for a space of 4 or 5 inches or more down, saturating it 
thoroughly with the water, and apply the gold leaf (previously cut to 
the i)roper size and held in readiness on the tip) very neatly and 
quickly to the spot while it is covered with water. Go over the bead, 
ornaments, and all parts intended to be burnished in this way, being 
extremely careful to allow no water to come in contact with the gilded 
part of the frame. When done, examine closely for faults, and repair 
all defects discovered, dry, and proceed to burnish by applying the 
curved part of the burnisher to the work, passing it hither and 



CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS, &C., RECEIPTS. 289 

thither over the gold with the right hand, assistmg the pressure and 
steadying the movement "by the thumb of the left. This results in 
bringing out a splendid burnish. Go over the work with particular 
care, bring out the full lustre of the gold, cover deficiences,^m5/i, size 
the frame once more, carefully avoiding the burnished j^arts ; finally, 
tinge the edge of the frame with ochre. In burnish gilding, on 
large frames, the conspicious parts of the frame, such as the beads, 
ornaments, &c., should be selected for operation. 

Brush Polish. — Shellac 4 ozs., white rosin 4 ozs., dissolve in 2 
pts. spirits of wine and applj^ while vrarm, with a brush. 

Cabinet Maker's Varnish. — Gum shellac 3 ozs., gum mastic 

1 oz., gum sandarac, 3 ozs., spirits of wine, 40 ozs. Dissolve the last 

2 in the spirits, then dissolve the shellac and pour off the clear for 
use. 

French Polish Reviver. — Linseed oil 1 pint, vinegar 4 ozs., 
Bpts. camphor 2 ozs., spts. hartshorn J oz., butter of antimony, 1 oz. 
Another. — Dissolve 8 ozs. shellac and J an oz. of oxalic acid in 2 lbs. 
naphtha, then add 3 ozs. linseed oil. 

Ebonized Black for Ebonizing Moulding Frames, &c. — 
Strong vinegar, 1 gal., ext. of logwood, 2 lbs., green copperas, Jib., 
China blue, i lb., nut-gall, 2 ozs. Simmer over a slow fire until all is 
dissolved ; set off and cool. Add to the above J pt. iron rust obtained 
by steeping iron filings in strong vinegar. An unequalled jet black. 

Satinwood Stain for the Inside of Drawers. — Alcohol 2 
pts., powdered gamboge, 3 ozs., ground turmeric, 6 ozs. Steep to 
obtain full strength, and strain through muslin. Apply 2 coats with 
a fine sponge, sandpaper when dry and varnish or French polish. 

AYalnut Stain on Pine or Whitewood. — Take 2 gals, of very 
thin sized shellac; add burnt sienna, 2 lbs., burnt umber, 2 lbs., lamp- 
black, J lb, ; shake all together and mix well in a stone j ug. Apply 
1 coat with a brush, dry ; sandpaper smooth, and apply a coat of com- 
mon varnish or shellac. A fine imitation of walnut. 

Cheap Black Stain on Pine or Whitewood. — Water, 2 gals., 
black copperas, 1 lb., logwood chips, 1 lb., ext. logwood, 1 lb., indigo 
blue, 1 lb., lamp-black, 2 ozs. ; simmer over a slow fire, cool off, 
strain, and add 1 oz. nut-gall. A splendid black stain for cheap 
work. 

To Gild a Wooden Flower Stand.— Rub the wood smooth, 
prime with glue size, then put on 2 coats of oil paint and one of flat- 
ting. Smooth over, when dry, with wash-leather. Put on gold size, 
and when it is sticky to the touch, it is ready for the leaf, which put 
on carefully and dab down with cotton-wool. A transparent glazing 
can be used to deaden the gold in places. 

Old Oak Imitation on White Deal. — Burnt umber, 1 part, 
brown ochre, 1 i^art, mix thoroughly with a very thin glue size and 
^PPly- -^ good oak stain is made by adding 1 lb. each of potash and 
pearlash to 1 gal. water, adding more water if a lighter staui is re- 
quired. 

Rosewood Imitation on White Deal. — Apply Venetian red 
and a little lamp-black in solution, with thin glue size. A good ma- 
hogany stain is Venetian red, 1 lb., yellow lead, 2 lbs. ; mix with 
thin glue size. WUnut stain on deal. — Burnt umber and yellow 
ochre in thin size. The above may be applied while warm with a 

19 



290 CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS, &C., RECEIPTS. 

soft rag or by dipping the wood into a vat containing the solution, a? 
is done with chairs, etc., in many manufactories. 

Mahogany Imitation on Beech. — Pulverized dragon's blood, 2 
ozs., rectified spts. of wine, 1 qt. 

Filling fok French Polished Work. — A creamy paste com- 
posed of water and plaster of Paris, applied with a coarse rag to the 
grain of the wood forms a good filling. Apply vigorously to the wood 
to fill the pores thoroughly, and wipe off the surplus. Finely sifted 
whitening, mixed Avith painter's drying oil, is another good fillmg 
composition. 

Splendid Crimson Spirit Stain. — Brazil-wood, loz., cochi- 
neal, 1 oz., dragon's-blood, 1 oz., saffron, 2 ozs. ; steep to obtain full 
strength, in 2 qts. alcohol and strain. 

Best Mounting Material. — Good Bermuda arrow root, 1 J ozs; 
sheet gelatine, 80 grains : mix the arrow root to a creamy consistence 
with a spoon, in 1 oz. of water ; then add 14 ozs. of water and the 
gelatine broken into fragments. Boil for 4 or 5 minutes, set it aside 
until partially cool, then add 1 oz. of methylated spirit, and 6 drops 
of carbolic acid, the former quite slowly. This article has no superi- 
or and will keep for years. 

To Clean Engravings. — Place the engraving on a smooth board 
with a sheet of clean paper between, damp the picture on both sides 
with a sponge and clean water; then soak it well with the following 
solution applied with a clean sponge: Water, 1 pt, chloride of lime, 
4 ozs. ; oxalic acid, 1 oz. This imparts a fine white appearance to dis- 
colored prints, but it must not be applied to water colors in any case, 
as it will certainly destroy them. 

To Revive the Colors of Old Paintings. — Mix linseed oil, 2 
ozs., with methylated chloroform, 1 oz. ; and apply a little over the 
painting, previously washii:;g it with clean water applied with a little 
cottonwool; wipe off the composition with a soft silk handkerchief 
during the next day. The mixture possesses the valuable property of 
restoring the faded colors of paintings. The vapor of alcohol has a 
like effect. 

To Preserve a Scaling or Cracked Painting.— Clean the 
painting very carefully with pure soft water, and pour over, or gently 
apply, a mixture of equal parts of methylated chloroform and linseed 
oil. Allow it to remain a day or two ; carefully wipe off tlie excess of 
pil, and apply more of the fresh mixture, wiping it off as before. Re- 
peat tlie process until the colors become fixed, and the painting be- 
comes flexible, when it may be cleaned and varnished. 

Varnish for Paintings. — No better varnish for paintings can be 
liad than that made from good, ripe, clean, gum mastic and rectified 
turpentine, fully matured by an exposure of several months in a wide 
mouthed glass bottle. Cover the bottle so as to admit air, but no 
dust, and set it in the light, but out of the sun. 

To Preserve Paintings Indefinitely. — Yarnish the painting 
on both sides, and hermetically seal with well fitting sheets of polished 
glass on the front, and apply a good coat of air proof material to the 
back. According to Wagner, the real cause of the ultimate destruc- 
tion of pictures as well as of paint, is the gradual, but continuous, 
yet slow, oxidation of the linoxine, resulting in the crumbling to 
powder of pulverulent matters— pigments usedas ^/olors. It may not 



CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS, &C., RECEIPTS. 291 

be out of place to state that one of the best solvents of linoxine (dried 
paint) is a mixture of alcohol and chloroform, which may be ad- 
vantageously used to remove stains of paint, and also of wagon and 
carriage grease from silks and woollen tissues. 

To Remove Old Black Vaknish from Paintings.— Various 
articles as soda, naptha, spirits of wine, oil of tartar, &c., will effect 
this, if carefully handled by an experienced person, or the following 
mixture may be appUed to the painting with a dabber of cotton wool : 
Wood spirits, 4 ozs. ; linseed oil J pt. spirits of salts, 2 ozs. Go over 
the painting, imparting a spiral movement to the rubbing wad, keep- 
ing the picture level and the rubber clean. Watch the progress of the 
work, takmg care not to go too far, and finish by wiping with a clean 
rag wet with spirits of turpentine. 

To Whiten Plaster Casts, &c.— If the uncalcined plaster is im- 
mersed for 15 minutes in water containing 8 or 10 per cent, of sul- 
phuric acid previous to burning it, it will after being calcined, set 
more slowly, and make splendid casts, which will be perfectly white. 
Semi-transparent casts of fancy articles can be made of unbaked 
gypsum, 2 parts, bleached bees- wax, 1 pai-t; parafRne, 1 part. It is 
very tough and becomes plastic at 120°. Plaster casts will bear a nail 
driven in them without fracture if they are immersed in a hot solution 
of glue long enough to become saturated. To mend Plaster Models, 
use sandarac varnish, saturating the broken surfaces well, then pres- 
sing them together, then drying. As an application to the inside 
Plaster Moulds use glycerine, or a mixture of lard and oil. 

To Polish Pianos, Furniture, French Polish, &c.— The fol- 
lowing method of polishing pianos is in use in all first class factories. 
The same process will answer for any other piece of furniture, by 
merely substituting for the scraping, where scrapmg is not practica- 
ble, a filling, properly colored : First, give the work three coats of 
scraping or No. 2 furniture varnish, allowing each coat to become per- 
fectly hard before applying the next ; then scrape off the varnish with 
a steel scraper, properly sharpened on an oilstone, and in scraping be 
careful not to cut into the wood, but merely remove the varnish from 
the surface, leaving the pores filled. Smooth with No. 1 sandpaper, 
and the work will be ready for the polishing varnish,' four coats of 
which must be put on, allowing each coat to harden. To determine 
the proper time required for the hardening. I would say that one coat 
will not be ready for the next until it is so hard that you cannot make 
an impression on it with your thumb nail. The four coats having been 
put on, and the work having stood a few days— and the longer the bet- 
ter-rub down with fine-ground pumice-stone and water, applied with 
a woolen rag. The work must be rubbed until aU lumps and marks 
of the brush are removed ; wash off Avith a sponge and dry with a 
chamois-skin : let the work stand out in the open air for a day or two, 
taking it into the shop at night. The work should now receive two 
coats more of polishing varnish and a second rubbing, after which it 
is ready for polishing. 

Furniture may be polished after the first rubbing, and in that case 
the polishing is performed with lump rotten-stone and water applied 
with a woollen rag. Put plenty of rotten-stone on your work, with 
water enough to make it work easy. Rub until all marks and 
scratches are removed. Rub the rotten-stone off with your bare hand 
Keeping the work wet. What cannot be removed with the hand should 



292 CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS', &C., RECEIPTS, 

be washed off witli a sponge. After drying with a chamois-skm, bring 
up the polish with the palm of your hand, moving it lightly and 
quickly with a circular motion, over the work. Clean up the work 
with a piece of soft cotton, dipped into sweet oil, and lightly touch all 
the white spots and marks of the rotten-stone. Remove the oil with 
wheat flour, applied with soft cotton, and finally dust off with a soft 
rag or silk handkerchief. 

The following method is known as the Shellac or French Polish. 
In preparmg for this process, add to one pint of Shellac varnish two 
tablespoonfiils of boiled oil; the two to be thoroughly mixed. If you 
want the work dark, add a little burnt umber ; or you can give the 
Avork any desired shade by mixing with the shellac the proper pig- 
ment in the dry state. Applv the shellac thus prepared with a small 
bunch of rags held between your fingers. In applying it be particular 
in getting it on smooth and even, leavmg no thick places or blotches. 
Repeat the process continually until the grain is filled and the work 
has received sufficient body. Let it stand a few hours to harden, and 
then rab your work lightly with pumice-stone and oil, applied with a 
rag. A very little rubbing is required, and this is to be followed by 
the cleaning of the work with rags as dry as possible. With a piece 
of muslin wet with alcohol, go over the work two or three times, for 
the purpose of killing the oil. Have ready i lb. of pure gum shellac 
dissolved in one pint of 95 per cent, alcohol. With this saturate a pad 
made of soft cotton, covered Avith white muslin, and with the pad thus 
formed go over your work tvyo or three times. To become proficient 
in this work, practice and close attention are required. 

Walnut Stain for Wood. — Water, 1 gal. ; Vandyke brown, 10 
ozs. ; bichromate of potash, 1 oz. ; washing soda, 6. ozs. ; boil 10 
minutes, immerse the article, or apply with a brush as desired. 

Gold Bronze for Furniture. — Mix copal varnish with gold- 
colored bronze powder. This is made from bisulphate of tin. 

To Ebonize Wood. — Mix lampblack with good French polish and 
appl7 in the usual way. The lampblack may be collected on a tin held 
over a kerosene oil lamp, or lighted candle. 

Reviver for Gilt Frames. — White of eggs, 2 ozs. ; chloride of pot- 
ash or soda, 1 oz. ; mix well; blow off the dust from the frames; then 
go over them with a soft brush dipped in the mixture, and they will 
be equal to new. 

Bad Smell from Aniivial Size. — To remove bad smell pass it 
through powdered charcoal. To preserve it, dissolve cue ounce of 
sulphate of zinc, generally known as white copperas, in hot water, and 
add to everv 5 cwt. It will keep any length of time. Melt your size, 
and thoroughly mix it. 

Polishing Brass and Stone.— Plate-glass may be polished by 
rubbing with emery and Avater, the emery being of a greater degree of 
fineness as the Avork progresses, until at last by employing an impal- 
pable A^ariety prepared by suspending emery in water for an hour or 
more. Of course no scratches must exist in the Avork when the polish- 
ing operation begins ; such must have been removed by means of a 
coarser emery flour. Stones, such as Brighton pebbles, &c., are often 
cut and polished on a rapidly revolving leaden disc, the surface of 
which is loaded with diamond dust, emery, or tripoli, according to the 
stone under operation. 

Soluble Glass.— I. Silica, 1 part, carbonate of soda, 2 parts; fuse 
together. 2. Carbonate of soda (dry) 54 i)arts; dry carbonate of 



CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 293 

potassa, 70 parts ; silica, 192 parts ; soluble in boiling water, yielding 
a fine, transparent semi-elastic Yamish. 3. Carbonate of potassa 
(dry), 10 parts ; powdered quartz (or sand free from iron or alumina), 
15 parts ; charcoal, 1 part ; all fused together. Soluble in 5 or G 
times its weight of boiling water. The filtered solution evaporated to 
dryness, yields a transparent glass, permanent in the air. 

Glass Staining. — The following colors after having been prepared, 
and rubbed upon a plate of ground-glass, with the spirits of turjDen- 
tine or lavender thickened in the air, are applied with a hair-pencil. 
Before using them, however, it is necessary to try them on small 
pieces of glass, and expose them to the fire, to ascertain if the desired 
tone of color is produced. The artist must be guided by these ]n^oof- 
pieces in using his colors. The glass proper for receiving these ])ig- 
ments must be colorless, uniform, and difficult of fusion. A desi.gn 
must be draAvn on paper, and placed beneath the plate of glass. The 
upper side of the glass, being sponged over with gum-water, affords, 
when dry, a surface proper for receiving the colors vdthout the risk 
of running irre,^ularly, as they would othei-wise do on the slippery 
glass. The artist draws on the plate (usually in black), with a fine 
pencil, all the traces which mark the great outlines or shades of the 
figures. Afterwards, when it is dry, the vitrifying colors are laid on 
by means of larger hair-pencils ; their selection bemg regulated by 
the burnt specimen-tints above mentioned. The following are all 
fast colors, which do not run, except the yellow, which must therefore 
be Liid on the opposite side of the glass. The preparations being all 
laid on, the glass is ready for being fired in a muffle, in order to fix 
and bring out the proper colors. ^ The muffle must be made of very 
refractory fire-clay, fiat at its bottom, and only five or six inches high, 
with a strong arched roof, and close on all sides, to exclude smoke 
and flame. On the bottom, a smooth bed of sifted lime, freed from 
water, about half an inch thick, must be prepared for receiving the 
glass. Sometimes, several plates of glass are laid over each other, 
with a layer of lime powder between each. The fire is now lighted, 
and very gi-adually raised, lest the glass should be broken ; then keep 
it at a full heat for three or four hours, more or less, according to the 
indications of the trial slips ; the yellow coloring being principally 
watched, it furnishmg the best criterion of the state of the others. 
When all is right, let the fire die out, so as to anneal the glass. 

Stained- Glass Pigments. — No. 1. Flesh-color. — ^Red lead, 1 oz. ; 
red enamel (Venetian glass enamel, from alum and copperas calcined 
together) : grind them to a fine powder, and work this up with al- 
cohol upon a hard stone. When slightly baked, this produces a fine 
flesh-color. No. 2. Black color.— Take 14i oz. of smithy scales of 
iron ; mix them with 2 oz. of white glass : antimony, 1 oz. manganese, 
^ oz. ; pound and grind these ingredients together with strong vinegar. 
iio. 3. Brown coZo?\— White glass or enamel, 1 oz. ; good manganese. 
J oz. ; grind together. No. 4. Bed, Bose and Broion colors are 
made from peroxide of iron, prepared by nitric acid. The flux con- 
sists of borax, sand, and mmium, in small quantities. Bed color may 
likewise be obtained from 1 oz. of red chalk, pounded, mixed with 2 
oz. white, hard enamel, and a little peroxide of copper. A red may 
also be composed of rust of iron, glass of antimony, yellow glaps of 
lead, such as is used by potters, or litharge, each m equal quantities, 



294 CABINETMAKERS, TAINTERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 

to wliicli a little sulphuret of silver is added. This composition, well 
ground, produces a very fine red color on glass. No. 5. Green. — 2 oz. 
of brass, calcined into an oxide ; 2 oz. of minium, and 8 oz. of white 
sand ; reduce them to a fine powder, which is to be enclosed in a 
well-luted crucible, and heated strongly in an air furnace for an hour. 
When the mixture is cold, grind it in a brass mortar. Green may, 
however, be advantageously produced, by a yellow on one side and a 
blue on the other. Oxide of chrome lias also been employed ; to 
stain glass green. No. 6. A fine yelloio stain. — Take fine silver, lam- 
inated thin, dissolve in nitric acid, dilute with abundance of water, 
and precipitate with solution of sea-salt ; mix this chloride of silver 
in a dry powder, with three times its weight of pipe-clay well burnt 
and pounded. The back of the glass pane is to be i^inted with 
this powder ; for, when painted on the face, it is apt to run into 
the other colors. A pale yelloio can be made by mixing sulphuret of 
silver with glass of antimony and yellow ochre, previously calcined 
to a red brown tint. Work all these powders together, and paint on 
the back of the glass. Or silver lamincR^ melte'd with sulphur and 
glass of antimony, thrown into cold water and afterwards ground to 
powder, affords a yellow. A jmle yelloio may be made with the 
powder resulting from brass, sulphur, and glass of antimony, calcined 
together in a crucible till they cease to smoke, and then mixed with 
a little burnt ochre. The^?ie yellow of M. Meraud is prepared from 
chloride of silver, oxide of zinc, and rust of iron. This mixture, 
simply ground, is applied on the glass. Orange color. — Take 1 i^art 
of silver powder, as precipitated from the nitrate of that metal, by 
plates of copper, and washed ; mix with 1 part of red ochre, and 1 of 
yellow, by careful trituration ; grind into a thin pap, with oil of tur- 
I)entine or lavender : ai^ly this with a brush, and burn in. 

To Silver Looking Glasses. — A sheet of tin-foil corresponding to 
the size of the plate of glass is evenly spread on a perfectly smooth 
aivi solid marble table, and every wrinkle on its surface is carefully 
rubbed down with a brush : a portion of mercury is then poured on, 
and rubbed over the foil with a clean piece of soft woollen stuff, after 
which, two rules are applied to the edges, and mercury poured on to 
the depth of a crown piece ; when any oxide on the surface is care- 
fully removed, and the sheet of glass, perfectly clean and dry, is slid 
along over the surface of the liquid metal, so that no air, dirt, or 
oxide can possibly either remain or get between them. When the 
glass has arrived at its proper position, gentle pressure is applied, 
and the table sloped a little to carry off the waste mercury ; after 
Avhich it is covered with flannel, aud loaded with heavy weights ; in 
twenty-four hours it is removed to another table, and further slanted, 
and this position is progressively increased during a month, till it 
becomes perpendicular. 

Porcelain Colors. — The following are some of the colors used 
in the celebrated porcelain manufactory of Sevres, and the propor- 
tions in Avhich they are compounded. Though intended for porcelain 
painting, nearly all are apiplicablo to painting on glass. Flux No. 1 
minum or red lead, 3 parts ; white sand, washed, 1 part. This mixture 
is melted, by which it is converted into a greenish-colored glass. 
Flux No. 2. Gray flux. — Of No. 1, 8 parts ; fused borax in powder, 1 
part. This mixture is melted. Flux No. 3. For carmines and (jreeii. 



CABINET3IAKERS. PAINTEKS'. &C., RECEIPTS. 295.' 

— ^IMelt together fused borax, 5 parte , calcined flints, 3 parts ; pure 
minum, 1 part. No. 1. Indif/o blue.— OxidQ of cobalt, 1 part ; flux 
No. 3, 2 parts. Deep azure b'hie.— Oxide of cobalt, Ipart; oxide of 
zinc, 2 parts ; flux No. 3, 5 parts. No. 2. Emerald Green.— Oxida of 
copper, 1 part ; antimonic acid, 10 parts ; flux No, 1, 30 parts. Pul- 
verize together, and melt. No. 3. Grass (freen. — Green oxide of 
chromium. 1 part ; flux No. 3, 3 parts. Triturate and melt. No. 4. 
Yelloio. — Antimonic acid, Ipart ; subsulphate of the peroxide of iron, 
8 parts ; oxide of zinc, 4 parts ; flux No. 1, 36 parts. Rub up together 
«nnd melt. If this color is too deep the salt of iron is diminished. No. 
5. Fixed yellow for touches. — No. 4, 1 part ; "white enamel of com- 
merce, 2 parts. Melt and pour out ; if not sufficiently fixed, a little 
sand may be added. No. G. Deejy Nankin ?/eZ^oi(;.— Subsulphate of 
iron, 1 part ; oxide of zinc, 2 parts ; flux No. 2, 8 parts. Triturate 
without melting. No. 7. Deep rccZ.— Subsulphate of iron, calcined in 
a muffle until it becomes of a beautiful capucine red, 1 part ; flux No. 
2, 3 parts. Mix without melting. No. 8. Liver hroion.—Oxida of 
iron made of a red brown, and mixed Tvith three times its weight of 
flux No. 2. A tenth of sieima earth is added to it, if it is not deep 
enough. No. 9. White. — The white enamel of commerce, in cakes. 
No. 10. Deep black. — Oxide of cobalt, 2 parts ; copper, 2 parts ; oxide 
of manganese, 1 part ; flux No. 1, G parts ; fused borax, \ part. Melt, 
and add oxide of manganese, 1 part ; oxide of copper, 2 parts. Trit- 
urate without melting. The Application.— YoWo^y the general direc- 
tions given in another part of this work, in relation to staining glass. 

How TO Write on Glass in the Sun. — Dissolve chalk in aqua- 
fortis to the consistency of milk, and add to that a strong dissolution 
of silver. Keep this in a glass decanter well stopped. Then cut out 
from a paper the letters you will have appear, and paste the paper on 
the decanter or jar, which you are to place in the sun in such a man- 
ner that its rays may pass through the spaces cut out of the paper, and 
fall on the surface of the liquor. The part of the glass tlirough whicli 
the rays pass will turn black, whilst that under the paper Avill remain 
white. Do not shako the bottle during the operation. Used in let- 
tering jars. 

To Stain or Color Glass.— For amethyst, oxide of manganese 
is used ; blue, oxide of cobalt ; for broion, oxide of iron ; for c/reeUj 
black oxide of copper ; for purple, oxide of gold ; for ruhy red, sub- 
oxide of copper ; for white, oxide of tin ; for yellow, oxide of silver, 
&c. These substances pure and well powdered, are either added to 
the melted contents of the glass-pot, or are applied to the surface as 
in glass staining. Fine Blue. To 10 lbs. of flint glass, previously 
melted and cast into water, add zaff er, 6 drs. ; calcined copper, J oz. ; 
prepared by putting sheet copper into a crucible, and exposhig it to 
the action of a fire not strong enough to melt the copper, and you will 
have the copper in scales, which you pound. — Bright Purple. Use 10 
lbs. flint glass as before ; zafferS drs.; precipitate of calcium. 1 dr. 
Gold Yelloio. Flint glass 28 lbs., of the tartar which is found in 
urine, i 1J3., purify by putting in a crucible on the fire until it ceases 
to smoke, and add manganese, 2 ozs. 

Bottle Glass.— No. 1. Dark Green.— Yiised glauber-salts, 11 lbs.: 
Boapcr salts, 12 lbs. ; waste soap-ashes, i bush. ; silicious sand, J 
cwt. ; glass-skimmings, 22 lbs. ; broken green glass, 1 cwt.to IJ cwt. ; 



296 CABINETMAKERS, TAIXTERS", &C.5 RECEIPTS. 

basalt, 25 lbs. to i cwt. N'o. 2. Fale Green.— Paid sand, 100 lbs. ; 
kelp, 35 lbs. ; lixiviated wood-asbes, IJ cwt. ; fresh do., 40 lbs. ; 
l^ipe-clay, | cwt. ; cullet, or broken glass, 1 cwt. No. 3. Yellow or 
white sand, 120 parts ; wood-ashes, 80 parts ; pearl-ashes, 20 parts ; 
common salt, 15 parts ; white arsenic, 1 part ; very pale. Crystal 
Glass. — Xo.l. Refined potashes, 60 lbs. ; sand, 120 lbs. ; chalk, 24 
lbs. ; nitre and white arsenic, of each, 2 lbs. ; oxide of manganese, 1 
to 2 oz. No. 2. Pure white sand, 120 parts ; refined ashes, 70 x:)arts ; 
saltpetre, 10 imrts ; white arsenic, J part ; oxide of manganese, J part. 
No. 3. Sand, 120 parts ; red-lead, 50 parts ; purified pearlash, 40 
parts ; nitre, 20 parts ; manganese, J part. Flask Glass {of St. 
Etienne). — Pure silicious sand, 61 parts ; potash, 3J parts ; lime, 21 
parts ; heavy spar, 2 parts ; oxide of manganese, q.'^s. Best German 
Crystal Glass. — Take 120 lbs. of calcined flints or white sand ; best 
pearlash, 70 lbs. ; saltpetre, 10 lbs. ; arsenic, J lb. ; and 5 oz magnesia. 
No. 2. (C/ieqper.)— Sand or flint, 120 lbs. ; pearlash, 46 lbs. ; nitre, 7 
lbs. ; arsenic, 6 lbs. ; magnesia, 5 oz. This will require a long 
continuance in the furnace, as do all others when much of the arsenic 
is used. Plate Glass. — No. 1. Pure sand, 40 parts ; dry carbonate of 
soda, 26i parts ; lime, 4 parts ; nitre, IJ parts ; broken plate glass, 25 
parts. No. 2. lire's. — Quartz-sand, 100 parts ; calcined sulphate of 
soda, 24 parts ; lime, 20 parts ; cullet of soda-glass, 12 parts. No. 
3. Vienna. — Sand, 100 parts ; calcined sulphate of soda, 50 parts ; 
lime, 20 parts ; charcoal, 2J parts. No. 4. French. — White quartz 
sand and cullet, of each 300 parts ; dry carbonate of soda, 100 parts ; 
slaked lime, 43 parts. Crown Glass. — No. 1. Sand, 300 lbs. ; soda- 
ash, 200 lbs. ; lime SO to 35 lbs. ; 200 to 300 lbs. of broken glass. No. 
2. (Bohemian.) — Pure silicious yand, 63 parts ; potash, 22 imrts ; lime, 
12 parts ; oxide of manganese, 1 part. No. 3. {Prof. Schiveigr/ers.) — 
Pure sand, 100 lbs. ; dry sulphate of soda, 50 parts ; drjr quicklime m 
powder, 17 to 20 parts ; charcoal, 4 parts. Product, white and good. 
Best Window- Glass. —No. 1. Take of white sand, 60 lbs. ; puri- 
fied pearlashes, 30 lbs. ; of saltpetre, 15 lbs. ; of borax, 1 lb. ; of arsenic, 
J lb. This will be very clear and colorless if the ingredients be good, 
and not be very dear. No. 2. ( Cheaper. ) — ^White sand, 60 lbs. ; im- 
purified pearl-ashes, 25 lbs. ; of common salt, 10 lbs. ; nitre, 5 lbs. ; 
arsenic, 2 lbs. ; magnesia, IJ oz. No. 3. Common green window- 
glass. — ^Vhite sand, 60 lbs. ; "unpurified pearlashes, 30 lbs. ; common 
salt, 10 lbs. ; arsenic, 2 lbs. ; magnesia, 2 oz. LooTcing-Glass Plate. 
— No. 1. Cleansed white sand, 60 lbs. : pearlashes, purified, 25 lbs. ; 
saltpetre, 15 lbs. ; borax, 7 lbs. This composition should be contin- 
ued long in the fire, which should be sometimes strong and after- 
wards more moderate, that the glass may be entirely free from bub- 
bles before it be worked. No. 2. White sand, 60 lbs. ; pearlashes, 20 lbs. ; 
common salt, 10 lbs. ; nitre, 7 lbs. ; borax, 1 lb. This glass will run 
with, as little heat as the former ; but it T\aLl be more brittle, and 
refract the rays of light in a greater degree. No. 3. Washed white 
sand, 60 lbs. ; purified pearlashes, 25 lbs. ; nitre, 15 lbs. ; borax, 7 
lbs. If properly managed, this glass will be colorless. Window 
Glass. — No. 1. Dried sulphate of soda, 11 lbs. ; soaper salts, 10 lbs. ; 
lixiviated soap waste, ^ bush. ; sand, 50 to 60 lbs. ; glass-pot slvim- 
mings, 22 lbs. ; broken^^aZe green glass, 1 cwt. No. 2. {Paler.) — ^Whito 
sand, 60 lbs. ; pearl-ashes, 30 lbs. ; common salt 10 lbs. ; arsenic, 10 



CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS,' &C., RECEIPTS. 297 

lbs. ; oxide of manganese, 2 to 4 oz. No. 3. (Very Pale.)— White 
sand, 60 lbs. ; good pot ashes, 25 lbs. ; common salt 10 lbs. ; nitre, 5 
lbs. : arsenic, 2 lbs. : manganese, 2 to 4 oz. as required ; broken pa?e 
window glass, 14 lbs. 

Colored Potters' Glazings.— TFTiiie ; prepare an intimate mix- 
ture of 4 parts of massicot, 2 of tin ashes, 3 fragments of ciystal glass, 
and 4 part of sea salt. The mixture is suffered to melt in earthen- 
ware vessels, when the liquid flux may be used. Yellow ; take equal 
parts of massicot, red lead and sulphuret of antimony, calcine the 
mixture, and reduce it again to powder, add then 2 parts of pure 
sand, and IJ parts of salt ; melt the whole. Green ; 2 parts of sand, 
3 parts massicot, 1 part of salt and copper scales, according to the 
shade to be produced : melt and use. Violet ; 1 part massicot, 3 
parts sand, 1 of smalt, J part of black oxide of manganese ; melt. 
Blue ; white sand and massicot, equal parts ; blue smalt, J part ; 
melt. Black ; black oxide of manganese, 2 parts ; smalt J part ; 
burned quartz, 1 part ; massicot, Ij parts ; melt. Broivn ; green 
bottle glass, 1 part ; manganese, 1 part ; lead, 2 parts, melt. 

Mortar, Plaster, &g.— 22 kinds.— 1. Stone 3/or/ar.— Cement, 
8 parts; lime, 3 imrts; sand, 31 parts. 2. Mortar. — Lime, 1 part; shai-p, 
clean sand, 2\ parts. An excess of water in slaking the lime swells 
the mortar, which remains light and porous, or shrinks in drying : an 
excess of sand destroys the cohesive properties of the mass. 3. 
Broion Mortar. — Lime, 1 part; sand, 2 parts, aud a small quantity of 
hair. 4. BricTc Mortar. — Cement, 3 parts; lime, 3 parts; sand, 27 
parts. Lime and sand, and cement and sand, lessen al)out J, in 
volume when mixed together. 5. Turkish Mortar. — Powdered brick 
and tiles, 1 part ; fine sifted lime, 2 parts ; mix to a proper consistency 
with water, and lay on layers of 5 or 6 inches thick between the 
courses of brick or stone. Very useful on massive or very solid 
buildings. 6. Interior Plastenng — Coarse Stuff. — Common lime 
mortar as made for brick masonry, with a small quantity of hair ; or 
by volumes, lime paste (30 lbs. lime,) 1 part; sand, 2 to 2^ parts; hair, 
J part. When full time for hardening cannot be allowed, substitute 
from 15 to 20 per cent, of the lime by an equal portion of hydraulic 
cement. For the second or broion coat the proportion of hair may be 
slightly diminished. 7. Fine Stuff.— (Lime putty) : Lump lime slaked 
to a paste with a moderate volume of Avater, and afterwards diluted to 
the consistency of cream, and then harden by evaporation to the re- 
quired consistency for working. In this state it is used as a slipped 
coat, and when mixed with sand or plaster of Paris, it is used for the 
finishing coat. 8. Gauge Stuff or Hard Finish is composed of 3 or 4 
volumes of fine stuff and 1 volume of plaster of Paris, in proportions 
regulated by the degree of rapidity required in hardening for cornices, 
&c., the proportions are equal volumes of each, fine stuff and plaster. 
9. Stucco is composed of from 3 to 4 volumes of white sand to 1 
volume of fine stuff or lime putty. 10. Saxitch Coat.— The first of 3 
coats when laid upon laths, and is from J to g of an inch in thickness. 

11. One Coat irorA;.- Plastering in 1 coat without finish, either on 
masonry or laths that is rendered or laid. Work on well. 

12. Tivo Coat T^o?'^^— Plastering in 2 coats is done either in a laying 
coat and set or in a screed coat and set. The Screed Coat is also termed 
a Floated Coat. Laying the first coat in two coat work is resorted to 



298 CABINETMAKERS, TAINTERS', &C., RECEIPTS 

in common work instead of screeding, when tlio finished surface in 
not required to be exact to a straight edge. It is laid in a coat of 
about I incli in thickness. The laying coat, except for very common 
work, should be hand floated, as the tenacity and firmness of the 
work is much increased thereby. Screeds are strips of mortar, 2G to 
"28 inches in width, and of the required thickness of the first coat, ap- 
plied to the angles of a room or edge of a wall and parallcUy, at in- 
tervals of 3 to 5 feet over the surface to be covered. When these 
have become sufficiently hard to withstand the pressure of a straight 
edge, the interspaces between the screeds should be filled out flush 
with them, so as to produce a continuous and straight, even surface. 
Slipped Coat is the smoothing off of a brown coat with a small 
quantity of lime putty, mixed with three i:>er cent of white sand so as 
to make a comx^aratively even surface. This finish answers when the 
surface is to be finished in distemper or pax^er. Hard Finish : Eino 
Ftuff appHed with a trowel to tlie depth of about J of an inch. 10. 
Cement for External Use. — Ashes, 2 parts; clay, 3 parts; sand, 1 
])art; mix with a little oil. Very durable. 14. Compositions for 
Streets and Roads. — Bitumen, 1G.875 parts ; asphaltum, 2.25 parts; oil 
of resin, G.25; sand, 1.35 parts. Thicloicss from IJ to 1| inches. 
Asphaltum, 55 lbs., and gravel 28.7 lbs. will cover an area of 10.75 
square feet. 15. Asphalt Composition. — Mineral pitch, 1 part: bitu- 
men, 11 parts; powdered stone or wood ashes, 7 parts. IG. Asphalt 
Mastic is composed of nearly pure carbonate of lime and about 9 or 
10 per cent, of bitumen. When in a state of powder it is mixed with 
about 7 per cent, of bitumen or mineral pitch. The powdered asphalt 
is mixed with the bitumen in a melted state along with clean gravel, 
and consistency is given to pour it into moulds. The asphalt is duc- 
tile, and has elasticity to enable it, with the small stones sifted upon 
it, to resist ordinaiy wear. Sun and .rain do not affect it, wear and 
tear do not seem to injure it. The pedestrian in many cities in the 
United States and Canada, can readily detect its presence on the side- 
walk by its peculiar yielding to the foot as ho steps over it. It is also 
a most excellent roofing material when rightly apj^lied, it being on 
record in France that a stout roof of this material withstood the ac- 
cidental fall of a stack of chimneys, with the only effect of bruising 
the mastic, readily repaired. 17. Asphalt for Walks. — Take 2 parts 
very dry lime rubbish, and 1 part coal ashes, also very dry, all sifted 
fine. In a dry place, on a dry day, mix them, and leave a hole in 
the middle of the heap, as bricklayers do when making mortar. Into 
this pour boiling hot coal tar; mix, and when as stiff as mortar, put it 
three inches thick where the walk is to be ; the ground should be dry 
and beaten smooth ; sprinkle over it coarse sand. When cold, pass 
a light roller over it; in a few days the walk wiU be solid and water- 
proof. 18. Mastic Cement for Covering the Fronts of Houses. — Fifty 
parts, by measure, of dean dry sand, 50 of limestone (not burned) 
reduced to grains like sand, or marble dust, and 10 j^arts of red lead, 
mixed with as much boiled linseed oil as will make it slightly moist. 
The bricks to receive it, should be covered with three coats of boiled 
oil, laid on with a brush, and suffered to dry before the mastic is put 
on. It is laid on with a trowel like plaster, but it is not so moist. It 
becomes hard as stone in a few months. Care must bo exercised not 
to use too much oil. 19. Cement for ri7e-i?oo/5.— Equal parts of whit- 



CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS', «&C., RECEIPTS. 299 

ing and dry sand, and 25 per cent, of litliarge, made into the consist- 
ency of puttj^ with linseed oil. It is not liable to crack when cold, nor 
melt, like coal-tar and asphalt, with the heat of the sun. 20. Cement 
for Outside of Bnck Walls. — Cement for the outside of brick walls, 
to imitate stone, is made of clean sand, 90 parts ; litharge, 5 parts ; 
plaster of Paris, 5 parts; moistened with boiled linseed oil. The 
l3ricks should receive two or tliree coats of oil before the cement is 
applied. 21. Water Lime at Fifty Cents per Barrel, — Fine clean sand, 
100 lbs. ; quick-lime in powder, 28 lbs. ; bone ashes, 14 lbs. ; for use, 
beat up with water, and use as quick as possible. 22. Cement for 
Seams in Roofs. — Take equal quantities of white lead and white sand, 
and as much oil as wiUmake it into the consistence of putty. It will 
in a few weeks become as hard as stone. 

Silver Polish KALSOisnNE. — Take 7 lbs. of Paris white and J lb. 
of light colored glue. Set the glue in a tin vessel containing 3 pts. of 
water, let it stand over night to soak, then put it in a kettle of 
boiling water over the fire, stirring till it is well dissolved and quite 
thm. Then, after putting the Paris white into a large water pail, 
pour on hot water and stir it till appears like thick milk. Now mingle 
the glue liquid with the whiting, stir it thoroughly and api)ly with a 
whitewash brush, or a largo paint brush. 

JIEASUKEIklENT OF STONE OR BRX^K -WORK. 

1. Perchj Masons^ or Quarrymens* Measure. 

IGi feet long ) ( 

IG inches wide > = < 22 cubic feet. To be 5 v^asured in wall. 

12 " high) ( 

J8*Sche^^fidel = j 24.75 cubic feet. To V'O :tieasured in 

12 - high) I P^^- 

1 cubic yard = 3 feet X 3 feet X 3 feet = 27 cubic fee\ The cubic 
yard has become the standard for all contract work of Tate years. 
Stone walls less than IG inches thick count as if IG inches thick to 
masons; over 16 inches thick, each additional inch is counted. 

^^JaIBER of brick required in wall per square f oot face of 

WALL. 

Thickness of wall. Thickness o.'. wall. 



4 inches 


"ih 


8 " 


15 


12 " 


22i 


IG " 


30 


20 " 


37i 



24 inches 


46 


28 " 


52i 


32 " 


GO 


36 " 


67^ 


42 " 


•^5 



Cubic yard = 600 bricks in wall. 
Perch (22 cubic feet) = 500 bricks in wall. 
To pave 1 sq. yard on flat requires 48 bricks. 
n u 2 '^ " edge " 68 " 
Best Wash for Barns and Houses.— AYater lime, 1 peck; 
freshly slaked lime, 1 peck; yellow ochre in powder, 4 lbs.; burnt 



300 CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 

umber, 4 lbs. To "be dissolved in hot water, and applied with a 
brush. 

Durable Outside Paikt. — Take 2 parts (in bulk) of water lime, 
j^round fine; Ipart (in bulk) of white lead, in oil. Mix them 
thoroughly, by adding best boiled linseed oil, enough to prepare it to 
pass through a paint-mill; after which, temper with oil tiU it can bo 
applied with a conunon paint brush. Make any color to suit. It will 
lust 3 times as long as lead paiat. It is superior. 

Farmers' Paint. — ^Farmers will find the following profitable for 
house or fence paint : skim milk, two quarts ; fresh slaked lime 8 
oz. ; linseed oil, 6 oz. ; white Burgundy pitch, 2 oz. ; Spanish white, 
3 lbs. The lime is to be slaked in water, exposed to the air, and then 
mixed with about one-fourth of the milk ; the oil in which the pitch is 
•dissolved to be added a little at a time, then the rest of the milk, and 
afterwards the Spanish white. This is sufficient for twenty-seven 
yards, 2 coats. This is for white paint. If desirable, any other color 
may be produced ; thus, if a cream color is desired, in place of part of 
the Spanish white use the other alone. 

ESTIMATE OF JttATERIALS AlfD LABOR FOR 100 SQUARE YARDS OF 
liATH AND PLASTER. 



Materials 


Three coats 


Two Coats 


Materials 


Three coats 


Two coats 


and Labor. 


hard finish. 


Slipped. 


and T-abor. 


hard finish. 


Shpped. 


Lime . . . 


4 Casks. 


sy^ casks. 


WliiteSand 


2yo bushs. 




T-nTYipLiine 


% " 




Nails. . . 


13 'lbs. 


13 lbs. 


Plaster of 






Masons . . 


4 days. 


31^ days. 


Paris . . 


V2 " 




Kaborer 


3 *' 


2 " 


Laths. . . 


2000 


2000 


Cartage . . 


1 " 


% " 


Hair . . . 


4 buslis. 


3 buslis. 








Sand . . . 


6 loads. 


C loads. 









Painting in Milk.— Skimmed milk, ^ gallon : newly slaked 
lime, 6 oz. ; and 4 oz. of poppy, linseed, or nut oil; and 3 lbs. Spanish 
white. Put the lime into an earthen vessel or clean bucket; and 
having poured on it a sufficient quantity of milk to make it about 
the thickness of cream, add the oil in small quantities a little 
at a time, stirring the mixture well. Then put in the rest of 
the milk, afterwards the Spanish white finely powdered, or 
any other desired color. For out-door work add 2 oz. each more of 
oil and slaked lime, and 2 oz. of Burgundy pitch dissolved in the oil 
by a gentle heat. 

Premium Paint •without Oil or Lead.— Slake stone-lime with 
boiling water in a tub or barrel to keep in the steam; then pass 6 
quarts through a fiine sieve. Now to this quantity add 1 quart of 
coarse salt, and a gallon of water; boil the mixture, and skim it clear. 
To every five gallons of this skimmed mixture, add 1 lb. alum ; J lb. 
copperas; and by slow degrees J lb. potash, and 4 quarts sifted ashes 
or fine sand; add any coloring desired. A more durable paint wa.s 
never, made. 

Green Paint for Garden Stands, Blinds, etc.— Take mineral 



CAB1NET3IAKERS, PAINTERS', AC, RECEIPTS. 301 

green, and white lead ground in turpentine, mix up the quantity you 
wish with a small quantity of turpentine varnish. This serves for the 
first coat. For the second, put as much varnish in your mixture as 
will produce a good gloss. If you desire a brighter green, add a little 
Prussian blue, which will much improve the color. 

Milk Paint, for Bakns, any Color. — Mix water lime with skim 
milk, to a proper consistence to apply with a brush, and it is ready to 
use. It will adhere well to wood, whether smooth or rough, to brick, 
mortar, or stone, where oil has not been used (in which case it cleaves 
to some extent), and forms a very hard substance, as durable as the 
best oil pamt. It is too cheap to estimate, and any one can put 
it on who can use a brush. Any color may be given to it, by 
using colors of the tinge desired. If a red is preferred, mbc 
Venetian red with milk, not using any lime. It looks well for fifteen 
years. - -^ 

Paint.— To Make without Lead or Oil.— Whiting, 5 lbs.; 
skimmed milk, 2 qts. ; fresh slaked lime, 2 oz. Put the lime into a 
stoneware vessel, pour upon it a sufficient quantity of the milk to 
make a mixture resembling cream ; the balance of the milk is then to 
be added ; and lastly, the whiting is to be crumbled upon the surface 
of the fluid, in which it gradually sinks. At this period it must bo 
well stirred in or ground, r.s you would other paint, and it is fit for 
use. 

Paris Green. — Take unslaked lime of the best quality, slake it 
with hot water; then take the finest part of the powder, and add 
alum water as strong as it can be made, sufficient to form a tliick 
paste ; then color it with bichromate of potash and sulphate of copper 
until the color suits your fancy, and dry it for use. N.B. — ^The sul- 
phate of copper gives a blue tinge ; the bichromate of potash, a y:il- 
low. Observe this, and you wiU get it right. 

Beautiful Green Paint for Walls. — ^Take 4 lbs. Roman 
vitriol, and pour on it a teakettleful of boiling water. When dis- 
solved, add 2 lbs. pearlash, and stir the mixture well with a stick un- 
til the effervescence ceases ; then add J lb. pulverized yellow arsenic, 
and stir the whole together. Lay it on with a j)aint brush ; and if the 
wall has not been painted before, 2 or even 3 coats will be requisite. 
If a pea-green is required, put in less, if an apple-green, more, of the 
yellow arsenic. This paint does not cost the quarter of oil i)aint, 
and looks better. ^ 

Blue Color for Ceilings, &c.— Boil slowly for 3 hours 1 lb. 
bhie vitriol and J lb. of the best whiting in about 3 qts. water; stir it 
frequently while boiling, and also on taking it off the fire. When it 
has stood till quite cold, pour off the blue liquid, then mix the cake 
of color with good size, and use it with a plasterer's brush in the 
same manner as whitewash, either for walls or ceilings. 

To Harden Whitewash. — ^To J pail of common whitewash add 
^pint of flour. ^ Pour on boiling water in quantity to thicken it. 
Then add 6 gals, of the lime water, and stir well. 

Whitewash that will not Rub Off.— Mix up half a pailful of 
lime and water, ready to put on the wall; then take i pt. flour, mix it 
up with water; then pour on it boilmg water, a sufficient quantity to 
thicken it; then pour it while hot into the whitewash,, stir all well 
together, and it is ready for use. 



302 



CALCULATIONS, &C., FOR BUILDERS. 



Slatiis'G.— The pitch of a slated roof should be about 1 in height to 4 
in length; the usual la^ is about 3 ins., but it is sometimes 4. Each slate 
should be fastened by 2 nails, either of copper or zinc. A square of slate 
is 100 superficial feet, allowances being made for the trouble of cutting 
the slates at the hips, eaves, round chimneys, etc. The sides and bottom 
edges of the slates should be trimmed, and the nail holes punched as near 
the head as possible; they should be sorted in sizes, when they are not 
all of one size, and the smallest size placed near the ridge. The thick- 
ness of slates varies from 3-16 to 5-16 of an inch, and their weight from 
2.6 to 4.53 lbs. per square foot. The following table of sizes, etc., of roof- 
ing slates is very useful: 



Description . 



Doubles 

Ladies 

Countesses . . 
Duchesses . . - 

Imperials .... 

Rags and 
Queens 
Westmore- 
lands, of 
var i ous 
sizes. 



Size. 


Length 


Bre'th. 


ft. in. 


ft. in. 


1 1 


6 


1 4 


8 


1 8 


10 


2 


1 


2 6 


2 


3 


2 



Av'rage 
guage 

in 
inches. 



572 

7 
9 

101/2 



No. of 
squares 
1200 will 

cover. 



2 

4y2 

7 

10 



Weight 
per 1200 
in tons. 



IV4 

2 

3 



No. re- 
quired 
to cover 

one 
square. 



480 
280 
176 
127 



No. of 
nails re- 
quired 
to one 
square. 



480 
280 
352 
254 



a ton will cover 21/4 to 2l^ squares. 



The next table exhibits the comparative weight of various roof cover- 
ings. 



Plain tiles, per square of 100 sup'l feet . . 

Pantiles 

Slating, an average 

Lead, 7 lbs. per sup'l feet , 

Corrugated iron 

Copper, or zinc, 16 ozs. per sup'l feet 

Timber framing for slated or tiled roofs . , 

Boarding, % in. thick , 

Boarding, 1 1^ in. thick , 

Additional load for pressure of wind 

Gothic roofs, steepest angle , 



Weight. 



8 to 18 cwt. 
914 cwt. 
7 to 9 cwt. 
61/2 cwt. 
3 cwt. 
1 cwt. 

560 to 672 lbs. 
21/2 cwt. 
5 cwt. 
35 cwt. 



Least 
Slope. 



261/2 to 30° 

251/2 to 30° 

40 

40 

40 

250 

25^ 

60° 



Cement for Marble and Alabaster. — Mix 12 parts of Port- 
land cement, 6 parts slacked lime, 6 parts of fine sand, and 1 part of 
infusorial earth, and make up into a thick paste with silicate of soda. 
The object to be cemented does not require to be heated. It sets in 24 
hours, and the fracture can not readily be found. 

Superior Blasting Compound.— The English mining engineer^ 
Mr. W. B. Brain, has found that one of the most available blasting 
compounds consists of equal parts of potash chlorate, potash nitrate, 
charcoal, and dry oak saw-dust; 3 parts of this mixture is made to 
about 2 parts nitroglycerine of 1.6 specific gravity. 

To Thaw Frozen Sink Pipes, &c.— Place the end of a piece of 
lead pipe against the ice to be thawed, and then through a funnel in 



CALCULATIONS, &C.,^ FOR BUILDERS. 



303 



the other end pour boiling water. Keep the pipe constantly against 
the ice and it will soon disappear. Or stiffen rubber tubing with fine 
wire and introduce it into the pipe as far as possible, and direct a jet 
of steam from a small boiler over a portable charcoal furnace, as is 
done by plumbers in many cases. 

Extinguishing Fires. — A solution of pearlash in water, thrown 
upon a fire, extinguishes it instantly ; the proportion is 4 ozs., dis- 
solved in hot water, and then poured into a bucket of cold water. In 
extinguishing kerosene fires, use no water, but smother the flames 
with blankets or rugs. 

In clapboarding, 1 bundle laid 3% ins. to the weather will cover 26 
square feet. To be laid with 5-penny nails. 

Comparative Weight of Different Woods in Green and 
Seasoned states in Pounds and Ounces Per Cubic Foot.— Ash, 
green, 58.3; do., seasoned, 50. Beech, green, 60; do., seasoned, 50. Amer- 
ican pine, green, 44.12; do., seasoned, 30.11. Cedar, green, 32; do., sea- 
soned, 28.4. English oak, green, 71.10; do. seasoned, 43,8. Riga Fir, 
green, 48.12; do., seasoned, 35.8. 

Shrinkage in Dimensions of Timber by Seasoning. 
Woods. 1 Ins. il Woods. Ins. 



Pitch pine, South... 

Spruce 

White pine, America 
Yellow pine 



18% to I8V4 
81/2 to 83/^ 

12 to iiys 

18 to 177/8 



Cedar, Canada. 

Elm 

Oak, English . . 
Pitch pine .... 



14 to 1314 

11 to 1034 

12 to 11% [9% 
10x10 to 9% by 



Percentage of Water in Different Woods. 



Alder 41.6|Larch 48.6 

Ash 28.7 Mountain ash 28.3 



Birch 30.8 

Elm 44.5 



Horse chestnut 38.2 Red beech 



Oak 34.7 

Pine 39.7 



.39. 



Red pine 45.2 

White oak 36.2 

White pine 37.1 

White poplar 50.6 

Willow 26.0 



In shingling f 1 bundle of 16-inch shingles will cover 30 square ft.; 1 
bundle of 18-inch shingles will lay 33 square ft., when laid 5}^ ins. to the 
weather; 6 lbs. 4-penny nails will lay 1000 split pine shingles. 

Plasterer's Memoranda.— 130 yards of lath, lay and set, require 1 
load of laths, 10,000 nails, 2^4 cwt. of hme, 1% doubl'j load of sand, and 7 
bushels of hair; plaster, laborers and boy, 6 days each. 

Bender and Set. — 100 yards requires 114 cw£ of lime, 1 double load of 
sand, and 4 bushels of hair; plasterer, laborer and boy, 3 days each. 

iSetting — 375 yards require 1^4 cwt. of lime and 5 bushels of hair. 

In lathing, 1 bundle of laths and 384 nails will cover 5 yards. In ren^ 
(lering, 187^4 yards require iy2 cwt. of lime, 2 double loads of sand and 5 
bushels of hair. Floating requires more labor, but only half as much 
material as rendering. 

1000 bricks, closely stacked, occupy 56 cubic feet ; 1000 old bricks, 
cleaned and loosely stacked, occupy 72 cubic ft. 

1 rod of brickwork requires 126 gals, water to slack the lime and mix 
the mortar. Bricks absorb 1-15 of their weight in water. No. of bricks in 
cubic yard, 384. A bricklayer's hod will hold 20 bricks, or % cubic ft. of 
mortar, or i/^ bushel, nearly. 

Safe Load in Structures, Including Weight of Structure. 

In cast-iron columns 1/4 breaking weight. 

Wrought-iron structures 1/4 " " 



In cast-iron girders for tanks . 



V4 



In cast-iron for bridges and tanks 1-6 

In timber 1-10 

Stone and bricks % 







02 
15 









o 



CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS ,' &C,, RECEIPTS. 305 

Whitewash. — ^The best method of making a whitewash for out- 
side exposure is to slake 4 hushel of lime in a barrel, add 1 lb. of 
common salt, J lb. of the sulphate of zinc, and a gallon of sweet milk. 
Any desired color may be imparted to whitewash by adding coloring 
matter to suit. See Compound Colors. 

Terra CoTTA Manufacture. — In the terra cotta manufacture of 
the north of England and Scotland, the purest lumps of fire clay are 
selected by their color and texture, and used alone without any other 
clay, whUe the firms near London prepare more carefully a mixture 
of clays, which produce a body of better texture. One of the chief 
difficulties met in manufacturing terra cotta figures and ornamental 
works is the contraction the clay suffers after it has left the mould ; 
first, in drying, afterwards in firing ; By mixing the clays, a further 
advantage is gained m the diminished shrinkage, as fire clay terra 
cotta (that is, unmixed) shrinks in lineal dimensions about 12 per cent, 
from the time it leaves the mould until it leaves the kiln ; the mixed 
clay terra cotta shrinks 6 per cent, or less, and red clays shrink 3 per 
cent. To enhance the durabihty of the body of terra cotta, a j)artial 
vitrification of the mass is aimed at by addmg clays and substances 
wliich contain a small amount of alkalies which act as a flux to fuse 
the body harder ; also vitrifyia^ ingredients, pure white river sand, 
old fire brick, ground fine, previously gromid clay caUed " grog," are 
added in various proportions, amounting even to 25 per cent. They 
counteract excessive shrinkage, act as vitrifying elements, and keep 
the color lighter. In the manufacture the mixture of clays is ground 
under an edge runner to the consistency of flour. The mills have 
cither revolving or stationary pans ; tlic former do the most work. 
In order to mix and incorporate the different clays, a subsequent care- 
ful ipugging is required, for hot water is sometimes used. " The mix- 
ture when brought to the proper homogeneous consistency, is placed in 
a plaster mould, dried near the kUns or otherwise, and baked in a kiln 
for five or seven days, during which time it is slowly brought to a white 
heat, and is gradually cooled down again. In order to avoid twisting 
and warping during the firing, it is necessary, besides complete mix- 
ing of clays, that the mould be shaped so as to give a uniform thick- 
ness of material throughout, and if the temperature of the kilns be 
well graded, the homogeneous body wiLL not warp. To cheapen ten-a 
cotta buUdmg blocks, they are made hollow, and filled, during the con- 
struction, with concrete or cement. Although in the kihis the pro- 
ductions are separated from the wares, it is fomid that the use of sul- 
phurous fuel darkens and tarnishes the surface, and it is to be avoid- 
ed. This material admits of being used with the greatest facility in 
the formation of the most elaborate architectural ornaments and other 
beautiful designs which can be multiplied to any required extent at a 
very cheap rate. A piece of four inch column tested at the 1851 Exliibi- 
tion required a pressure of 40J tons per square foot to crush it, or as 
much as good granite and two or three times as much as most build- 
ing stone. 

EXCELT.ENT Cheap Roofing. — Have your roof stiff, rafters made 
of stuff IJ by 8 inches, well supported and 6 feet apart, with ribs 1 
inch by 2 inches, set edgeways, well nailed to the rafters, about 18 
inches apart. The boards may be thin but must be well seasoned, and 
nailed close together* this done, lay down and cover the roof with thin 

20 



306 CABINETMAKERS, PAINTERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 

soft, spongy straw paper used in making paper-"boxes, which comes in 
rolls and comes very low. Lay in courses up and down the roof, and 
lap over, nailing down with common No. 6 tacks, with leather under 
the heads like carpet tacks. Then spread on several coatings of the 
following composition, previously boiled, stirred, and mixed together: 
good clean tar, 8 gals. ; Roman cement, 2 gals, (or in its place very 
fine, clean sand may be used) ; resin, 5 lbs. ; tallow, 3 lbs. ; apply 
hot : and let a hand follow, and sift on sharp grit sand, pressing it in- 
to the tar composition. If wished fire-proof, go over the above with 
the following preparation ; slake stone lime under cover with hot 
water till it falls into a fine powder, sift and mix 6 qts. of this with 
1 qt. salt ; add 2 gals, water, boil and skim. To 5 gals, of this add 1 
lb of alum, and Ij lb. of copperas, slowly while boiUng, IJlbs. potash 
and 4 qts. of clean, sharj) sand, and any color desired. Apply a thick 
coat with a brush, and you have a roof which no fire can injure from 
the outside. 

IIow TO Build Gka\^l Houses. — This is the best building ma- 
terial in the world. It is four times cheaper than wood, six times 
cheaper than stone, and superior to either. Proportions for mixing : 
to eight barrows of slaked lime, well deluged with water, add 15 
barrows of sand ; mix these to a creamy consistency, then add GO 
barrows of coarse gravel, which must be worked well and completely ; 
you can then throw stones into this mixture, of any shape or size, up 
to ten inches in diameter. Form moulds for the walls of the liousc 
by fixing boards horizontally against upright standards, which must 
be immovably braced so that they will not jaeld to the immense pres- 
sure outwards as the material settles ; set the standards in pairs 
aroimd the building where the walls are to stand, from six to eight 
feet apart, and so wide that the inner space shall form the thickness 
of the wall. Into the moulds thus formed throw in the concrete 
material as fast as you choose, and the more promiscuously the 
better. Li a short time the gravel will get as hard as the solid rock. 

Vaenish for Plaster Casts. — White soap and white wax, each J 
oz., water 2 pts., boil together in a clean vessel for a short time. This 
varnish is to be applied when cold with a soft brush. 

The Bronzing of Plaster Casts is effected by giving them a 
coat of oil or size varnish, and when this is nearly dry, applying with 
a dabber of cotton or a camel-hair pencil any of the metallic bronze 
powders ; or the powder may be placed in a little bag of muslin, and 
dusted over the surface, and afterwards finished with a wad of linen. 
The surface must be afterwards varnished. 

Substitute for Plaster of Paris. — ^Best whiting, 2 lbs. ; 
glue, 1 lb. ; linseed oil, 1 lb. Heat all together, and stir thoroughly. 
Let the compound cool, and then lay it on a stone covered with 
powdered wliiting, and heat it well till it becomes of a tough aud 
firm consistence ; then put it by for use, covering with wet cloths to 
keep it fresh. When wanted for use, it must be cut in pieces adapted 
to the size of the mould, into which it is forced by a sci'ew press. 
The ornament may be fixed to the wall, picture-frame, &c., with glue 
or white lead. It becomes in time as hard as stone itself. 

Modelling Clay. — Knead dry clay with glycerine instead cf 
water, and a mass is obtained which remains moist and plastic for a 
considerable time, being a great convenience to the modeller. 



WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 307 

Roman Cement. — Drift sand, 94 parts ; unslaked lime, 12 lbs. ; 
and 4 lbs. of the poorest cheese grated ; mix well ; add hot (not boil- 
iug) water to reduce to a proper consistence for plastering. Work 
well and quick with a thin smooth coat. 

To Polish Plaster of Pakis wokk. — The addition of 1 or 2 per 
cent, of many salts, such as alum, sulphate of potash, or borax, 
confers upon gj^sum the property of setting slowly in a mass capable 
of receiving a very high iDolish. 

To make Plaster of Paris as hard as Marble. — ^The plaster 
is put in a drum, turning horizontally on its axis, and steam admitted 
from a steam boiler : by this means the plaster is made to absorb in 
a short space of time the desired quantity of moisture, Avhich can bo 
regulated with great precision. The plaster thus prepared is filled 
into suitable moulds ; and the whole submitted to the action of an 
hydraulic press : when taken out of the moulds, the articles are 
ready for use, and will be found as hard as marble, and will take a 
polish like it. 

To take a Plaster of Paris Cast from a Person's Face.— 
The person must lie on his back, and his hair be tied behind ; into each 
nostril put a conical piece of paper, open at each end, to allow of 
breathing. The face is to be lightly oiled over, and the plaster, being 
properly i^repared, is to be poured over the face, taking particular 
care that the eyes are shut, till it is a quarter of an inch thick. In a 
few minutes the plaster may be removed. In this a mould is to be 
formed, from which a second cast is to be taken, that will furnish 
casts exactly like the original. 




WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLEES AND GILDERS' 
RECEIPTS, TABLES, &c. 

On Watch Cleaning. — The greatest care is necessary in taking 
the watch down, and separating its parts. First, remove the hands 
carefully, so as not to bend the slight pivots on which they work, next, 
remove the movement from the case, and take oi¥ the dial and dial 
wheels ; next, let down the main spring by placing your bench key 
upon the arbor, or windmg post, and turning as though you were 



308 WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 

going to wind the watch nntil the click rests lightly upon the ratchet; 
then with your screw-driver press the point of the click away from 
the teeth and ease down the springs; next, draw the screws, or i)ins, 
and remove the bridges of the train or the upper plate, as the 
case may he, next, remove the balance with the greatest care to avoid 
injuring the hair spring. The stud or small jjost into which the hair 
spring is fastened may be removed from the bridge or plate of most 
modern watches without unkeying the spring, by slipping a thin in- 
strument, like the edge of a blade knife, under the corner of it and 
Erying upward, this will save much trouble, as you will not have the 
air-spring to adjust when you reset the balance. If the watch u^on 
wliich you propose to worlc has an upi^er plate, as an American or an 
English lever for instance, loosen tlie lever before you have entirely 
separated the plates, otherwise it will hang and probably be broken. 
The watch being now taken apart, brush tlie dust away from its dif- 
ferent parts, and subject them to a careful examination with your 
eye-glass. Assure j-ourself the teetli of the wheels and leaves of the 
pinions are all perfect and smooth; that the pivots are all straight, 
round, and highly polished; that the holes through which they are to 
work are not too large, and have not become oval in shape ; that every 
jewel is smooth and perfectly sound ; and that none of them are loose 
in their settings. See also that the escapement is not too deep or too 
shallow; that the lever or cylinder is perfect; that all the wheels have 
sufflcient play to avoid friction, but not enough to derange their 
coming together properly ; that none of them work against the pillar- 
plate; that the balance turns horizontally and does not rub: that the 
hair-spring is not bent or wrongly set so that the coils rub on each other 
on the plate, or on the balance; in short, that everything about the 
whole movement is just as reason would teach you it should be. If 
you find it otherwise, proceed to re]Dair in accordance with a carefully 
weighed judgment and the processes given in this chapter, after which 
clean ; if not, the watch only needs to be cleaned, and, therefore, you 
may go on with your work at once. 

To CLEi\jsr. — Tlie best process is to simply Mow your breath upon 
the plate or bridge to be cleaned, and then to use your brush with a 
little prepared chalk. The wheels and bridges should be held between 
the thumb and finger in a piece of soft paper while midergoing the pro- 
cess; otherwise the oil from the skin wiU prevent their becoming 
clean. The pinions may be cleaned by sinking them several times 
into a piece of pith, and the holes by turning a nicely shaped piece of 
pivot wood into them, first dry, and afterwards oiled a very little with 
watch oil. When the holes pass through jewels, you must work 
gently to avoid breaking them. 

The "Chemical Pkocess.'* — Some watchmakers employ what 
they call the " Chemical Process '* to clean and remove discoloration 
from watch movements. It is as follows : — 

Remove the screws and other steel parts ; then dampen with a 
solution of oxalic acid and water. Let it remain a few minutes, after 
which immerse in a solution made of one-fourth pound cyanuret pot- 
assa to one gallon rain water. Let remain about five minutes, and 
then rinse well with clean water, after which you may dry in sawdust, 
or with a brush and prepared chalk, as suits your convenience. This 
gives the work an excellent appearance. 



WATCHMAKEKS, JEWELLERS^ &C., RECEIPTS. 309 

To PREPARE Chai:k for Cleaning. — Pulverize your chalk tlicr- 
ouglily, and then mix it with clear rain water in tlie proportion to 
two pounds to the gallon. Stir well, and then let stand about two 
minutes. In this time the gritty matter will have settled to the bot- 
tom. Pour the water into another vessel slowly so as not to stir ur> 
the settlings. Let stand until entirely settled, and then pour off as 
before. The settlings in the second vessel will be your prepared 
chalk, ready for use as soon as dried. Spanish whiting, treated in 
the same way, makes a very good cleaning or poUshing powder. 
Some operatives add a little jeweller's rouge, and we think it an im- 
provement ; it gives the powder a nice color at least, and therefore 
adds to its importance in the eyes of the uninitiated. In cases where 
a sharper polishing powder is required, it may be prepared in the 
same way from rotten-stone. 

Pivot Wood. — ^^Yatchmakers usuaUy buy this article of watch- 
material dealers. A small shrub known as Indian arrow-wood, to be 
met with in the northern and western states, makes an excellent 
]nvot wood. It must be cut when tlie sap is down, and spht into quar- 
ters so as to throw the pith outside of the rod. 

Pith for Cleaning. — The stalk of the common mullen affords 
the best pith for cleaning pinions. Winter, when the stalk is dry, is 
the time to gather it. Some use cork instead of pith, but it is 
inferior 

To PrvoT.— When you find a pivot broken, you will hardly be at a 
loss to understand that the easiest mode of repairing the damage is to 
drill into the end of the pinion or staff, as the case maybe, andhavmg 
inserted a new pivot, turn it down to the proper proportions. This is 
by no means a difficult thing when the piece to be drilled is not too 
hard, or when the temper may be slightly drawn without injury to 
the other parts of the article. 

To tell when THE Leyer is of proper Length. — ^You may 
readily learn whether or not a lever is of proper length, by measur- 
ing from the guard point to the pallet staff, and then comparing with 
the roller or ruby-pin table ; the diameter of the table should alwaj^s 
be just half the length measured on the lever. The rule wiU work 
both ways, and may be useful iii cases where a new ruby-pin table 
has to be supplied. 

To CHANGE Depth of Leyer Escapement. — ^If you are opera- 
ting on a fine watch, the best plan is to put a new staiJ into the lever, 
cutting its pivots a little- to one side, just as far as you desire to 
change the escapement. Common watches will not, of course, justify 
so much trouble. The usual process in their case is to knock out the 
staff, and with a smaU file cut the hole oblong in a direction opposite 
to that in which you desire to move your pallets : then replace the 
staff, wedge it to the required position, and secure by soft soldering. 
In instances where the staff is put in with a screw, you will have to 
proceed differently. Take out the staff, pry the pallets from the 
lever, file the pin holes to slant in the direction you would move the 
pallets, without changing their size on the other side of the lever. 
Connect the pieces as they were before, and, with the lever resting on 
some solid substance, you may strike lightly with your hammer 
until the bending of the pins wiU allow the pallets to pass into posi- 
tion. 



310 l^ATCHMAKERS/ jewellers', &C., KECEIPTS. 

CoiMPENSATiON BALAisrcE OF Chronoi^ieteiis. — ^Thc balance is a 
small piece of steel covered -with a hoop of brass. The rim, consisthig 
of the two metals, is divided, at the two extremities, the one diamet- 
rical arm of the balance, so that the increase of temperature which 
weakens the balance springs contract, in a proportionate degree, 
the diameter of the balance, leaving the spring less resistance to 
overcome. This occurs from the brass exi)anding much more by 
heat than steel, and it therefore curls the semicircular arcs inwards, 
an action that will be immediately understood, if we conceive the 
• compound bar of steel to be straight, as the heat would render the 
brass side longer and convex, and in the balance it renders it more 
carved. In the comx^ensation balance, the two metals are imited as 
follows : the disk of steel when turned and pierced with a central hole 
is fixed by a little screw-bolt and nut at the bottom of a small cru- 
cible, with a central elevation smaller than the disk ; the brass is 
now melted and the whole allowed to cool. The crucible is broken, 
the excess of brass is turned off in the lathe, the arms are made 
with the file as usual, the rim is tapped to receive the compensation 
screws or weights, and, lastly, the hoop is divided in two places at 
the opposite ends of its diametrical arm. The balance springs of 
marine chronometers, Avhich are m the form of a screw, are womid 
into the square thread of a screw of the ai^propriate diameter and 
coarseness ; the two ends of the spring are retained by side screws, 
and the whole is carefully enveloped in i^latinum foil, and lightly 
bound with wire. The mass is next heated in a piece of gun barrel 
closed at one end, and plunged into oil, which hardens the spring 
almost without discoloring it, owing to the exclusion of the air by 
the close platmum covering, which is now removed, and the spring is 
let down to the blue before removal from the screwed block. The 
balance or hair spring of common watches are frequently left soft, 
those of the best watches are hardened in the coil upon a plain 
cj^linder and are then curled into the spiral form between the edge 
of a blunt knife and the thumb, the same as in curling up a narrow 
ribbon or paper, or the filaments of an ostrich feather. The soft 
springs are worth 60 cents each, those hardened and tempered $1.26 
each. This raises the value of the steel ; originally less than 4 
cents, to $2000 and S8000 respectively. It takes 3200 balance springs 
to weigh an ounce. 

Watch Spring MAmxTACTURE. — Watch springs are hammered 
out of round steel wire, of suitable diameter until they fill the gauge, 
for width, which at the same time insures equality of thickness. 
The holes are punched in their extremities, and they are trimmed 
on the edge with a smooth file. The springs are then tied up with 
binding wire, in a loose open coil and heated over a charcoal firo 
upon a perforated revolving i^late. They are hardened in oil and 
blazed off. The spring is now distended m a long metal frame, simi- 
lar to that used for a saw blade, and ground and polished with 
emery and oil between lead blocks. By this time its elasticity appears 
quite lost, and it may be bent in any direction ; its elasticity is, how- 
ever, entirely restored by a subsequent hammering on a very bright 
anvil which puts the " nature into the spring.** The coloring is done 
over a flat plate of iron, or hood, under which a small spirit lamp 
is kept b Lulling ; the spring is contmimlly drawn backward and 



WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS', «&C., RECEIPTS. 311 

forward, about two or three inclies at a time, until it assumes the 
orauge or deep blue tint throughout, according to the taste of the 
purchaser. By many the coloring is considered to be a matter of 
ornament and not essential. The last process is to coil the spring 
into the spiral form, that it may enter tlie barrel in which it is to be 
contained. This is done by a tool with a small axis and which 
handles, and does not require heat. 

To TELL WHE]Sr LeVER PALLETS AKE OF PROPER SiZE. — Tho 

clear space between the pallets should correspond with the outside 
measure, on the points of three teeth of the scajye wheel. The usuaJ 
mode of measuring for new pallets is to set the wheel as close as pos- 
sible to free its self when in motion. You can arrange it in your dep- 
thing tool, after which the measurement between the pivot holes of 
the two pieces, on the pillar plate, will show you exactly what is re- 
quired. 

To LENGTHEN LeVERS OF AkCHOR-ESCAPEMENT WATCHES WITH- 
OUT Hammering or Soldering. — Cut square across with a screw- 
head file, a little back from the point above the fork, and, when you 
have thus cut into it to a sufficient depth, bend forward the desired 
distance the piece thus partially detached. In the event of the piece 
snapping off while bending — which, however, rarely liappens — file 
down the point level with the fork, and insert a pin English lever 
style. 

To TEMPER Case and other Springs of Watches.— Draw tho 
temper from the spring, and fit it i^roperly in its place in the watch ; 
then take it out and temper it hard in rain-water (the addition of a 
little table-salt to tlie water will be an improvement) ; after which 
place it in a small sheet-iron ladle or cup, and barely cover it with Ihi- 
seed-oil ; then hold the ladle over a lighted lamp until the oil ignites, 
let it bum until the oil is nearly, not quite consumed ; then re-cover 
with oil and burn down as before ; and so a third time ; at the end of 
which, plmige it again into water. Maiu and hair springs may, in 
like maimer, be tempered by the same process ; first draw the temper, 
and properly coil and clamp to keep it ia position, and then proceed 
the same as with case-sprmgs. 

To MAKE Red Watch Hands.— 1 oz. carmine, 1 oz. muriate of 
silver, J oz. of turner's Japan ; mix together ia an earthen vessel, and 
hold over a spirit-lamp until formed into a paste. Apply tliis to 
the watch hand, and then lay it on a copper plate, face side up, 
and heat the plate sufficiently to produce the color desired. 

To Drill into Hard Steel. — Make your drill oval in form, in- 
stead of the usual pointed shape, and temj)er as hard as it will bear 
without breaking ; then roughen the surface where you desire to drill 
witli a little diluted muriatic acid, and, instead of oil, use turpentine 
or kerosene, in which a little gum camphor has been dissolved with 
your drill. In operating, keep the pressure on your drill firm and 
steady ; and if the bottom of the hole should chance to become bur- 
nished that the drill will not act, as sometimes happens, again roughen 
with diluted acid as before; then clean out the hole carefully, and 
proceed again. 

To Put Teeth in Watch or Clock Wheels "without Dove- 
tailing OR Soldering. — Drill a hole somewhat wider than the 
tooth, square through the plate, a little below the base of the tooth ; 



312 WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 

cut from the edge of the wheel square down to the hole already drill- 
ed ; then flatten a piece of wire so as to fit snugly into the cut of the 
saw, and with a light hammer form a head on it like the head of a 
pin. When thus prepared, press the wire or pin into possession in 
the wheel, the head filling the hole drilled through the plate, and the 
projecting out so as to form the tooth ; then with a sharp-pointed 
graver cut a small groove each side of the pin from the edge of the 
wheel down to the hole, and with a blow of your hammer spread the 
face of the pin so as to fill the grooves just cut. Repeat the same op- 
eration on the other side of the wheel, and finish off in the usual 
way. The tooth will be found perfectly riveted in on every side, and 
as strong as the original one, while in ai^iDearance it will he equal to 
the best dovetailing. 

To Case-harden Iron. — ^If you desire to harden to any consider- 
able depth, put the article into a crucible with cyanide "^of potash, 
cover over and heat altogether, then plunge into water. This process 
will harden perfectly to the depth of one or two inches. 

To TIGHTEN A CANNON PiNION ON THE CENTRE ArBOR WHEN 

TOO LOOSE. — Grasp the arbor lightly with a pair of cutting nippers, 
and, by a single turn of the nippers around the arbor, cut or raise a 
small thread thereon. 

To Frost Watch Movements. — Sink that part of the article to be 
frosted for a short time in a compound of nitric acid, muriatic acid, 
and table salt, one ounce of each. On removing from the acid, i^laco 
it in a shallow vessel containing enough sour beer to merely cover it, 
then with a fine scratch brush scour thoroughly, letting it remain 
under the beer during the operation. Next wash off, first in pure 
water and then in alcohol. Gild or silver in accordance with any 
recipe in the plating department. 

Rule for determining the correct Diajvieter of a Pinion 

DY JMEASURING TeETH OF THE WhEEL THAT MATCHES INTO IT. — 

The term full, as used below, indicates full measure from outside to 
outside of the teeth named, and the term centre, the measure from 
centre of one tooth to centre of the otlier tooth named, inclusive. 

For diameter of a pinion of 15 leaves measure, with calipers, a 
shade less than G teeth of the wheel, full. 

For diameter of a pinion of 14 leaves measure, with calipers, a shade 
less than 6 teeth of the wheel, centre. 

For diameter of a pinion of 12 leaves measure, with calipers. 5 teeth 
of the wheel, centre. 

For diameter of a pinion of 10 leaves measure, with calipers, 4 teeth 
of the wheel, full. 

For diameter of a pinion of 9 leaves measure, with calipers, a little 
less tlian 4 teeth of the wheel, full. 

For diameter of a pinion of 8 leaves measure, with calipers, a httle 
less than 4 teeth of the wheel, centre. 

For diameter of a pinion of 7 leaves measure, with calipers, a little 
less than 3 teeth of the wheel, full. 

For diameter of a i^inion of G leaves measure, with. calipers, 3 teeth 
of the wheel, centre. 

For diameter of a pinion of 5 leaves measure, with calipers, 3 teeth 
of the wheel, centre. 

As a general rule, pinions that lead, as in the hour wheel, should 



-WATCn^IAKERSj JEWELLERS*, ifcC, RliCEIPTS. 313 

be somewliat larger than those that drive, and pinions of clocks* 
shonld generaUy be somewhat larger i^roportionally than those <^f 
watches. 

For diameter of a X)inion of 4 leaves measure, with calipers, od« 
half of one space over 2 teeth of the wheel, full. 

To Polish Wheels perfectly without injury. — Take a flat 
bnrnishing file, warm it over a spirit lamp, and coat it lightly with 
beeswax. When cold, wipe off as much of the wax as can be readily 
removed, and with your file thus prepared, polish the wheel, resting 
the wheel while polishing on a piece of cork. The finish produced 
will be quite equal to the finest buff polish, while there will be no 
clogging, and the edges of the arms and teeth will remain perfectly 
square. 

Sandoz' Method of Producing Isochroxis^i ix Flat and 
Breguet Springs. — Isochronism, from the Greek, meaning equal 
time, is the property possessed by the pendulum and the hair spring 
to accomplish their arcs of vibration of different amplitudes in the 
same space of time. In a pendulum, the only condition required is 
that its length be such as to make the centre of gravity move accord- 
ing to the cycloid curve; but in the hair spring the*" means change 
-with the forms effected by the spring. In the spherical or conical 
springs, the extreme curves constructed after the mathematical rules 
discovered by Prof. Phillipps, of the Polj^technic School of Paris, 
will produce an Isochronism very nearly perfect. In the flat spring, 
these curves caimot exist, therefore other means must be resorted to. 
I shall give now the results of several years of experiment and study, 
which can be embodied m the two following tlieorems : 

1. In the flat spring, every coil has theoretically a point lohere the 
vibrations are Isochronal. 2. That point of Isochronism is determined 
hy the relative position of the two points connecting the hair spring 
loith the collet and stud, called Points d' attache. 

These two propositions form the base of Isochronism in the flat 
spring; therefore^ the idea generally accredited among watchmakers 
that the Isochronal properties of a flat spring depend on its length is 
incorrect, since the 10th as well as the 20th coil of the spring is able 
to produce the Isochronism, the only Limit being such sizes of springs 
that would prevent the perfect freedom of its action. 

Freedom of action being necessary for the Isochronal properties of 
the spring to develop themselves, the sprmg must be bent to the 
centre, according to Fig. II. — ^the first coil being too near or the curve 
too flat, so that even a mmute part of the spring could touch tlie 
collet, would hinder the Isochronism. Next, the spring must be 
pinned perfectly tight in the coUet and stud, and move freely between 
the regulator pins. 

These conditions fulfilled, the watch is rim 3, 6 or 12 hours with just 
sk'ength enough to keep it going; the result is compared with a regu- 
lator and set down. Next, the watch is fuUy wound up, and after 
a space of time equal to the first trial, the result is again set down. 
Most generally the watch will run slower in the short vibrations than 
in the wide ones, and consequently lose time in the pocket in the last 
twelve hours of its running. Having set down as a principle that every 
coil has an Isochronal point, w^e have now to determine that point, re- 
membering that as a general rule, every increase of length of iJie 



314 WATCH3IAKERS, JEWELLERS*, &C., RECEIPTS. 

spring over that point, will cause the loatch to gain in the short vibra- 
tions, and every decrease back of that point loill cause it to gain in the 
wide vibrations. This rule is correct only for certain limits, as I am 
going to explain. Supposing that a hair spring of 15 coils is per- 
fectly Isochronal with the two points d' attache just oj^posite each 
other, as shown in Fig. HI., the 14th and the 16th coil, as well as the 
15th, will produce the Isochronism very nearl}^ at the same point. 
Supposing that we increase gradually the length of that hair sjDriug 
of 15 coils, pinned up so that the two points d' attache are primitively 
opposite each other — so that its length will noio be 15^ coils — the two 
points d' attache are now in the position shown in Fig," IV., or what is 
called pinned to the half coil. The result will be that the hair spring 
will cause the watch to gain in the short vibrations as much as it is in 
its power to do. 

But if we go further than the half coil, we now enter the ground 
that belongs to the IGth coil, and every increase of length in that half 
coil will cause the hair spring to lose in the short vibrations, in the 
fiame proportion that it has been gaining in increasing the length of the 
first half. That change wiU continue until we reach the same point 
on the 16th coil that we started from on the 15th., the two pins op- 
posite each other; at that point we shall have again the Isochronism. 
The same operation is applicable to the 14th coil, with the same re- 
sults. 

Now it is immaterial whether we take tliat half coil to the centre, or 
to the outside of the spring, because both of these operations will pro- 
duce the same results, viz., the change of the relative places of the 
points d' attache of the spring. Therefore the artist has his choice, 
and is guided by the size of the sprhig and the weight of the balance ; 
for taking half a coil to the centre of the spring will not much affect 
the rate of the watch, but taken outside, the difference will be great. 
On the other hand, a very short cut to the centre will greatly affect 
the Isochronism, and at the outside, a full half-coil will generally 
produce from 15 to 2^" difference in 24 hours. If then the watch- 
maker would produce the greatest possible changes of Isochronism in 
a watch, the change of x)osition of the two points d' attache of the 
gpring of one coil around, will give him the two highest degrees of 
gaming and losing in the short vibrations. 

It follows from the following pages, that if a watch loses in the last 
running (short vibrations), the first thing to do is to increase the 
length '^of the hair spring from the outside ; if the result is better, but 
not yet good, give still more length ; if the result is worse, it shows 
that you are too far on the coil. Take back the whole length that 
you had given in the first operation, and draw more length, so as to 
affect the spring the other way; or if your spring is already small or 
your balance pretty heavy, cut to the centre so as to come around to 
the required positions. 

Some springs cainiot produce the Isochronism ; this comes from a 
defect in making the spring, or a want of homogeniety in the metal ; 
the only remedy is a new spring. 

In the Breguet Spring, the Isochronism is produced in the same 
manner as the flat springings, but great care must be taken in making 
the curve, for if it is not made in conformity to the principle of Phil- 
lipps, the Isochronism will be disturbed. 



WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS,' &C,, RECEIPTS. 315 

For instance, in Fig. V., the spring "being pinned in A, and the 
watch losing 7// in the last 12 hours (short vib.), I first increase the 
length of the hair spring to the point B ; but as I am already on the 
ground belonging to the losing action, the result will be an increased 
loss of time in the last running. I then go back to the point A, and 
moreover pin the spring to C, and then I shall approximate Isochron- 
ism. However, in most cases the increase of length will make the 
Avatch gain in its Jast running. 



Timing and Adjusting. 



rig. II. 




Fig. IV 



Adjustments to Positions.— This adjustment is known to but 
few watchmakers, and they make it a regular business. It requires 
of the operator considerable manual skill and reflective powers. The 




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WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLEKS', &C., RECEIPTS. 317 

great principle is to equalize tlie frictions, so that the pivots will offer 
to the. action of the spring the same resistance in the four positions 

fenerally required, viz., dial up, XII up, cock up and III up. After 
aving inspected and corrected the train so that the motive power is 
transmitted uniformly to the balance, the pivots and jewels of the 
lever should be polished and shortened so as to have very little fric- 
tion; next, the lever should be jjoised as nearly perfect as possible, 
and the slot also in the fork where the ruby pia acts should be 
polished. The balance jewels ought to be made short enougli to 
nave the holes square, rounded infeide, and perfectly iDolished, the 
balance pivots weU burnished and their ends half rounded, and tlio 
balance poised very carefully. The English method of throwing the 
balance out of poise to obtain the same rate in different positions is 
not accepted generally, and is considered a bad practice by the most 
eminent watchmakers. The hair spring is put in its position without 
the balance, and bent so that the collet and the cock jewel will have 
the same centres. The watch being now in good running order, i.s 
put under trial for 12 or 24 hours, and the rate in each position care- 
fully noted. If there is any difference in the running with the cock 
up, or dial up, making the ends of the pivots even and equally well 
polished wiU remove the discrepancy. If the watch loses with XII 
up, which is generally the case, and the friction on the balance jewels 
bemg reduced as much as possible, the remedy is to increase the 
friction when the watch is either dial or cock up. This is done by 
throioing the hair spring a little out of the centre of the cock jewel, 
thereby adding to the friction on the pivot end, a lateral pressure 
against the balance jewels. If the watch is well regulated with XU 
up, and loses with III up, throw the spring a little towards the figure 
III ; this operation lifts up the balance when the watch is in losing 
position and diminishes the friction of the pivots in that particular 
case. Making the ends of the pivots perfectly flat has a tendency to 
make the watch gain with dial or cock up. The sound of the watch 
must bo clear in all positions, else it indicates a friction, as for instance 
rough jewels or pivots, safety i)iu rubbing against the roller, etc. 

How TO Regulate a Watch ik a few Minutes, akd a Practi- 
cal Method to put a new Hair Spring, of the right size and 
Perfectly Regulated in a Watch without Running It. — First, 
ascertain how many vibrations the watch beats in one minute, by 
counting every other vibration and comparing that time with a well- 
regulated watch or regulator. In general, Swiss watches beat 18,000 
in one hour, viz., 300 in one minute; American watches, either 18,000 
either 10,200, or 270 per minute; and the English levers, 14,400, or 
240 per minute. If there is any doubt, it is better to count up leaves 
and teeth, and ascertain the right number • but these cases are scarce 
where watches wiU beat odd numbers. 

Having found out the right number, examine tne i^alance carefully 
for one or two minutes, counting every vibration going from Hght to 
left, and in the mean time examining the regulator or clock, to see 
when one minute is ux). If the watch is well regulated, the number 
of vibrations must be exactly half of the regular first number, viz., 
150, 135, or 120, as only every other vibration has been recorded to 
facilitate the observation. If not so, move .the regulator, right or 
Iftft, until a perfect coincidence comes. 



318 WATCHMAKERS, JEWEXLERS', «fcC., RECEIPTS, 

To pick up a new liair spring, after having recorded the right num- 
ber of beats — either by the old hair spring or by the numbers of the 
train — lay first the spring with its centre well in the centre of the cock 
3ewel, and having ascertained where the coil wiU enter between the 
pins of the regulator, note the place. Stick to the pivot of the balance 
a small round piece of beeswax; then stick it to the centre of the 
spring, so as to establish a temporary but firm comiection of the two 
pieces, and having pinched with the tweezers the hair spring to the 
place indicated by the regulator pins, cause it to vibrate gently; then 
count up the vibrations for one minute, and when you have got a 
spring that will produce nearly the required number of beats, pin it 
to the collet, and cause it again to vibrate, movmg the tweezers for- 
ward and backward, mitn the right number of beats is produced ; 
with another pair of tweezers, pinch the hair spring about one-eightli 
of an inch back of the regulating point, so as to coimterbalance the 
gain produced by the regulator puis, and bend slightly the wire, 
which is the place where the hair spring must be pinned to the stud. 
Having then trued up the spring, proceed to put the regulator to the 
right place, by using the way indicated m the beginning of this article, 
and the work is done. Success is certain, when the operation has 
been carefully performed. The balance must be made to vibrate on 
some hard and well polished substance, so as to keep up the vibra- 
tion to about the standard of regular ruiming. A little practice will 
soon enable the watchmaker to change a hair spring very quick, 
and without any trouble whatever. 

Of CoiviPENSATiON. — A most accurate way of counterbalancing 
cif ects produced on the running of watches by different temi^eratures, 
is the expansion balance, formed of two concentric rings, one in- 
terior, of steel, and one exterior, of brass, joined together by hard 
soldering or smeltmg. The general proportion of these two metals is 
one part of steel, two of brass. The stronger dilation of brass, causes 
the rim of tlie balance to head inwardly when the heat, increasing, 
diminishes the strength of the hair spring; the greater contraction 
bends the rim outwardly when cold comes to increase the rigidity of 
the spring's coils. Pushing forward or backward the screws of the 
rim will affect the compensating powers of the balance, by causing 
their weight to be more active as they come nearer the end of the cut 
arm. Tlie thinner and higher the rim, the greater the action. A few 
trials will bring the balance to compensate the effect of temperature 
from 30° to lOO^ Fahrenheit. For extreme temperatures another 
comi)ensation, called auxiliary, is used, but only in ship chronome- 
ters. A soft spring will be less affected by changes of temperature 
than a hardened one ; this affords a way to comiDcnsate certain bal- 
ances, where otherwise new ones would have to be used. A precau- 
tion to observe in compensating is to make the screws go freely on the 
balance, and not screw them too tight, else the action of the rim not 
being free, a good compensation could not be attained, until the com- 
bined actions of dilation and contraction of the rim have freed the 
screws. 

For watchmakers who would want to compensate a watch without 
having an expansion balance, I give the following process, which I 
have successfully used : After having cut off the greater part of the 
regulator's arm, another arm is to be fitted with a screw on the rim 



^VATCn3IAKERS, JEWELLERS', tfcC, RECEIPTS. 319 

of the regulator, so as to revolve freely around that screw as an axis. 
The pins are put in the same position as on the old arm. A ring, of 
two parts of hrass and one of steel, is then fastened to one end on 
that movable arm, and the other end is screwed at any convenient 
place, either on the regulator itself, or on the cock. See Fig. 1. By 
placing the whole ring on the regulator, the latter may be moved as 
m any other watch, the ring opening or shutting itself imder the 
changes of temi^erature, will pusli backward and forward the regu- 
lator pins, and so effect the compensation which is to be regulated by 
varying either the i^roportion of brass and steel, or the size of the 
J3ng. 

To try the running of the watches, a common refrigerator is used 
to produce tlie low temperature, and then an apparatus, self-regula- 
tmg, will produce the high temperature. It is commonly a square 
box of tin or copper, hermetically closed, mider which is a gas burner. 
A compensating arm of the form of a U, made of brass and steel, is 
fastened inside thfe box, and is connected by a string with a lever at- 
tached to the key of the burner, and acts so that at the high temper- 
ature, say 100° Fah. , the gas is nearly shut off, the compensating 
arm gradually releasing itself and consequently letting out more gas 
when the heat diminishes inside the box. Use steel pins to secure 
spring to collet and stud. 

To MAKE Polishing Broaches. — These are usually made of ivory, 
and used with diamond dust, loose, instead of havmg been driven in. 
You oil the broach lightly, dip it into the finest diamond dust, and 
proceed to work it into the jewel the same as you do the brass 
broach. Unfortunately, too many watchmakers fall to attach suffi- 
cient importance to the polishing broach. The sluggish motion of 
watches now-a-days is more often attributable to rough jewels than 
to any other cause. 

To Polish Steel. — ^Tako crocus of oxide of tin and graduate it m 
in the same way as in preparmg diamond dust, and apply it to the 
steel by means of a piece of soft iron or bell metal, made proper fonn, 
and prepared with flour of emery, same as for pivot burnishers; use 
the coarsest of the crocus first, and finish off with the finest. To iron 
or soft steel a better finish may be given by burnishing than can be 
imparted by the use of polishing powder of any kind whatever. The 
German Method of Polishing Steel is performed by the use of crocus 
on a buff wheel. Nothing can exceed the surpassing beauty imparted 
to steel or even cast iron by this process. 

Crocus Powder for Polishing.— Chloride of sodium and siil- 
phate of iron are well mixed in a mortar. The mixture is then put 
into a shallow crucible and exposed to a red heat ; vapor escapes 
and the mass fuses. When no more vapor escapes, remove the 
crucible and let it cool. The color of the oxide of iron produced, 
if the fire has been properly regulated, is a fine violet ; if the heat 
has been too high it becomes black. The mass when cold is to be 
powdered and washed, to separate the sulphate of soda. The 
powder of crocus is then to be submitted to a process of careful 
elutriation, and the finer particles reserved for the more delicate 
work. An excellent powder for applying to razor strops is made 
by igniting together in a crucible, equal parts of weU dried green 
vitrei and common salt. The heat must bo slowly raised and well 



320 WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 

regulated, otherwise tlie materials will boil over in a pasty state, 
and be lost. When well made, out of contact with air, it has tho 
brilliant aspect of black lead. It requires to be ground and elutri- 
ated, after which it affords, on dryuig, an impalpable powder, that 
may be either applied on a strop of smooth buff leather, or mixed 
up with hog's lard or tallow into a stiff cerate. 

To Remove Rust FROM InoN OR Steel, &c.— For cleaning pur- 
poses, &c., kerosene oil or benzine are probably the best things 
known. "Wlien articles have become pitted by rust, however, these 
can of course, only be removed by mechanical means, such as scour- 
ing with fine powder, or flour of emery and oil, or with very fine 
emery paper. To prevent steel from rusting, rub it witli a mixture of 
lime and oil, or with mercurial ointment, either of which will be 
found valuable. 

To Make Burnisiters. — ^Proceed the same as in making pivot files, 
with the exception that you are to use fine flour of emery on a slip of 
oiled brass or copper, instead of the emery paper. Burnishers which 
have become too smooth may be improved vastly with the flour of 
emery as above without drawing the temper. 

To Prepare a Burnisher for Polishing. — Melt a little bees- 
wax on the face of your burnisher. Its effect then on brass or other 
finer metals, will be equal to the best buff. A small burnisher pre- 
l)ared in this way is the very thing with which to polish uj) watch 
wheels. Rest them on a piece of pith while polishing. 

Rules for Determining the Correct Length of the Le^-er, 
SIZE OF Ruby-pin Table, size op the Pallets, and depth of 
Escapement of Lever Watches. — A lever, from the guard point to 
the pallet staff, should correspond in length with twice the diameter 
of the ruby-pin table, and when a table is accidentally lost, the cor- 
rect size thereof may be known by measuring half the length of tho 
lever between the points above named. For correct size of pallet, the 
clear space between the pallets should correspond with the outside 
measure on the points of three teeth of the escapement wheel. The 
only rule that can be given, without the use of diagrams, for correct 
depth of the escapements, is to set it as close as it will bear, and still 
free itself perfectly when in motion. This may be done by first 
placing the escapement in your depthing tool, and then setting it to 
the correct depth. Then by measuring the distance between the 
pivots of the lever stalf and escapement wheel, as now set, and the 
corresponding i^ivot holes in the watch, you determine correctly how 
much the depth of the escapem.ent requires to be altered. 

To Prevent Watches losing Time from Action of Pendulu^i 
Spring. — Pin the pendulum spring into the stud, so that that part, 
the part of the eye immediately emerging from the collet, and the 
centre of the collet, are in a line ; then you will have the spring pin- 
ned in, in equal terms, as it is called by those who are versed in the 
higher branches of springing. Bring the watch to time by adding to 
or taking from the balance, and poise it; try the watch with the 12 
up for 2 hours, then with the 6 up for 2 hours, then lying down for 
the same time ; the trials here described will be sufficient if the 
watch has seconds ; keep the curb pin close so as to allow the spring 
only a little play; the vibration of the balance should be Ij turn or 
li lymg. 



WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 321 



LIST OF TRAINS OF WATCHES. 

SHOWING THE NUMBER OF TJSETH IN THE WHEELS, LEAVES IN 
PINIONS. BEATS IN A MINUTE, AND TIME THE FOURTH 
WHEEL BEVOLVES IN. 



THE 



Trains, for Seven Teetli iu tlie iEscapement T^Iieel. 



No. of 
Teeth 
in the 
Centre 
Wheel, 



72 
G6 
66 
66 
66 
66 
66 





Leaves 




Leaves 


Teeth 
in the 
Escai)e- 


Leaves 
in the 


Teeth in 


in 3d 


Teeth in 


in 4th 


Escape- 


3d Wheel. 


Wheel 


4th Wheel 


W^heel 


ment 


66 


Pinion. 




Pinion. 


Wheel. 


Wheel 
Pinion. 


G 


58 


6 


7 


6 


64 


6 


64 


6 


7 


6 


64 


6 


63 


6 


7 


6 


63 


6 


63 


6 


7 


6 


es 


6 


62 


6 


7 


6 


63 


6 


61 


6 


7 


6 


63 


6 


60 


6 


7 


6 



No. of Beats in 
one minute. . 



298— 
292-f 
287+ 
283— 
278-f 
274— 
269-f 



is o. of 
Seconds 
the 4th 
Wheei. 
revol- 
ves in. 



27 
31 
31 
31 
31 
31 
31 



Trains, for Nine Teetli in tlie £Iseapement Wlieel. 



03 


60 


6 


57 


6 


9 


6 


2994- 


34 


66 


60 


6 


54 


6 


9 


6 


297 


33 


63 


60 


6 


56 


6 


9 


6 


294 


84 


66 


60 


6 


53 


6 


9 


6 


291-f 


33 


63 


60 


6 


55 


6 


9 


6 


289— 


34 


66 


60 


6 


52 


6 


9 


6 


286 


33 


63 


60 


6 


54 


6 


9 


6 


283-f 


34 


66 


6) 


6 


51 


6 


9 


6 


2804- 


33 


63 


60 


6 


53 


6 


9 


6 


278-h 


34 


66 


60 


6 


50 


6 


9 


6 


275 


33 


68 


60 


6 


52 


6 


9 


6 


273 


3t 



Trains, for Eleven Teetli in tlie Escapement "Wlieel, 



(50 


60 


6 


49 


6 


11 


6 


30 J- 


36 


CO 


5t 


6 


54 


6 


11 


6 


297 


40 


60 


56 


6 


52 


6 


11 


6 


230— 


30 


6t 


52 


6 


52 


6 


11 


6 


294- 


30 


58 


56 


6 


53 


6 


11 


6 


2924- 


40 


60 


54 


6 


53 


6 


11 


6 


291+ 


40 


62 


54 


6 


61 


6 


11 


6 


290^ 


30 


58 


54 


6 


54 


6 


11 


6 


2874- 


41 


58 


55 


6 


53 


6 


11 


6 


287 


41 


59 


51 


6 


53 


6 


11 


6 


2864- 


41 


60 


51 


6 


52 


6 


11 


6 


286 


40 


60 


55 


6 


51 


6 


11 


6 


286— 


39 


61 


55 


6 


50 


6 


11 


6 


285- 


39 


63 


55 


6 


48 


6 


11 


6 


282-1- 


38 


59 


54 


6 


52 


6 


11 


6 


281-4- 


41 


60 


54 


6 


51 


6 


11 


6 


281-f- 


40 


61 


51 


6 


50 


6 


11 


6 


280- 


39 


56 


51, 


6 


54 


6 


11 


6 


277-{- 


43 


60 


60 


6 


48 


6 


11 


6 


293-f- 


86 


62 


54 


6 


52 


6 


11 


6 


295-i- 


39 


63 


54 


6 


50 


6 


11 


6 


289— 


3S 


63 


48 


6 


56 


6 


11 


6 


287+ 


43 


70 


70 


7 


56 


7 


11 


7 


293+ 


36 


70 


70 


7 


48 


1 


11 


6 


293+ 


33 


70 


60 


7 


48 


6 


11 


6 


293+ 


36 



21 



322 WATCn3IAKERS, JEWELLEES', AC, RECEIPTS. 



No. of 




Leares 




Leaves 


Teeth 
in the 
Escape- 
ment 
Wheel. 


Leaves 
in the 




iSo. of 
Seconds 


Teeth 
in the 
Centre 
Wheel. 


Teeth in 


in 3d 


Teeth in 


in 4th 


Escape- 


No. of Beats in 


the 4tU 


3d Wheel. 


Wheel 


4th Wheel 


Wheel 


ment 


one Minute. 


Wheel 


70 


Pinion. 




Pinion. 


Wheel 
Pinion. 




revol- 
ves in. 


60 


6 


48 


7 


11 


6 


293-h 


36 


63 


50 


6 


56 


7 


11 


6 


287+ 


40 


63 


63 


6 


50 


7 


n 


6 


289- 


38 


80 


80 


8 


64 


8 


11 


8 


293+ 


36 


80 


80 


8 


56 


g 


11 


7 


293-1- 


36 


80 


80 


8 


48 


3 


11 


6 


293-h 


3C 


80 


70 


8 


56 


7 


11 


7 


293-h 


36 


80 


70 


8 


48 


7 


11 


6 


293+ 


36 


80 


60 


8 


48 


6 


11 


6 


293+ 


33 


70 


80 


7 


56 


8 


11 


7 


293+ 


3^3 


70 


80 


7 


48 


8 


11 


6 


293+ 


35 


60 


80 


6 


48 


8 


11 


6 


293+ 


3;> 


84 


72 


8 


50 


8 


11 


6 


289— 


3S 


84 


63 


8 


50 


7 


11 


6 


289— 


33 


84 


54 


8 


50 


6 


11 


6 


289- 


33 


63 


72 


6 


50 


8 


11 


6 


289— 


33 


63 


63 


6 


50 


7 


11 


6 


289- 


33 


84 


64 


8 


56 


8 


11 


6 


287+ 


40 


8t 


56 


8 


56 


7 


11 


6 


287+ 


40 


84 


48 


8 


56 


6 


11 


6 


287+ 


40 


63 


64 


6 


56 


8 


11 


6 


287+ ■ 


40 


63 


56 


6 


56 


7 


11 


6 


287+ 


40 



Trains, for Thirteen Teetli in tlie Escapement WTieel. 



64 


53 


6 


52 


6 


13 


6 


298+ 


45 


66 


53 


6 


60 


6 


13 


6 


298- 


44 


69 


51 


6 


49 


6 


13 


' 6 


296- 


ti 


60 


61 


6 


48 


6 


13 


6 


294+ 


64 


53 


6 


51 


6 


13 


6 


293- 


45 


66 


53 


6 


49 


6 


13 


6 


292- 


44 


66 


54 


6 


48 


6 


13 


6 


291+ 


44 


67 


53 


6 


48 


6 


13 


6 


291— 


43 


64 


62 


6 


51 


6 


13 


6 


287+ 


46 


64 


43 


6 


50 


6 


13 


6 


287+ 


45 


60 


51 


6 


50 


6 


13 


6 


286+ 


45 


61 


52 


6 


50 


6 


13 


6 


282— 


46 


66 


51 


6 


49 


6 


13 


6 


281- 


45 


67 


51 


6 


48 


6 


13 


6 


280— 


44 


62 


52 


6 


51 


6 


13 


6 


277— 


48 


63 


52 


6 


60 


6 


13 


6 


276+ 


46 


62 


52 


6 


52 


6 


13 


6 


293— 


46 


65 


51 


6 


51 


6 


13 


6 


287 


46 


66 


50 


6 


51 


6 


13 


6 


286+ 


46 


56 


52 


6 


48 


6 


13 


6 


280+ 


44 


56 


52 


6 


50 


6 


13 


6 


292+ 


44 


60 


48 


6 


48 


6 


13 


6 


277+ 


45 


60 


50 


6 


48 


6 


13 


6 


289- 


43 


60 


64 


6 


60 


8 


13 


6 


292+ 


53 


60 


58 


7 


56 


7 


13 


6 


287+ 


51 


60 


60 


8 


54 


6 


13 


6 


300 


44 


62 


56 


7 


56 


7 


13 


6 


296+ 


47 


63 


52 


7 


51 


6 


13 


6 


285 


60 


63 


60 


7 


60 


7 


13 


6 


290 


60 


64 


00 


7 


60 


7 


13 


6 


285 


60 


72 


70 


8 


68 


• 8 


13 


C 


280 


60 


74 


68 


8 


68 


8 


13 


6 


2864- 


60 



WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 323 



Trains, for Fifteen Teetli in tlie Escapement "Wlieel. 



No. of 
Teeth 
in the 
Centre 
Wheel. 




Leaves 




Leaves 


Teeth 
in the 
Escape- 


Leavej 
in the 




No. of 
Seconds 


Teeth in 


in 3d 


Teeth in 


in 4th 


Escape- 


No. of Beats in 


the 4th 


3d Wheel. 


Wheel 


4th Wheel 


Wheel 


ment 


one Minute. 


Wheel 




Pinion. 




Pinion. 


ment 
Wheel. 


Wheel 
Pinion. 




revol- 
ves in. 


54 


50 


6 


48 


6 


15 


6 


286 


48 


58 


48 


6 


46 


6 


15 


6 


290 


50 


48 


45 


6 


59 


6 


15 


6 


291— 


60 


48 


45 


6 


58 


6 


15 


6 . 


300 


62 


48 


45 


6 


57 


6 


15 


6 


288 


62 


48 


45 


6 


56 


6 


15 


6 


288 


50 


56 


48 


6 


46 


6 


15 


6 


289— 


50 


63 


56 


7 


56 


7 


15 


7 


288 


50 


60 


56 


8 


58 


7 


15 


6 


288 


50 


GZ 


60 


8 


60 


8 


15 


6 


288 


50 


72 


64 


8 


50 


8 


15 


6 


288 


50 


72 


64 


8 


56 


8 


15 


7 


288 


50 


72 


64 


8 


64 


8 


15 


8 


288 


50 


52 


50 


6 


48 


6 


15 


6 


288 


60 


54 


48 


6 


48 


6 


15 


6 


288 


50 


72 


64 


8 


48 


8 


16 


6 


288 


50 


72 


80 


8 


64 


10 


15 


8 


288 


50 


72 


80 


8 


56 


10 


15 


7 


288 


50 


72 


80 


8 


48 


10 


15 


6 


288 


50 


03 


80 


7 


64 


10 


15 


8 


288 


50 


G3 


80 


I 


56 


10 


15 


7 


288 


50 


C3 


80 


7 


48 


10 


15 


6 


288 


50 



Trains, for Seventeen Teetli in the Escapement TVlieel, 



64 


80 


8 


48 


10 


17 


6 


299-f 


1 53 


54 


48 


6 


44 


6 


17 


6 


299-- 


60 


51 


48 


6 


45 


6 


17 


6 


295-- 


53 


54 


48 


6 


43 


6 


17 


6 


292-f 


50 


48 


48 


6 


48 


6 


17 


6 


290-h 


53 


51 


48 


6 


45 


6 


17 


6 


280 


53 


54 


48 





42 


6 


17 


6 


286- 


53 


48 


48 


6 


47 


6 


17 


6 


284-h 


53 


61 


48 


6 


44 


G 


17 


6 


283— 


53 


48 


48 


6 


46 


6 


17 


6 


278 


53 


48 


48 


6 


45 


6 


17 


6 


272 


53 


64 


64 


8 


64 


8 


17 


8 


2904- 


50 


72 


64 


8 


56 


8 


17 


8 


2S6- 


50 


64 


64 


8 


60 


8 


]7 


8 


289- 


63 


66 


56 


7 


56 




17 


7 


290+ 


53 


63 


56 


7 


49 


7 


17 


7 


286- 


50 


64 


56 


8 


48 


7 


17 


6 


290-f 


53 


80 


80 


10 


64 


10 


17 


8 


290+ 


53 


80 


64 


]0 


64 


8 


17 


8 


290+ 


63 


80 


64 


10 


56 


8 


17 


7 


290+ 


b3 


80 


64 


10 


48 


8 


17 


6 


290+ 


53 


80 


56 


10 


56 


7 


17 


7 


290+ 


53 


80 


56 


10 


48 


7 


17 


6 


290+ 


53 


64 


80 


8 


64 


10 


17 


8 


290+ 


63 


64 


80 


8 


56 


10 


17 


7 


290+ 


53 



To Remove Soft Solder from Gold. — Place the work in spirits 
of salts, or remove as much as possible with the scraper, using a 
gentle heat to enable you to get off the solder more easily. Very 
useful to be known where hard sol.dering is required, either in 
hrisrht or colored work. 



324 WATCHMAKEKS, JEWELLERS^ &C,, RECEIPTfc. 





Trains 


, for TMrd Wheel and Patent Seconds 


1 


No. of 
Teeth 
in the 
Centre 
Wheel 




Leaves 




Leaves 


Teeth 
in the 
Escape- 
ment 
WheeL 


Leaves 
in the 




JNo. f.c 
Seconds 


Teeth in 
3d Wheel, 


in 3d 
Wheel 


Teeth in 
4th Wheel 


in 4th 
Wheel 


Escape- 
ment 


No. of Beats in 
one Minute. 


the 4th 
Wheel 




Pinion. 




Pinion. 


Wheel 
Pinion. 




revol- 
ves in. 


60 


72 


6 


60 


12 




6 


800 


60 


60 


60 


6 


60 


10 




6 


3U0 


60 


60 


48 


6 


60 


8 




6 


3 


60 


48 


60 


6 


60 


8 




6 


800 


60 


60 


72 


6 


54 


12 




6 


270 


60 


GO 


60 


6 


54 


10 




6 


270 


60 


48 


60 


6 


54 


8 




6 


270 


60 


60 


72 


6 


48 


12 




6 


240 


CO 


60 


60 


6 


48 


10 




6 


240 


CO 


48 


60 


6 


48 


8 




6 


240 


60 



Trains, for 



Fourtli Wheel Seconds? witU Eleven Teeth 
in the Escapement Wheel. 



48 


45 


6 


71 


6 


11 





260-h 


60 


48 


45 


6 


74 


6 


11 


6 


27ll 


60 


48 


45 


6 


76 


6 


11 


6 


279— 


60 


48 


45 


6 


78 


6 


11 


6 


286 


60 


60 


49 


7 


74 


7 • 


11 


6 


271-f 


60 


60 


49 


7 


76 


7 


11 


6 


279— 


60 


CO 


49 


7 


78 


7 


11 


6 


286 


60 


45 


56 


6 


74 


7 


11 


6 


271-f 


60 


45 


56 


6 


76 


7 


11 


6 


279- 


60 


45 


56 


6 


78 


7 


11 


6 


286 


60 


64 


60 


8 


74 


8 


11 


6 


271-f 


60 


64 


60 


8 


76 


8 


11 


5 


279- 


60 


64 


60 


8 


78 


8 


11 


6 


286 


60 


60 


56 


8 


74 


7 


11 


6 


271-f 


60 


60 


56 


8 


76 


7 


11 


6 


279- 


60 


60 


56 


8 


78 


7 


11 


6 


286 


60 


60 


48 


8 


74 


6 


11 


6 


271-1- 


60 


48 


48 


8 


78 


6 


11 


6 


286 


60 


48 


60 


6 


74 


8 


11 


C 


ir 


60 


48 


60 


6 


78 


8 


11 


6 


60 


56 


60 


7 


74 


8 


11 


6 


271+ 


60 



Trains, for Fonrth W^heel Seconds, -with Thirteen Teeth 
i, vi^,;; . .. in the Escapement TB^heel, 



64 


60 


3 


66 


8 


13 


6 


286 


60 


64 : 


60 


8 


67 


8 


18 


6 


290+ 


60 


64 


60 


8 


68 


8 


13 


6 


295— 


60 


64 


60 


8 


69 


8 


13 


6 


299 


60 


60 


49 


7 


77 


7 


13 


7 


286 


60 


60 


49 


7 


66 


7 


12 


6 


286 


60 


60 


49 


' 7 


67 




13 


6 


290+ 


60 


48 


45 


6 


66 


6 


13 


6 


286 


60 


48 


45 


6 


67 


6 


13 


6 


290+ 


CO 


48 


45 


6 


68 


6 


13 


6 


264— 


60 


48 


45 


6 


69 


6 


13 


6 


299 


60 


60 


66 


8 


66 


7 


13 


6 


286 


60 


80 


60 


10 


66 


8 ' 


13 


6 


286 


60 


64 


75 


1 6 . 


66 


10 


13 


6 


286 


60 


48 


60 


■. 66 , 


8 


13 


6 


286 


60 


48 


75 


6 


. 6(3 


10 


13 


6 


286 


60 


45 


56 


6 


66 


{ 


13 


6 


283 


60 


56 


75 


< 


G3 _ 


10 


13 


6 


29-5- 


G^ 



WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 325 

Trains, for FoiartU "Wlaeel Seeonds, -witli Fifteen Teeth 
iu Fscapement W^lieel* 



Fo. of 
Teeth 




leaves 




Leaves 


Teeth 
in the 
Escape- 
ment 
Wheel, 


Leaves 
in the 




2s'o. of 

Seconds 


in the 


Teeth in 


inSd 


Teeth in 


in 4th 


Escapo- 


Noo of Beats in 


the 4th 


SdWlieeL 


Wheel 


4th Wheel 


Wheel 


menl; 


ono Minute. 


Wheel 


tjentre 
Wlieel. 


60 


Pinion. 


70 


Pinion. 


Wheel 
Pinion. 




revol- 
ves in. 


64 


8 


8 


15 


7 


800 


60 


64 


60 


8 


60 


8 


15 


6 


300 


60 


64 


45 


8 


60 


6 


15 


6 


300 


GO 


60 


56 


8 


60 


7 


15 


6 


300 


6l» 


48 


60 


6 


60 


8 


15 


6 


300 


60 


60 


70 


7 


70 


7 


15 


7 


300 


60 


60 


49 


7 


60 


7 


15 


6 


300 


60 


48 


49 


6 


60 


6 


15 


6 


SOO 


60 


80 


45 


10 


70 


8 


15 


7 


300 


60 


75 


60 


10 


60 


8 


15 


6 


300 


60 


64 


64 


8 


70 


10 


15 


7 


3 


60 


61 


75 


8 


60 


10 


15 


G 


300 


60 


56 


75 


7 


70 


10 


15 


7 


3 


60 


56 


75 


7 


60 


10 


15 


6 


300 


60 


64 


75 


8 


54 


8 


15 


6 


270 


60 


60 


60 


8 


54 


7 


15 


6 


270 


CO 


64 


56 


8 


54 


6 


15 


6 


270 


60 


48 


45 


6 


54 


8 


15 


6 


270 


GO 


60 


60 


7 


63 


7 


15 


7 


270 


60 


60 


49 


7 


54 


< 


15 


6 


270 


60 


48 


49 


6 


54 


6 


15 


6 


270 


60 


64 


45 


8 


48 


8 


15 


6 


240 


60 


60 


60 


8 


48 


7 


15 


6 


240 


60 


48 


50 


6 


48 


8 


]5 


G 


240 


60 


64 


60 


8 


48 


6 


15 


6 


240 


CO 


€0 


45 


7 


56 


7 


15 


7 


240 


69 


CO 


49 


7 


48 


7 


15 


6 


240 


60 


48 


45 


6 


48 


6 


15 


6 


240 


60 


CO 


56 


8 


48 


7 


15 


6 


240 


60 



Trains, for FonrtJh. "Wlieel Seconds, witU 
Teeth, in Fscapement \Flieel, 



Seventeen 



64 
64 
60 
80 
75 
75 
75 



60 


8 


51 


8 


17 


6 


60 


8 


50 


8 


17 


6 


56 


8 


51 


7 


17 


6 


60 


10 


50 


8 


17 


6 


64 


10 


50 


8 


17 


6 


56 


10 


68 


7 


17 


8 


68 


10 


68 


8 


17 


8 


75 


10 


68 


10 


17 


8 



•i«9 

283-h 

289 

283-1- 

283-h 

289 

289 

289 



50 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 



Train of tlie American Watch. Company's Watch, 



64 



60 I 8 



64 



8 I 15 I 7 



300 



GO 



KoTB.— By use of the foregoing set of Trains, and the rule for sizes of 
pinions, on page 312, all difficulty of calculating is obviated; and at one 
view, in case of the accidental loss of a wheel and pinion, may be known 
tlio corroct size and count of the pinion, and number of tcerh ia l.ho 
wheel loat. 



826 wATcmiAKErwS, jewellers', etc., receipts. 

To Put. Watches in Beat.— If a cylinder escapement, or a de- 
taclied lever, put the balance into a position, then tarn the regulator 
so tliat it will point directly to the pivot-hole of the pallet staff, if a 
lever, or of the scape-wheel, if a cylinder. Then lift out the balance 
with its bridge or clock, turn it over and set the ruby-pin directly in 
line with the regulator, or the square cut of the cylinder at right 
angles with it. Your watch will then be in perfect beat. In case of 
an American or an English lever, when the regulator is placed upon 
the plate, you will have to proceed differently. Fix the balance into 
its place, cut off the connection of the train, if the mainspring is not 
entirely down, by slipping a fine broach into one of the wheels, look 
between the plates and ascertain how the lever stands. If the end 
farthest from the balance is equi-distant between the two brass pins, 
it is all right; if not, change the hair-spring till it becomes so. If 
dealing with a duplex watch, you must see that the roller notch, 
when the balance is at rest, is exactly between the locking tooth and 
the line of centre ; that is, a line drawn from the centre of the roller 
to the centre of the scape-wheel. The balance must start from its 
rest and move through an arc of about ten degrees before bringing the 
locking tooth into action. 

To Frost Watch Plates. — ^Watcli plates are frosted by means 
of fine brass wire scratch brushes fixed in a lathe, and made to re- 
volve at great speed, the end of the wire brushes striking the i^lato 
producing a beautiful frosted appearance. 

To Restore AVatch Dials. — If the dial be painted, clean the 
figure off with spirits of wine, or anything else that will render the 
dial perfectly clean ; then heat it to a bright red, and plunge it into a 
ctrong solution of cyanide of potassium, then wash in soaj^ and water, 
and dry in box dust. Repeat if not a good color. India ink, ground 
with gum water, will do for the figures. 

To Whiten Silver Watch Dials.— Flatten a piece of charcoal 
"^y rubbing it on a flat stone : on this place the dial face upwards, ap- 
>)ly a gentle heat carefully with the blow-pipe, allowing the flame to 
play all over the surface of the dial without touching it, so as to 
thoroughly heat without warping the dial. Then pickle and rinse, 
using acid enough to make the water very tart, and immersing but 
for a few seconds. Silver dials may also be annealed by heating 
them red hot on a flat piece of copper over a clear fire. 

To MAKE A Watch Keep Good Tenie when the Cylinder 
Edges are Worn Off, by Altering the Escapesient avitiiout 
Putting a new Cylinder in.— Look at the cylinder, and see if 
there is room, either above or below the old wears, to shift the action 
of the wheel. If the wheel holes are brass, making one a little 
deeper, and putting a shallower one on the other side, will perhaps 
be sufficient. This must be done according as you \^ant your wheel 
up or down. If the holes are stone, shift your wheel on the i^inion 
by a new collet, or turning away more of the old one, as the case 
may require. If you raise your wheel see that it works free of plate 
and top of cylinder, and that the web of wheel clears the top of pas- 
gage. This last fault may be altered by polishing the passage a little 
wider, if the rub be slight If shifted downwards, see to freedom at 
bottom of cylinder, &c. 

Poising Watch B^sxance.— This may be done with sufficient ac- 



WATCHMAKEIIS, JEWELLERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 327 

curacy by scraping one arm of tlie callit)ers with a file when the 
balance is set in motion. This Avill cause the heaviest part to settle 
downwards mth certainty, observing always that the pivots are nicely 
rounded and formed at the ends. In some cases it becomes necessary 
to put a balance out of poise, in order to make the Avatch go equally 
in various positions. The rule for this is : to make the watch gaiu, 
the balance should be heaviest on the lower side when hanging ux>: 
to make it lose, the reverse. 

To Prevent a Chain Running off the Fusee.-— In the first 
place, you must look and ascertain the cause of the difficulty. If it 
results from the chain being too large, the only remedy is a new 
chain. If it is not too large, and yet runs off without any apparent 
cause, change it end for end — that will generally make it go all right. 
In cases where the channel in the fusee has been damaged and is 
rough, you will be under the necessity of dressing it over with a file 
the proper size and shape. Sometimes you find the chain naturally 
inclined to work away from the body of the fusee. The best way to 
remedy a difficulty of this land is to file off a very little from the 
outer lower edge of the chain the entire length ; this, as you can see, 
will incline it to work on instead of off. Some workmen, when they 
have a bad case and a common watch, change the standing of the fusee 
so as to cause the winding end of its arbor to incline a little from the 
barrel. This, of course, cannot do otherwise than make the chain run 
to its place. 

To Weaken the Hair-Spking. — Tliis is often effected by grinding 
the spring down. You remove the spring from the collet, and place 
it upon a piece of pivot wood cut to fit the centre coil. A piece of 
soft steel wire, flattened so as to pass freely between the coils, and 
armed with a little pulverized oil-stone and oil, will serve as your 
grinder, and with it you may soon reduce the strength of the spring. 
Your operations wHl, of course, be confined to the centre coil, for no 
other part of the spring will rest sufficiently against the wood to en- 
able you to grind it, but this wUl generally suffice. The effect will 
be more rapid than one would suppose, therefore it wiU stand you in 
liand to be careful, or you may get the sprmg too weak before you 
suspect it. . 

To Tighten a Ruby Pin. — Set the ruby pm in asphaltum varnish. 
It will become hard in a few minutes, and be much firmer and better 
than gum shellac, as generally used. 

To Temper Brass, or to Draw its Teiviper. — Brass is rendered 
hard by hammering or rolling; therefore, when you make a thing of 
brass necessary to be in temper, you must prepare the material be- 
fore shaping the article. Temper may be drawn from brass by heat- 
ing it to a cherry red, and then simply plunging it into water, the 
same as though you were going to temper steel. 

To TE3IPER Gravers. — Gravers, and other instruments larger 
than drills, may be tempered in quicksilver as above ; or you may use 
lead instead of quicksilver. Cut do-wn into the lead, say half an 
inch; then, having heated your instrument to a light cherry red, 
liress it firmly into the cut. The lead will melt around it, and an ex- 
cellent temper will be imparted. 

To Teiviper Drills. — Select none but the finest and best steel for 
your drills. In making them, never heat higher than a cherry red, 



328 WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS*, &C,, RECEIPTS. 

aud always hammer till nearly cold. Do all your hammering in one 
way, for if, after you have flattened your piece out, you attempt to 
hammer it back to a square or a round, you sjooil it. When your drill 
is in proper shape, heat it to a cherry red, and thrust it into a piece 
of resui or into quicksilver. Some use a solution of cyanuret potassa 
and rain-water for tempering their drills, but the resin or quicksilver 
will work best. 

Othek Methods to Teiviper Springs.— Havmg fitted the spring 
into the case according to your lildng, temper it hard by heating and 
pkmging into water. Next j)olish the small end so that you may be 
able to see when the color changes ; lay it on a piece of copper or 
brass plate, and hold it over your lamp, with the blaze directly under 
the largest part of the spring. Watch the polished part of the steel 
closely, and when you see it turn blue, remove the plate from tlio 
lamp, letting all cool gradually together. When cool enough to 
handle, polish the end of the spring again, place it on the plate, and 
liold it over the lamp as before. The third bluing of the polished end 
will leave the spring in proper temper. Any steel article to which 
you desire to give a spring temper may be treated in the same way. 
Another process, said to be good, is to temper the spring as in the 
first instance; then put it into a small iron ladle, cover it with linseed 
oil, and hold over a lamp till the oil takes fire. Remove the ladle, 
but let the oil contmue to bum until nearly all consumed, then blow 
out, re-cover with oil, and hold over the lamp as before. The third 
burning out of the oil will leave the spring in the right temj)er. 

To Teiniper Clicks, Ratchets, &c. — Clicks, ratchets, or other 
steel articles requiring a similar degree of hardness, should be tem- 
pered in mercurial oiutment. The process consists in simply heating 
to a cherry red and plunging into the ointment. No other mode will 
combine toughness and hardness to such an extent. 

To Draw the Temper from Delicate Steel Pieces with- 
out Springing them. — Place the articles from which you desire to 
draw the temper into a common iron clock key. Fill around it with 
brass or iron filings, and then plug up the open end with a steel, iron, 
or brass plug, made to fit closely. Take the handle of the key with 
your pliers and hold its pipe ipto the blaze of a lamj) till near hot, 
then let it cool gradually. Wlien sufficiently cold to handle, remove 
the plug, and you will find the article with its temper fully drawn, 
but in all other respects just as it was before. 

You will understand the reason for having the article thus plugged 
up while passing it through the heating and coolmg process, when 
yon know that springing always results from the action of changeable 
currents of atmosphere. The temper may be drawn from cylinders, 
staffs, pinions, or any other delicate pieces, by this mode with perfect 
safety. 

To Te:mper Staffs, Cylinders, or Pinions, without Springing 
them. — Prepare the articles as in the i)receding process, using a steel 
ping. Having heated the key-pipe to a cherry red, plunge it into 
Avater; then poUsh the end of your steel plug, place the key upon a 
plate of brass or copper, and hold it over your lamp with the blaze 
immediately under the pipe till the polished part becomes blue. Let 
cool gradually, then polish again. Blue and cool a second time, and 
the work will be done. 



WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 329 

To Draw the Temper from taut of a Small Steel Article. — 
Hold the part from which you wish to draw the tem]Der with a pair of 
tweezers, and with your blow-pipe direct the flame upon them — ^not 
the article— till sufficient heat is communicated to the article to pro- 
duce the desired effect. 

To Blue Screws Evenly. — Take an old watch barrel and drill as 
many holes into the head of it as you desire to blue screws at a time. 
Fill it about one-fourth full of brass or iron fillings, put in the head, 
and then fit a wire, long enough to bend over for a handle, into the 
arbor holes — head of the barrel upwards. Brighten the heads of your 
screws, set them point downwards, into the holes already drilled, and 
expose the bottom of the barrel to yonr lamp till the screws assume 
the color you wish. 

To Remove Bluing from Steel.— Immerse in a pickle composed 
of equal parts muriatic acid and elixir vitriol. Rinse iu pure water, 
and dry in tissue paper. 

To Make Diajviond Broaches. — Make you broaches of brass tho 
size and shape you desire; then, having oiled them slightly, roll their 
points into fine diamond dust till entirely covered. Hold them then 
on the face of your anvil, and tap with a light hammer till tlie grains 
disappear in the brass. Great caution will be necessary in this 
operation. Do not tap heavy enough to flatten the broach. Very 
light blows are all that will be required; the grains will be driven in 
much sooner than one would imagine. Some roll the broach between 
two small pieces of steel to imbed the diamond dust. It is a very 
good way, but somewhat more wasteful of the dust. Broaches mado 
on this plan are used for dressing out jewels. 

Jewelling. — In using the broaches, press but lightly into the jewel 
hole, and turn the broach rapidly with your fingers. For polishing, 
use a bone or ivory point, lightly coated with the finest diamond dust 
and oil, and while using it with the one hand, accompany the motion 
with a slight oscillating motion of the other hand, in which the jewel 
is held. This will insure a more even polish to the hole, with less 
liability to press the jewel out of its place in the plate, than if held 
firm and steady. 

To make Diainiond Files. — Shape your file of brass, and chargo 
with diamond dust, as in case of the mill. Grade the dust in accord- 
ance with the coarse or fine character of the file desired. 

To iMAKE Pivot Files.— Dress up a piece of wood file-fashion, 
about an inch broad, and glue a piece of fine emery paper upon it. 
Shape your file then, as you wish it, of the best cast steel, and before 
tempering pass your emery paper heavily across it several times, 
diagonally. Temper by heating to a cherry red, and plunging into 
linseed oil. Old worn pivot files may be dressed over and made new 
by this process. At first thought, one would be led to regard them 
too slightly cut to work well, but not so. They dress a pivot more 
rapidly than any other file. 

To MAiiE A Diamond Mill.— Make a brass chuck or wheel, suit- 
able for use on a foot-lathe, with a flat even surface or face of about 
IJ or 2 inches in diameter; then place a number of the coarsest pieces 
of your diamond dust on different parts of its face, and with smooth 
faced steel hammer drive the pieces of dust ail evenly into the brass to 
nearly or quite level with the surface. Your mill, thus prepared, is 



330 WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS', &C., RECEirTS. 

now used for making pallet jewels or for grinding stone and glass of 
any kind. For polishing, use a bone or boxwood cliuck or wlieel,of sim- 
ilar form to your mill, and coat it lightly with the finest grade of 
your diamond-dust and oil; with tliis a beautiful polish may be giveu 
to the hardest stone. 

To Make Diamond Dust. — ^Place a few small pieces of common 
or cheap diamond on a block of hard polished steel, in a suitable ves- 
sel, and cover it with water to prevent it flying or scattering, then 
place a flat steel punch on each piece separately, and strike the puncli 
with a mallet or hammer, with sufficient force to crusli the diamond. 
When reduced sufficiently fine in this way, the dust may be collected 
and dried for use ; after drying, it may be graduated for different 
purposes, by mixing it with a little watch oil ; when agitated, the fin- 
est particles will float near the surface, while the coarsest pieces will 
smk at once to the bottom ; and thus by decanting the oil in which 
the dust floats, as many grades of fineness as desired may be obtain- 
ed. The dust may be sej)arated from the oU by pouring on a piece of 
smooth clean paper ; the paper will absorb the oil, or allow it to fil- 
ter through, while the dust will remain on the surface ; but to pre- 
vent waste, the better way is to leave it in the oil and use directly 
therefrom as required, or the oil may be washed out of the dust with 
alcohol. 

To PHESERVE PllSTONS OR BeAKINGS FROM CORIIOSION AND RuST. 

— ^In case of the lower centre bearing under the camion pinion cor- 
roding or rusting, when you clean the watch, be particular to take the 
central wheel off. Clean it thoroughly; if the pivot is scratched, pol- 
ish itj then make a little hollow in the top hole ; put good fresh oil 
on it, and the pivot will not corrode or rust for two or three years. 
As to the other pivots in the watch, they should all be thoroughly 
cleaned, and old oil cleaned out ; then if no dust gets in, and no acci- 
dent happens the watch, it will run for years. 

To Clean a Clock.— Take the movement of the clock " to pieces." 
Brush the wheels and pinions thoroughly with a stiff coarse brush ; 
also the plates which the trains work. Clean the pivots well by turn- 
ing in a piece of cotton cloth held tightly between your thumb and 
finger. The pivot holes in the plates are generally cleansed by turn- 
ing a piece of wood into them, but I have always found a strip of 
cloth or a soft cord drawn tightly through them to act the best. K you 
use two cords, the first one slightly oiled, and the next dry, to clean the 
oil out, all the better. Do not use sali; or acid to clean your clock — 
it can do no good, but may do a great deal of harm. Boiliiig tho 
movement in water, as is the practice of some, is also foolishness. 

To Bush. — The hole tlirough which the great arbors, or winding 
axles, work, are the only ones that usually require bushing. When 
they have become too much worn, the great wheel on the axle before 
named strikes too deeply into the pinions above it and stops the clock. 
To remedy this, bushing is necessary, of course. The most common 
way of doing it is to drive a steel point or punch into the plate just 
above the axle hole, thus forcing the brass dowmvards untU the hole 
is reduced to its original size. Another mode is to solder a piece of 
brass ui)on the plate in such a position as to hold the axle down to its 
proper place. Lf you simply wish your clock to rmi, and have no am- 
bition to produce a bush that will look workmanlike, about as good a 



WATCHMAKEES, JEATELLERS', ifcC, RECEIPTS. 331 

"way as any is to fit a piece of hard "^ood "between tlie post which 
comes through the toj) of the plate and axle. Make it long enougli 
to hold the axle to its proi)er place, so that the axle will run on tho 
end of the grain. Cut notches where the i:)ivots come through, ana 
secure hy wrapping around it and the x)late a piece of small wire or a 
thread. 

To REiMEDY Worn Pi^t:on. — Tuni the leaves or rollers, so the 
worn places upon them will be towards the arbor or shaft, and fasten 
them in that iDOsition. If they are "rolling i)inions" and you cannot 
secure them otherwise, you had better do it with a little soft solder. 

To Oil PROPERiiY. — Oil only, and very lightly, the pallets of the 
verge, the steel pin upon which the verge works, and the point where 
the loop of the verge wire works over the pendulum Avire. Use none 
but the best watch oil. Though you might be working constantly at 
the clock-repairing business, a bottle costing you but twenty-five 
cents would last you two years at least. You can buy it at any watch- 
lumishing establishment. 

To Make the Clock: Strike Correctly.— If not very cautious 
in putting up your clock you wiU get some of the striking-train wheels 
in wrong, and thus produce a derangement in the striking. If this 
should happen, pry the plates apart on the strikuig side, slij) the 
pivots of the upper wheels out, and having disconnected them from 
the train, turn them part around and put them back. If still not 
right, reiDCat the experiment. A few efforts at most will get them to 
worlnng properly. The sound in cuckoo clocks is caused by a wire 
acting on a small bellows which is connected with two small pii^es 
like organ pipes. 

A Defect to look after. — Always examine the pendulum wire 
at the point where the loop of the verge ^vire works over it. You will 
generally find a small notch, or at least a rough place worn there. 
Dress it out perfectly smooth, or your clock will not be likely to work 
w^ell. Small as this defect may seem, it stops a large number of 
clocks. 

Figures on Gold and Silver Dials.— Hold a small piece of 
copper over a gas flame for a few minutes till it is coated with soot ; 
clear this '^off onto a piece of finely ground glass, add fat oil and a 
small quantity of oil of spike lavender, and grind up ; paint with a 
small-camel hair pencil. 

To DETER]VnNE THE ExACT FOCAL DISTANCE OP SPECTACLE 

Glasses. — Place the end of a measure of thirty or forty inches in 
length against a smooth wall, or other suitable ground, m plain view 
of some well-defined object a few rods distant, as for instance a 
building or window on the opposite side of the street. Then place 
the edge of your lens on the measure, and move it backwards or 
forwards imtil a spectrum is formed, or, in other words, until a clear 
and distinct outline of the distant object is produced on the ground 
against which your measure rests. This point wiU represent suffi- 
ciently near, for all practical purposes, the exact focal distance of the 
lens, and will correspond in inches with the number on all properly 
marked convex spectacles. For mendmg fine steel spectacle frames, 
use the best gold solder m preference to silver or brass solder. 

Yaluadle Receipts for Golds]miths. — Standard gold is com- 
l)ounded of 440 grains of fine gold, and 40 graius (Troy weight, ) to 



332 WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 

the oz. alloy ; therefore, when you judge how much gold a piece of 
work will take, compound it to the standard weight by the followiiii; 
directions : Assay Weight. — The weight of gold is a pound, which is 
divided into 12 ozs. each oz. into 24 carats, each carat into 4 grams, 
and, lastly, each grain mto 4 quarters ; then you see the assay quarter- 
grain, is in reality 1^ grain Troy. 

On Melting and Refining. — ^In melting Brass Gold, urge tlie 
fire to a great heat, and stir the metal with the long stem of a 
tobacco pii3e to prevent honey-combing. If Steel or Iron filings 
get into gold Avhile melting, throw in a piece of sandiver the size 
of a common nut ; it will attract the iron or steel from the gold 
into the flux, or, sublimate of mercury will destroy the iron or 
steel. To cause Gold to roll well, melt with a good heat, add a 
teaspoonful of sal ammoniac and charcoal, equal quantities, both 
pulverized, stir up well, put on the cover for 2 minutes, and pour. 

To Refine Sweepings Containing Gold or Silveh. — ^To 8 
ozs. of the dirt, which has been washed and burnt, add salt, 4 ozs. ; 
pcarlash 4 ozs. ; red tartar 1 oz. ; saltpetre i oz., mix thoroughly iu 
a mortar, melt in a crucible, and dissolve out the precious metals in 
a button. 



QUANTITY OF STANDARD GOLD TO COMPOUND AN OZ. OF ANY OF 
THE FOLLOWING ALLOYS CALCULATED TO THE J OF A GRAIN, 
AS FOLLOWS : 



Carat, 


Dwts. 


Grs. 


Qrs. 




Dwts. 


Grs. 


Qrs. 


1 





21 


9 




19 


2 


2 


2 


1 


19 


T 




18 


4 


4 


3 


2 


17 


5 




17 


6 


C 


4 


3 


15 


3 


i 


16 


8 


8 


6 


4 


13 


1 


15 


10 


10 


6 


6 


10 


10 


14 


13 


1 


7 


6 


8 


8 


13 


15 


3 


8 


7 


6 


C 


< 


12 


17 


6 


9 


8 


4 


4 




11 


19 


7 


10 


9 


2 


2 




10 


21 


9 


11 


10 


. 





10 








12 


10 


21 


9 


O 


9 


2 


2 


13 


11 


19 


7 


H 


8 


4 


4 


14 


12 


17 


5 


>-* 


7 


6 


6 


15 


13 


15 


3 


O 


6 


8 


8 


16 


14 


13 


1 


ii 


5 


10 


10 


17 


15 


10 


10 


^ 


4 


13 


t 


18 


IG 


8 


8 


< 


3 


15 


3 


19 


17 


6 


6 




2 


17 


5 


20 


18 


4 


4 




1 


19 


7 


21 


19 


2 


2 







21 


9 


22 


22 

















To Fuse Gold Dust. — Use such a crucible as is generally 
used for melting brass ; heat very hot ; then add your gold dust 
mixed with powdered borax ; — after some time a scum or slag will 
arise on the top, which may be thickened by the addition of a 
little lime or bone ash. If the dust contains any of the more 
oxidizeable metals, add a little nitre, skim off the slag or scum very 
carefully ; when melted, grasp the crucible with stror^g iron tongs ; 



WATCn^IAKERS, JEWELLERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 333 

and pour off immediately into cast iron moulds, slightly greased. 
The slag and crucibles may be afterwards pulverized, and the 
auriferous matter recovered from the mass through cupellation by 
means of lead. 

Gold Alloys. — The "New Standard" for watch cases, &c., is 18 
carats of fine gold and 6 of alloy. No gold of inferior quality can 
receive the "Hall mark;** and gold of lower quaUtyis generally 
described by its commercial value. The alloy may be entirely 
silver, which will give a green color, or entirely copper for a red 
color, but the copper and silver are more usually mixed in one 
alloy according to the taste of the jeweUer. It wiU be understood 
that these are all made with fijie gold, fine silver, and fine copper, 
direct from the refiner. Gold of 22 carats fine being so little used, 
is iutentionaUy omitted. 1. Gold of 18 carats^ of yellow tint. Gold 
15 dwt., silver, 2 dwt, 18 grs., copper 2 dwt., 6 grs. 2. Gold of 18 
carats, red tint. Gold 15 dwt, silver, 1 dwt. 18 grs., copper, 3 dwt. 
C grs. 3. Spring gold of 16 carats. Gold 1 oz. 16 dwt., silver, 6 dwt., 
copper, 12 dwt. This when drawn or roUed very hard makes springs 
little inferior to steel ; 4 Jewellers* Fine Gold, yellovj tint, 16 carats 
nearly. Gold, 1 oz. silver, 7 d^vt., copper, 5 dwt. 5. Gold of red 
tint 16 carats. Gold, 1 oz. silver, 2 dwt., copper, 8 dwt. 

Sterling Gold Alloy, T '.s. per oz. — 1. Fine gold, 18dwts.,12 
grs., fine silver, 1 dwt., fine copper, 12 grs. 2.— Dry colored Gold 
Alloys. 17 Carat. Fine gold, 15 dwts., fine silver, 1 dwt. 10 grs., fine 
copper, 4 dwts. 17 grs. — 3. Another, 18 Carat. Fine gold, 1 oz., fine 
silver, 4 dwts. 10 grs., fine copper, 2 dwts. 5 grs. — i. Another , 18 
Carat. Fine gold, 15 dwts., fine silver, 2 dwts. 4 grs., fine copper, 2 
dwts. 19 grs. — 5. Another, 18 Carat. Fine gold, 18 dwts., fine silver, 
2 dwts. 18 grs., fine copper, 3 dwts. 18 grs. — 6. Another, 19 Carat. 
Fine gold, 1 oz., fine silver, 2 dwts. 6 grs., fine copper, 3 dwts. 12 
grs. — 7. AnothG)\ 20 Carat. Fine gold, loz., fine silver, 2 dwts., fine 
copper, 2 dwts. 4 grs. — 8. Another, 22 Carat. Fine gold, 18 dwts., fine 
silver, 12 grs., fine copper, 1 dwt. 3 grs. — 9. Gold solder for the fore- 
going Alloys. Take of the alloyed gold you are using, Idwt., fine 
silver, 6 grs. — 10. Alloy fov Dry Colored Rings. Fine gold, 1 oz., 
fine silver, 4 dwts. 6 grs., fine copper, 4 dwts. 6 grs. — 11. Solder for 
ditto. Scrap gold, 2 ozs., fine silver, 3 dwts., fine copper, 3 dwts. — 12. 
Dnj Colored Scrap reduced to 35s. Gold. Colored scrap, 1 oz., 9 
dwts. 12 grs., fine silver, 2 dwts., fine copper, 17 dwts. 12 grs., spelter, 
4 dwts. 

Dry Coloring for the Foregoing. — Polish your work weU and 
for every 2 ozs., take saltpetre, 8 ozs., alum, 4 ozs., salt, 4 ozs., melt 
all together in a black lead pot, stirring with a thin iron bar when 
dissolving. Use the fire on a forge and urge it well with the beUows, 
as you can not make it too hot. Your polished work being well 
cleaned with soda, soap, and hot water, is dried in box sawdust, is 
afterwards covered, with a thin layer of borax ; annealed and boiled 
out, and again dried in box sawdust, and finally hung on platuium 
or silver wire. When the "color " in the pot assumes a brown yellow 
flame, the work is dipped in for two or three seconds, and quenched 
with hot water diluted with muriatic acid, which removes any " color" 
that may adhere to the work. This ought to produce the desired 
color, but if it does not, repeat the process, previously drying the 



334 WATCnMAKERS, JEWELLERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 

work oefore re-immersion in the "color." The color-pot must bo 
emptied immediately upon the forgo, so that it may be ready for 
future use. 

Wet Colored AiiLOYS. — 1. Fine gold, 1 oz., fine silver, 3 dwts. 12 
grs., fine copper, 9 dwts. 2. Fine gold, 1 oz., fine silver, 4 dwts. 12grs.; 
fine copper, 10 dwts. 3. Fine gold, 1 oz., fine silver, 4 dwts. 12 grs., 
fine copper, 10 dwts. 12 grs. 4. Fine Gold, 1 oz., fine silver, 4 dwts., 
fine copper, 9 dwts. 12 grs. 5 Green Gold for Fancy Work, Fine 
gold, 1 oz., fine silver, 6 dwts. IG grs. 6. Another Green Gold 
Fine gold, 10 dwts., fine silver, 2 dwts. 2 grs. 7. Red Gold, for 
fancy work. Fine gold, 5 dwts., fine copper, 2 dwts. 12 grs. 
8. Another Red Gold. Fine gold, 5 dwts., fine copper, 1 dwt. 
6 grs. 9. Gold solders for the foregoing Alloys. Take of the aUoycd 
gold you are using, 1 dwt., fine silver, 6 grs., or, 5 grs. silver and 1 gr. 
copper may be used. 10. Solder for Repairing. Gold alloyed, 1 dwt. , 
fine silver, 5 grs., pin brass, 1 gr. 11. Wet Colored Solder. Wet 
colored scrap, 3 ozs., fine silver, 10 dwts., fine copper, 5 dwts. 12. 
Gold, 15 carat, cost 56s. or $14 jper oz. Fine gold, 1 oz. 18 dwts., fine 
silver, 12 dwts. 12 grs., fine copper, 10 dwts. 13. Fiae gold, 1 oz., fine 
silver, 8 dwts. fine copper, 4 dwts. 14. Fine gold, 1 oz., fine silver, 8 
dwts., fine copper, 4 dwts. 15. Fine gold, loz., fine silver, 6 dwts., 
fine copper, 8 dwts. 16. Gold solder for the last. Gold scrap, 1 oz., 
fine silver, 5 dwts. 17. Gold good color. Fine gold, 1 oz., fine silver, 
Cdwts., fine copper, 4 dwts. 18. Gold cost 60s. or $15, good color. 
Fine gold, 1 dwt., fine silver, 6 dwts., fine copper, 4 dwts. 19. Wet 
colored solder. Scrap gold, 4 ozs., fine silver, 13 dwts., fine copper, 6 
dwts. 16 grs. 20. To reduce 22 carat into Wet colored Gold. Gold 
coins 4 ozs. 8 dwts., fine silver, 13 dwts., fine copper, 1 oz. 13 dwts. 21. 
To reduce 22 carat to ordinary loet colored Gold with scrap. Coias 1 
oz., fine gold, 3 ozs., fine silver, 17 dwts. 12 grs., fine copper, 2 ozs. 1 
dwt. 12 grains., scrap, 3 ozs. 1 dwt. 22. Another loay with scrap. 
Coins, 3 ozs. 1 dwt. 6 grs., fine gold, 2 ozs., fine silver, 1 oz. 1 dwt., 
fijie copper, 2 ozs. 11 dwts., scrap, 1 oz. 6 dwts. 18 grs. 23. Another 
toay with scrap. Coins, 2 ozs., fiue gold, 3 ozs. 3 dwts. 8 grs., fine 
silver, 1 oz. 1 dwt. 4 grs., fine copper, 2 ozs. 10 dwts. 12 grs., scrap, 1 
oz. 5 dwts. 24. To reduce 22 carat to ordinaiy wet colored Gold loit/i- 
out scrap. Coins, 1 oz., fine gold, 8 ozs., fine silver, 2 ozs., fine cop- 
per, 4 ozs. 14 dwts. 25. Another loay without scrap. Coins, 1 oz., 
fine gold, 2 ozs., fine silver, 13 dwts., fine copper, 1 oz. 11 dwts. 26. 
Another way without scrap. Coins, 2 ozs., fine gold, 6 ozs., fine silver, 
1 oz. 14 dwts., fine copper, 4 ozs. 2 dwts. 

To Wet-Color the foregoing Alloys. — For 5 ozs. of work take 
saltpetre, 16 ozs., alum, 8 ozs., salt, 8 ozs., all pulverized and muriatic 
acid 2 ozs., dissolve the ingredients gradually in a black lead pot. 
When it boils up, add the acid, and stir the whole with a wooden 
spoon. Having aimealed your work and made it perfectly clean, tie 
in small parcels with platinum or fine silver wire, and when the color 
boils up immerse it therein for four minutes, moving it about to eH' 
sure a perfect contact with all parts of the surface. Then take it out 
and ruise it well in boiling water, then immerse in tiie color again for 
for 1 J minutes and rinse well once more in fresh hot water. Now 
add 2 ozs. of fresh hot water to the color in the pot, which will cause 
it to sink. When it rises put in your work for 1 minute, rinsing in 



WATCn3IAKERS, JEWELLEKS', AC, RECEIPTS. 335 

fresli hot water again, Tvhen it will begin to brighten. Now immerse 
your work for half a minute longer, and rinse for the last time in 
clean hot water, when it will api^ear of a most beautiful color. 

Alloys, continued. 1. Pale gold for coloring Enamelling^ or 
Lapping^Yine gold, 1 oz., fine silver, 9 dwts, fine copper, 2 dwts. 12 
grs. 2. Another ditto — Fine gold 1 oz., fine silver 9 dwts., fine cop- 
per 3 dwts. 12 grs. 3. Anotlier ditto — Fine gold 1 oz., fine silver 10 
dwts., fine copper 3 dwts. 12 grs. 4. Enamelling Gold No. 1 — Fine 
gold 1 oz., fine silver 1 dwt. 12 grs., fine copper 2 dwts. 12 grs. 5. 
enamelling Gold from. Sterling — Sterling 1 oz., fine silver 8 grs., fine 
copper 2 dwts. 6. Enamelling Gold Solder — Gold alloyed, 1 dwt., 
fine silver 4 grs. 7. Another ditto , cost 43s. stg., or $10.75 per oz. — 
Fine gold 12 dwts., fine silver 7 dwts. 3 grs., fine copper 6 dwts. 8. 
Enamelling Gold No. 2. cost 50s stg. per oz. — Fine gold 1 oz., fine sil- 
ver 9 dwts. 12 grs., fine copper 7 dwts. 12 grs. 9. Enamelling Gold 
No. 3. — Fine gold 1 oz., fine silver 14 dwts., fine copper 8 dwts. 10. 
Enamelling Gold No. 4. — ^Fme gold 2 ozs. 5 dwts., fine silver 1 oz. G 
dwts., fine copper 1 oz., pm brass 5 dwts. 11. Enamelling Gold No. 5. 
— ^Fine gold 1 oz., fine silver 12 dwts., fine copper 6 dwts. 12. En- 
amelling Gold No. 6. for transparent enamelling — Fine gold 1 oz., fine 
silver 14 dwts., fine copper 6 dwts. 13. Gold solder for enamelled 
ivork — Fine gold 1 oz., fine silver 1 oz., fine copper 10 dwts., silver 
solder 8 dwts. 8 grs. 14. Pale Gold alloys for polishing, &c.^ Nol. 
— Fine gold 1 oz., fine silver 8 dwts., fine copper 3 dwts. 12 grs. 15. 
Another, No. 2. — Fine gold 1 oz., fine silver 1 dwt. 20 grs., fine cop- 
per 1 dwt. 4 grs. 16. Pale 18 Carat Gold — ^Fine gold 1 oz., fine silver 
4 dwts., fine copper 2 dwts. 15 grs. 17. Another Pale 18 Carat Gold 
— Fine gold 1 oz. 12 grs., fine silver 3 dwts. 8 grs., fine copper 3 dwts. 

8 grs. 18. Pale Gold Solder — Gold alloyed 1 dwt. 6 grs., fine silver 
1 dwt. 19. Alloy for best Pens — Fine gold 1 oz., fine silver 5 dwts., 
fine copper 7 dwts. 18 grs., spelter 1 dwt 6 grs. 20. Solder for ditto 
—Fine gold 12 dwts., fine silver 7 dwts. 3 grs., fine copper 6 dwts. 

21. Medium quality pens — Fine gold 1 oz., composition 1 oz., 13 dwts. 

22. Composition for the last — Fine silver 1 oz. 17 dwts., fine copper 5 
ozs. 15 dwts., spelter 18 dwts. 20 grs. 23. Solder for ditto — ^Fine gold 
1 oz., fine silver 2 ozs., pin brass 1 oz. 24. Gold for common pens — 
Fine gold 1 oz. , fine silver 2 ozs. , fine copper 1 oz. 25. Solder for ditto 
Fine gold 1 oz., fine silver 2 ozs., i^inbrass 1 oz. 26. Alloys of Gold 
icith Brass, No. 1. — Fine gold 1 oz., fine silver 5 dwts. 6 grs., fine cop- 
per 3 dwts. 12 grs., pin brass 18 dwts. 27. Anotlier ditto. No. 2. — 
Fine gold 1 oz., fine silver 4 dwts., fine copper 4 dwts., pin brass 16 
dwts. 28. Another ditto. No. 3. — Fine gold loz., fine silver 5 dwts. 
12 grs., fine copper 3 dwts. 12 grs., pin brass 19 dwts. 6 grs. 29. 
Another alloy. — Fine gold 1 oz., fine silver 3 dwts. 21 grs., fine copper 

9 dwts. 3 grs., composition 5 dwts. 6 grs. 30. Another ditto — Fine 
gold 15 dwts. 9 grs., fine silver 5 dwts. 19 grs., fine copper 3 dwts. 21 
grs., composition 15 dwts. 31. Composition for the last two alloys — 
Finest copper 1 oz., spelter 5 dwts. 32. Solder for foregoing alloys-^ 
Gold alloyed, 1 dwt., fine silver 12 grs. 33. Imitation Gold, costs 87c. 
per oz. — Fine silver 2 oz. 5 dwts., fine copper 1 oz., composition 1 oz., 
keeps its color very well. 34. Composition for ditto — Fine copper 11 
ozs., spelter 2 ozs. 35. " California" Gold—Ymei gold 5 ozs. 12 dwts. 
comix>sition 7 ozs. 17 dwts 36. Composition for " Calif 02'nia" — Fine 



336, WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS', &C., RECEIPTS, 



silver, 7 ozs. 17 dwts. fine copper 33 ozs. 12 dwts., spelter 5 ozs. 12 dwts. 
37. Medium Gold — Fine gold 1 oz., fine silver 12 dwts., fine copper 13 
dwts. 38. Bright Gold—¥m.Q gold 1 oz., fine silver 7 dwts., compo- 
sition marked No. 34, 1 dwt. 6 grs. 39. Common Gold No. 1. — Fine 
gold 1 Gz., fine silver 8 dwts., composition No. 34. 1 oz. 12 dwts. 41. 
Common Gold, JVo. 2. — Fine kold 5 dwts., fine silver 3 dwts. 6 grs., fine 
copper 6 dwts. 12 grs. 42. Gold for Fins— Fine gold 1 oz., fine silvei 
5 d\vt8. , fine copper 1 oz. , spelter 5 dwts. 43. Dry Colored Scrap reduced 
to 35s. or $8.75 Gold — Colored scrap 1 oz. 9 dwts. 12 grs., fine silver 2 
dwts., fiLQe copper 17 dwts. 12 grs., spelter 4 dwts. 44. Alloy for Gold 
Chains. — ^Fine gold 11 dwts. 6 grs., fine silver 2 dwts. 5 grs., fine cop- 
per 6 dwts. 13 grs. 45. Another ditto — Fine gold 1 oz., fine silver 9 
dwts., fine copper 8 dwts. 46. Gold worth 45 stg, or SH. 25.— Fine gold, 
1 oz., composition (see No. 22) 1 oz. 47. Solder for ditto. — ^Fine gold 1 
oz., fine silver 15 dwts., fine copper 15 dwts. 48. 12 Carat Gold^ — Fine 
gold 1 oz., fine silver 10 dwts., fiiie copper 9 dwts. 6 grs. 49. Com- 
mon Gold from *' California" — "California,'* (see No. 35) 8 ozs. fine 
silver 13 ozs. 16 dwts., fine copper 6 ozs. 16 dwts. 50. 29s or $7.25 
Gold.— Fine gold 1 oz. 13 dwts. 6 grs., fine silver 1 oz. 12 dwts. 12 



grs., fine copper 1 oz. 16 dwts. 6 grs., spelter 4 dwts. 
acid very weU. 



Stands nitric 



OKDINARY BKIGHT GOLD WIRE, TABLE SHOWING THE PROPORTIONS 
OF ALLOY FROM 1 OZ. UP TO 21 OZ. 



Fine Gold. 


Fine Silver. 


Fine Copper. 


Total. 


Oz. Dwts. Grs. 


Oz. 


Dwts. Grs. 


Oz. Dwts. Grs. 


Oz. 


Dwts. 


Grs. 


5 21 





6 6 


6 21 


1 








11 18 





14 12 


13 18 


2 








17 15 


1 


1 18 


1 15 


3 








1 15 6 


2 


3 12 


2 16 


6 








2 12 21 


3 


5 6 


2 1 21 


.9 








3 10 12 


4 


7 


4 2 12 


12 








4 8 3 


5 


8 18 


5 3 3 


15 








5 4 18 


6 


10 12 


6 3 18 


18 








6 3 8 


7 


12 6 


2 4 9 


21 









To Recover the Golb lost in Coloring. — Dissolve a handful 
of sulphate of iron in boiling water, then add this to your "color" 
water, it precipitates the small particles of gold. Now draw off llio 
water, being very careful not to disturb the auriferous sediment at 
the bottom. You will now proceed to wash the sediment from aU 
trace of acid with plenty of boilmg water ; it will require 3 or 4 sep- 
arate washings, with sufficient time between each to allow the water to 
cool and the sediment to settle, before ]pouring the water off. Then 
dry in an iron vessel by the fire and finally fuse in a covered skittle 
pot with a flux as directed on page 202. 

Alloys for Gold. — 1. Bed gold. — Copper, 66.67 parts ; gold, 33.- 
33 parts. 2. Yelloio gold. — Copper, 12.50 parts ; silver, 37.50 parts ; 
gold, 50 parts. 3. Green gold. — Silver, 25 parts ; gold, 75 parts. 4. 
Yelloio gold. — Silver, 66.67 parts ; gold, 33.33 parts. 5. Gray gold. — 



VVATCnMAKERS, JEWELLERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 337 

Silver, 5.89 parts ; gold, 88.23 parts ; iron, 5.89 parts. 6. Dentists' gold, 
—Silver, 8.34 parts ; platinum, 66.67 parts ; gold, 24.29 parts. 7. 
English gold coz/i.— Copper, 8. 34 parts ; gold, 91. 66 parts. 8. A^nerican 
gold com.— Copper, 10 parts ; gold, 90 parts. French gold coin same 
as American. 10. Alloys for Silver Coin and Plate.— English 
standard.— Coy^&c, 7.50 parts ; silver, 92.50 parts. 11. American ditto, 
— Copper, 10 parts ; silver 90 parts. French, the same. 

GiiiDiNG METAii for common jewelry is made by mixing 4 parts 
copper with one of calamine brass. Sometimes 1 lb. copper, witli (> 
oz. of brass. Dentists* Plate.— 'No. 1 Gold, 20 dwts. ; silver, 1 dwt. ; 
copper, 2 dwts. 2. Gold, 21, silver, 2, copper. Gold for Springs, 
— Gfold, 18 dwts. 12 grs. ; silver, 6 dwts. ; copper, 5 dwts. 

Jeweli.eiis'Solderi2?^g Fluid.— Muriatic acid, ipt; grain zinc, 
IJ oz. Dissolve, and add a little common solder and sal-ammoniac^ 

Jewellers' Gold Cojvlpositions. — Common Gold. — Silver, 1 part; 
Spanish copper, 16 parts, gold, 2 parts; mix. Ring Gold. — ^anish 
copper, parts; silver, 3 parts; gold, 5 parts; mix. Manheim Gold.—^ 
copper, 3 parts; zinc, 1 part. Melt, and stir weU. Mosaic Gold. — 
copper and zinc, equal parts ; melt at the lowest temperature that will 
fuse the former, then mix by stirring, and add 5 per cent, more zinc. 
Parker's Mosaic Gold. — Copper, 100 parts ; zinc, 54 parts. For common 
Jewehnf' — Copper, 3 parts ; 1 of old brass, and 4 oz. of tin to every lb. 
of copper. Factitious Gold. — Copper, 16 parts; platinum, 7 x^arts; 
zinc, 1 part; fused together. Tliis alloy resembles gold of 16 carats 
fine, or §, and will resist the action of nitric acid, unless very concen- 
trated and boiling. Harmstadfs True Imitation of Gold. — is stated 
not only to resemble gold in color, but also in specific gravity and 
dactUity. Platiuum, 16 parts; copper, 7 parts; zinc, 1 part; put it in a 
crucible, cover with charcoal powder, and melt hito a mass. Do. of 
Silver. — Copper, J oz. ; brass, 2 oz. ; pure silver, 3 oz. ; bismuth, 2 oz. ; 
saltpetre, 2 oz. ; common salt, 1 oz. ; arsenic, 1 oz. ; potash, 1 oz. ; melt 
in a crucible with powdered charcoal. This compound, used by a 
German chemist for unlawful purposes, was so perfect that he was 
never discovered. 

AnTiFiCL^-L Gold. — ^This is a new metallic alloy which is now very 
extensively used iu France as a substitute for gold. Pure copper, 100 
l^arts; zinc, or, preferably, tui, 17 parts; magnesia, 6 parts; sal- 
ammoniac, 3-6 parts ; quick-lime, | part ; tartar of commerce, 9 parts ; 
are mixed as follows : The copper is first melted, and the magnesia, 
sal-ammoniac, lime and tartar are then added separately, aud by 
degrees, in the form of powder; the whole is now brisldy stirred for 
about J an hour, so as to mix thoroughly ; and when the zinc is added 
in small grains by throwing it on the surface, and stirriag till it is 
entirely fused; the crucible is then covered, and the fusion maiutaiaed 
for about 35 minutes. The surface is then skimmed, and the alloy is 
ready for casting. It has a fine grain, is malleable, and takes a splen- 
did polish. It dose not corrode readily, and for many purposes, is an 
excellent substitute for gold. When tarnished, its brilliancy can be 
restored by a little acidulated water. If tin be employed instead of 
zinc, the alloy wUl be more brilliant. It is very much used m France, 
and must ultimately attain equal popularity here. 

New Frekch Patent Alloy for Silver. — Messieurs De Ruolz 
& Fontenay have invented the following alloy, which may be used 

22' 



338 WATcn:MAKERS, jewellers', sjc., receipts 

for almost all purposes in wliich silver is usually applied. Silver, 20 
parts ; purified nickel, 28 parts ; copper, 52 parts, Melt the copper and 
nickel in the granular state, then introduce the silver. The flux to be 
emi)loyed is charcoal and borax, both in the state of powder; and the 
ingots obtained are to be rendered malleable by annealing for a con- 
siderable time in powdered charcoal. 

GoiiD. — To find the number of carats of gold in an object, first weigh 
the gold and mix with seven times its weight in silver. This alloy is 
beaten into thin leaves, and nitric acid is added ; this dissolves the 
silver and copper. The remainder (gold) is then fused and weighed ; 
by comparing the first and last weights the number of carats of pure 
gold is found. This operation is always repeated several times, 
and if any difference occurs in the result, all is done over again. 

Jewellers* Alloys. — Solder, &c. Eighteen-carat gold for rings — 
Gold coin, 19J gr. ; x^ure copper, 3 grs. ; pure silver, 1\ gr. Cheap gold, 
twelve carat. — Gold coin, 25 gr. ; pure copper, 13 J gr. ; pure silver, 
7Jgrs. Very cheap four-carat gold. — Copper, 18 parts; gold, 4 parts ; 
silver, 2 parts. Imitations of gold. — 1 Platina, 4 dwt. ; pure copper, 
2J dwt. ; sheet-zmc, 1 dwt. ; block-tin, IJ dwt. ; pure lead, IJ dwt. 
If this should be found too hard or brittle for practical use, re-melting 
the composition with a little sal-ammoniac will generally render it 
malleable as desired. 2. Platina, 2 parts ; silver, 1 part ; copper, 3 
parts. These compositions, when properly prepared, so nearly resem- 
ble pure gold it is very difficult to distinguish them therefrom. A 
little powdered charcoal, mixed with metals while melting, will bo 
found of service. Best oreide of gold. — ^Pure copper, 4 oz. ; sheet 
zinc, 1 j oz. ; magnesia, | oz. ; sal-ammoniac, JJ oz. ; quick-lime, 9-32 
oz. ; cream tartar, J oz. First melt the copper at as low a temperature 
as it will melt ; then add the zinc, and afterwards the other articles 
in powder, in the order named. Use a charcoal fire to melt these 
metals. Bushing Alloy for Pivot-holes, &c. — Gold coin, 3 dwts. ; sil- 
ver, 1 dwt. 20 grs. ; copper, 3 dwts. 20 grs. ; palladium, 1 dwt. Tlie 
best composition known for the purpose named. Gold Solder for 
Fourteen to Sixieen-carat Work. — Gold coin, 1 dwt. ; pure silver, 9 
grs. ; pure copper, 6 grs. ; brass, 3 grs. Darker solder. — Gold coin, 1 
dwt. ; pure copper, 8 grs. ; pure silver, 5 grs. ; brass, 2 grs. ; melt to- 
gether in charcoal fire. Solder for Gold. — Gold, 6 dwts. ; silver, 1 
dwt. ; copper, 2 dwts. Soft Gold Solder. — Gold, 4 parts ; silver, 1 
part ; copper 1 part. Solders for Silver. — (For the use of jewellers. ) — 
Fine silver, 19 dwts. ; copper, 1 dwt. ; sheet brass, 10 dwts. ' WJiite 
Solder for Silver. — Silver, 1 oz. ; tin, 1 oz. Silver Solder, forPlated 
J/e^aZ.— Fine silver. 1 oz. ; brass 10 dwts. Solders.— For Gold. — 
1. Silver, 7 parts; copper, 1 part, with borax. 2. Gold, 2 parts; silver, 

1 part ; copper, 1 part. 3. Gold, 3 parts ; silver, 3 parts ; copper, 1 
part; zinc | part. For Silver. — Silver, 2 parts; brass, 1 part, with bo- 
rax ; or, silver, 4 parts ; brass, 3 parts ; zinc, 1-18 part, with borax. 
Gold Solders.— 1. Copper, 24.24 parts ; silver, 27.57 parts ; gold, 48. 
19 parts. 2. Enamel Solder. — Copper, 25 parts; silver, 7.07 parts; gold, 
G7.93 parts. 3. Copper, 26.55 parts; zinc, 6.25 parts; silver, 31. 25 parts; 
gold, 36 parts. 4. Enamel Solder. — Silver, 19.57 parts ; gold, 80.43 
parts. Solder.— For 22 carat gold* — Gold of 22 carats, 1 dwt. ; silver, 

2 gr. ; copper, 1 gr. For 18 carat gold. — Gold of 13 carats, 1 dwt. ; sil- 
ver. 2 gr. ; copper, 1 gr. For cheaper gold. — Gold, 1 d^vt ; silver, 10 



WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS*, i&C, RECEIPTS. 339 

gt. ; copper, 8 gr. Clieaper still. — ^Fine gold, 1 dwt. ; silver, 1 dwt. ; 
copper, 1 dwt. 

SiiiVER Solders. — 1. (Jiard.) Copper, 30 parts ; zinc, 12.85 parts ; 
silver, 57.15 parts. 2. Copper, 23.33 parts ; zinc, 10.00 parts ; silver, 
66.67 parts. 4. Copper, 26.66 parts; zinc, 10.00 parts; silver, 63.34 
parts. 5. {soft.) Copper 14.75 parts; zinc 8.50 parts : silver, 77.05 
parts. 6. Copper, 22.34 parts ; zinc, 10.48 parts ; silver, 67.18 parts. 
7. Tin, 63.00 j)arts ; lead, 37 parts. 

Colored Gold. — 1. Full red gold. — Gold, 5 dwts. ; copper, 5 dwts^ 

2. Red gold.—Go\6.y 5 dwts. ; silver, 1 dwt. ; copper, 4 dwts. 3. 
Green Gold. — Gold, 2 dwt. ; silver, 21 gr. 4. Grmj gold.— Gold, 3 
dwts. 15 gr ; silver. 1 dwt. 9 gr. 5. Blue gold. — Gold, 5 dwt. ; steel 
filings, 5 dwt. 6. Antique gold, greenish-yellow color. — Gold, 18 dwts. 
9 gr. ; silver, 21 gr. ; copper 18 gr. These all require to be submitted 
to the process of wet coloring. 7. Fictitious gold, venj bright — Cop- 
per, 16 parts ; platina, 7 parts ; zinc, 1 part ; fused together. 

English Standard for Silver. — ^Pure silver, 11 ozs. 2 dwts. ; 
copper, 22 dwts. : melt. Silver Imitation, — Copper, 1 lb. ; tin, | oz., 
melt. This composition will roll and ring very near to silver. 

French Gold Plate. — 1. Gold, 92 parts ; copper, 8 parts. 2. 
Gold, 84 parts; copper, 16 parts. 3. Gold, 75 parts; copper, 25 parts. 
Jewellers* Metal. — Copper, 30 parts ; tin, 7 parts; brass, 10 parts; mix. 

Alloy for Watch Pinion Sockets. — Gold, 31 parts; silver, 19 
parts ; copper 39 parts ; palladium, 1 part 

Coloring OF Jewelry.— 1. To Heighten the Colore/ Yelloio gold, 
— Saltpetre, 6 ozs ; green copperas, 2 ozs. ; white vitriol and alum, of 
each 1 oz. If wanted redder, a small quantity of blue vitriol must 
be added, 2. For Green Gold. — Saltpetre, 1 oz. 10 dwts. ; sal-ammo- 
niac, 1 oz. 4 dwts. ; Roman vitriol, 1 oz. 4 dwts. ; verdigris, 18 dwts. 

3. To Clean Gilt Jeioelnj. — Boiling water in a clean flask, \ pt. ; 
cyanide of potassium, 1 oz. ; shake the flask to dissolve the potas- 
sium. Add, when cold, liquor ammonia, \ oz. ; rectified alcohol, 1 
oz. Used by brushing over gilded articles. 4. Coloring Jeweln/. — 
Boil the articles in a diluts solution of terchloride of gold, to which 
some bicarbonate of soda has been added. 5. Coloring of Gilding. — 
Defective colored gliding may also be improved by the help of the 
following mixture : nitrate of potash, 3 ozs. ; alum IJ ozs. ; sulphate 
of zinc, IJ ozs.#; common salt, IJ ozs. These ingredients are to be put 
into a small quantity of water to form a sort of paste which is put 
upon the articles to be colored ; they are then placed upon an iron 
plate over a clear fire, so that they will attain nearly to a black heat, 

] when they are suddenly plunged into cold water ; this gives them a 
beautiful high color. Different hues may be had by a variation in 
the mixture. 6. For Bed Gold. — To 4 ozs. melted yellow wax, add, in 
fine powder, IJ ozs. of red ochre, ; IJ ozs. verdigris, calcined till it yields 
no fumes ; and Joz. of calcined borax. Mix them well together. 
Dissolve either of above mixtures in water, as the color is wanted, and 
use as required. 7. Fi7ie color for Heavy Gilt Woi'Jc.—Alnm, 3 ozs. ; 
saltpetre, 6 ozs. ; sulphate of zinc, 3 ozs. ; common salt, 3 ozs. Mix aU 
into a thick paste, dip the articles into it, and heat them until nearly 
black on a piece of sheet iron over a clear coke or charcoal fire, then 

E lunge them into cold water. 8. Fine Color For Light Plated loorTc. — 
ulphate of copper, 2 dwts. ; best verdigris, 4 dwts, 12 grs. ; sal-ammo- 



340 WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS", &C.5 RECEIPTS. 

niac, 4 dwts. ; saltpetre, 4 dwts. ; acetic acid, 1 oz. ; pulverize the solid 
articles, add the acetic acid gradually, stirring all the time. Dip 
your articles into this mixture and heat them to a black color on a 
j^heet of copper. When cold, place them in a middling strong sul- 
I)huric acid pickle, which dissolves the coloring salts and induces a 
very fine gold color. 9. Etruscan Gold Coloring. — Alum, 1 oz. ; fine 
table-salt, 1 oz. ; saltpetre (powdered), 2 oz. ; hot rain-water, suffi- 
cient to mal^e the solution, when dissolved, about the consistency of 
thick ale ; then add sufficient muriatic acid to produce the color de- 
sired. The degree of success must alwaj^s depend, in a greater or 
less degree, upon the skill or judgment of the operator. The article 
to be colored should be from fourteen to eighteen carats fine, of pure 
gold and copper only, and be free from coatings of tin, or silver 
solder. The solution is best used warm, and when freshly made the 
principle on which it acts is to eat out the copper alloy from the sur- 
face of the article, leaving thereon pure, frosted gold only. After 
coloring, wash off, first in rain-water, then in alcohol, and dry with- 
out rubbing, in fine clean sawdust. Fine Etruscan jewelry, that 
has been defaced or tarnished by use, may be perfectly renewed by 
the same process. 

For SUiYEESMiTHS, Sterling Silver. — 1. Fine silver 11 oz. 2 
dwts., fine copper 18 dwts. 2. Equal to Sterling-^Y'mQ silver 1 
oz., fine copper 1 dwt. 12 grs. 3. Another ditto — Fine silver 1 oz., 
fine copper 5 dwts. 4. Common Silver for Chains — Fine silver (j 
dwts., fine copper 4 dwts. 5. Solder for ditto — Fine silver 16 dwts., 
fine copper 12 grs., pin brass, 3 dwts. 12 grs. 6. Alloy for Plating. 
— Fine silver 1 oz., fijie copper 10 dwts. 7. Silver Solder — Fine 
silver 1 oz., pin brass, 10 dwts., pure spelter, 2 dwts. 8. Copper 
Solder for Plating — Fme silver, 10 dwts., fine copper 10 dwts. 
9. Common Silver Solder — Fine silver 10 ozs., pin brass, 6 ozs. 12 
dwts., spelter, 12 dwts. 10. Silver Solder for Enamelling, %lper oz. 
—Fine silver 14 dwts., fine copper, 8 dwts. 11. Ditto, for Jilling 
Signet i?mr/s.— Fine silver, 10 ozs., fine copper, 1 oz. 16 dwts., fine 
pin brass, 6 ozs. 12 dwts., spelter, 12 dwts. 12. Silver Solder for 
Gold Plating— Fine silver, 1 oz., fine copper, 5 dwts., pin brass, 5 
dwts. 13. Quick Silver Solder^Jme silver, 1 oz., pin brass, 10 
dwts., bar tin, 2 dwts. 14. Imitation Silver — Fine silver, 1 oz., 
nickel, 1 oz. 11 grs., fine copper, 2 ozs. 9 grs. 15. Another ditto — 
Fine silver, 3 ozs., nickel, 1 oz. 11 dwts., fine copper, 2 ozs. 9 grs., 
spelter, 10 dwts. 16. Fine Silver Solder for Filigree Work — Fine 
silver, 4 dwts. 6 grs., pin brass, 1 dwt. 17. Bismuth Solder — Bismutli, 
3 ozs., lead, 3 ozs. 18 dwts., tin, 5 ozs. 6 dwts. 

Dead White on Silver Articles. — ^Heat the article to a cherry 
red, or a dull red heat and allow it to cool, then place it in a pickle of 
5 parts sulphuric acid to 100 parts of water, and allow it to remain for 
an hour or two. If the surface is not right, rinse in cold Avater, and 
repeat the heating and pickling operation as before. This removes 
the copper from the surface of the article, leaving pure silver on the 
surface. When sufficiently whitened,, remove from the pickle, well 
rmse in pure hot water and place in warm box sawdust. 

Pickle, for Frosting and Whitening Silver Goods. — Sul- 
phuric acid, 1 dr. ; water, 4 oz. ; heat the pickle, and immerse the 
silver m it until frosted as desired ; then wash off clean, and dry with 



WATCHMAKEKS, JEWELLERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 341 

a soft linen cloth, or in fine clean sawdust. For whitening only, a 
smaller proportion of acid may he used. 

To Frost Polished Silver. — Cyanide of potassium 1 oz. ; dis- 
solved in J i)t. of water. Do not hold the silver in your hands, hut 
use pliers made of lance wood or hox wood, and apply the mixture 
with a brush to the polished surface. 

SiLVERiKG Hooks a^'^d Eyes, &c. — The small iron articles are 
suspended in dilute sulphuric acid until the iron shows a bright clean 
surface. After rinsing in pure water they are placed in a bath of a 
mixed solution of sulphate of zinc, sulphate of copper and cyanide 
of potassium, and there remain mitil they receive a bright coating of 
brass. Lastly, they are transferred to a bath of nitrate of silver, 
cyanide of potassium and sulphate of soda, in which they quickly 
received a coating of silver. 

Ornamental Designs on Silver. — Select a smooth part of tho 
silver, and sketch on it a monogram or any other design you choose, 
with a sharp lead pencil, then place the article in a gold solution with 
the battery in good working order, and in a short time all the parts 
not sketched with the lead pencil will be covered with a coat of gold. 
After cleansing the article, the black lead is easily removed by the 
fingers, and the silver ornament disclosed. A gold ornament may bo 
produced by reversing the process. 

To Extract Silver from waste Products. — Mix your refuse 
with an equal quantity of wood charcoal, place in a crucible and sub- 
mit to a bright red heat, and in a short time a silver button will bo 
found at the bottom. Carbonate of soda is another good flux. 

To Solder Tortoise Shell. — Bring the edges of the pieces of 
shell to fit each other, observing to give the same inclination of grain 
to each, then secure them in a piece of paper, and place them between 
hot irons or pincers ; apply pressure, and let them cool. The heat 
must not be so great as to 6w?7i the shell, therefore try it first on a 
white x)iece of paper. 

Artificial Pearls. — Are made from beads of opaline glass filled 
with gum, the polish of the glass being reduced by the vapor if 
hydrofluoric acid. 

REvrv^ER FOR Old Jewelry. — ^Dissolve sal-ammoniac in urine, 
and put the jewelry in it for a short time ; then take it out, and 
nib with chamois leather, and it will appear equal to new. 

To Recover Gold from Gilt Metal. — Take a solution of borax 
water, apply to the gilt surface, and sprinkle over it some finely 
powdered sulphur ; make the article red hot, and quench it in water; 
then scrape off the gold, and recover it by means of lead. 

Polishing Powder for Gold and Silver. — ^Rock alum burnt 
and finely powdered, 5 parts ; levigated chalk, 1 part. Mix ; apply 
with a dry brush. 

Silver-Plating Fluid.— Dissolve 1 ounce of nitrate of silver, in 
crystals, in 12 ounces of soft water ; then dissolve in the water 2 oz. 
cyanuret of potash ; shake the whole together, and let it stand till it 
becomes clear. Have ready some half-ounce vials, and fill half full 
of Paris white, or fine whiting ; and then fill up the bottles witli the 
liquor, and it is ready for use. The whiting does not increase 
the coatmg powder ; it only helps to clean the articles, and save the 
silver fluid, by half filling the bottles. 



342 WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS, &C., RECEIPTS. 

To Reduce English Sovereigns to Lower Fineness.— No. 1. 

15 Carat gold, Coins, 2 ozs. ; gold, 8 ozs. ; silver, 2 ozs. 3 dwts. ; copper, 
5 ozs. 3 dwts. 2. Another ditto. Coins, 4 ozs. ; gold, 6 ozs. ; silver, 2 
ozs. 2 dwts. ; copper, 5 ozs. 2 dwts. 3. Another ditto. Coins, 2 ozs. ; 
gold, 6 ozs. ; silver, 1 oz. 14 dwts. ; copper, 4 ozs. ; 2 dwts. 4. 14 Carat 
gold. Coins, 3 ozs. ; gold, 5 ozs. ; silver, 1 oz. 9 dwts. 12 grs. ; copper, 11 
dwts. 12 grs. 5 . Another ditto. Coins, 1 oz. ; gold, 2 ozs. ; silver, 13 
dwts.; copper, 1 oz. 11 dwts. 6. Another ditto. Coins, 1 oz. ; gold, 8 
ozs. ; silver 2 ozs. ; copper, 4 ozs. 14 dwts. 
Sterling Value of Gold of different Degrees of Fineness. 

Value per. Value per. 

Carats Fine. oz. Troy. Carats Fine. oz. Troy. 

£ £ 

24 4 4 llj 12 2 2 5i 

23 4 15 11 1 18 11 

22 British Standard. 3 17 lOj 10 1 15 4* 

21 3 14 4 9 1 11 10'' 

20 3 10 9 8 18 3 

19 3 7 3 7 14 9 

18 (Lowest Hall Mark). 3 3 8^ 6 1 1 2i 

17 .302 5 17 8 

16 . 2 17 7* 4 14 2 

15 2 13 1 3 10 7J 

14 2 9 GJ 2 7 1 

13 2 6 1 3 61 

iV^ote.— The British Standard for gold, is go^ld, 22-24 of a pound, 
equal to 11 parts pure gold and 1 of alloy; a pound is estimated to be 
divided into 24 equal parts or carats, hence the proportion is rated 
equal to 22 carats. T\\e Standard of Silver is 222-240 of a pound, 
equivalent to 37 parts pure silver and 3 of alloy. A Troy ounce of 
Standard gold is coined into £3. 17.10. 2f., and an ounce of Standard 
silver into 55. 6d A lb. Troy of gold yields 46 19-240 sovereigns. A 
lb. Troj^ of silver QQ shillings. £150,000 in gold weighs over a ton. 
£75,000,000 weighs 500 tons. 

The American Standard of Gold and Silver is 900 parts of pure 
metal and 100 of alloy in 1,000 parts of coin, the fineness being ex- 
pressive of the quantity of pure metal in 1000 parts. The value of 1 
owiiQ,Q of pure gold is $20.67.183^, as standard gold coin it is worth 
$18.60.465. The value of 1 ounce of pure silver is $1.29.29., as stand- 
ard silver coin it is worth $1 16.36-36. 

To Melt Gold. — Prepare a good fire, and heat the ingot in 
which you wish to cast the gold, a little hotter than boiling water; 
next put the alloy in the crucible, add a sUiL.ll quantity of pulverized 
borax, and leave on the fire until melted. Cast this in a clean ingot, 
and after breaking the bar into small fragments, return to the pot 
and remelt the gold, not adding borax this time, but when the gold 
looks clear and smooth on the top, add, for every 6 ozs. gold, a piece 
of saltpetre about the size of a pea, and in about a minute pour the 
gold. Keep up the heat after adding the saltpetre, and, previous to 
pouring the gold, pour a few drops of oil into the iron ingot. If the 
stock was clean when you commenced, the gold will roll well. Much 
depends on the first rolling of the stock; 18 carat should be subjected 
to a very heavy strain; the first and second draughts, which imparts 
a grain to the stock ; light draughts stretch the gold on the surface, 
and the middle portion remaining as cast, causes the gold to crack ; 
many good bars having been condemned, when the trouble was in 



WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS, &C., RECEIPTS, 343 

the rolling. After the 18 carat has been rolled to abont twice its 
original length, it must be annealed, then rolled to the sjze you re- 
quire. Proceed with melting 14 carat as above described for 18 carat, 
giving it as heavy strains in the rolls, but not rolling so much before 
annealing as the 18 carat. The other carats of cheaper grade, do 
not require the use of saltpetre to toughen; instead of which, use a 
little salammoniac, and then proceed as above. AVhen you anneal 
red gold, do not quench it when red hot, but alloAv the gold to blacken 
before quenching, otherwise it will slit or seam. Melt new alloj^s in 
every case twice ; treat solder the same way, to ensure a thorough 
admixture o£ the copper with the gold. 

To Remove Ti2^ fkom the Stock. — Just previous to pouring 
the gold, throw a small piece of corrosive sublimate in the pot, stir 
well with a long piece of pointed charcoal, and allow the pot to re- 
main on the fire about half a minute afterward. This will take tin 
from the alloy; while the tin is in, the gold will not roll without 
cracking. To remove emery or steel filings from gold, add a small 
piece of glass-gall, while melting; it will collect them in the flux. 

Making Brittle Gold Stkong.— Gold is sometimes so brittle 
that the jeweller cannot well work it ; this is probably due to phos- 
phorus, which, being no metal, is of course not detected in the assay. 
The remedy is to pass chlorine gas through the molten gold, by which 
treatment most of the gold which had otherwise to be set aside as 
unfit for certain kinds of work, can be redeemed. 

To Make Plated Stock. — Cast the bar you wish to plate the 
breadth you require, and roll to the thickness of the 8th of an inch. 
If you plate on silver, cast the silver the game width as the gold, and 
roll a little longer than the gold. Generally the lower, cheaper 
grade metal, is 2 or 3 times the thickness of the dearer, therefore use 
as much of each as will make the desired proportions. Polish as 
nearly flat and straight as possible, then file one face of silver and 
one face of gold, until they are bright. Previous to this you have 
rolled a piece of plate solder very thin, say, 36 in. round size plate, 
and cut a strip a little wider and longer than your gold. Emery 
paper can be used to clean each side of this from dirt and grease. 
Cover the surface with ground borax from the slate, on each side; do 
the same on the bright faces of the gold and silver; place the solder 
between them, and have a piece of iron wire about | of an inch in 
thickness, and 3 feet long, in readiness, place this lengthwise on the 
gold, and squeeze the whole tightly together in a vice, and bind every 
inch or so wdth heavy binding wire very secure. Next make a good 
charcoal fire in the forge, shaped so as to be like an oven, and then 
solder; when the solder melts on each side the w^hole length, all is 
ready to roll like any other stock. If you make gold plating that is 
18 carat, or 16 carat, or 14 carat, and 12 carat, you must use a gold 
solder about 5 or 6 carats less than the inferior gold. If gold on sil- 
ver or composition, use copper solder. The clippings from the above, 
when the gold is on silver, may be placed m an enamelled vessel, and 
covered with nitric acid, 2 parts ; water, 1 part. The silver will be 
taken in solution, which must be saved in an earthen pot. Precipi- 
tate the silver from the solution, or after the solution has been di- 
luted, a bar of copper placed in it will collect it; this sediment must be 
well washed and dried, then melted . The gold after being Avell 
dried, can be melted in a bar, a small amount of copper being added, 
so that it will be of the same quality as before. 



344 WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS, &C., RECEIPTS. 

Jewellers* Aemenia:n" Cement. — ^Isinglass soaked in water and 
dissolved iji spirit, 2 oz. (thick) ; dissolve in this 10 grs. of very imle 
gum ammonia (in tears) by rubbing them together ; then add 6 large 
tears of gum mastic, dissolved in the least possible quantity of rec- 
tified spirits. When carefully made this cement resists moisture and 
dries colorless. Keep in a closely stopped phial. 

Jewellers' Cemj^t. — Put in a bottle 2 ozs. of isinglass and 1 oz. of 
the best gum arable, cover them " with proof spirits, cork loosely, and 
place the bottle in a vessel of water, and boil it till a thorough solu- 
tion is effected ; then strain it for use. 

Gold is taken from the surface of silver by spreading over it a 
paste made of powdered sal-ammoniac, with aquafortis, and heating 
it till the matter smokes, and is nearly dry ; when the gold may bo 
separated by rubbing it with a scratch brush. 

To Separate Gold and Silver from Lace, &c. — Cut in pieces 
the gold or silver lace, tie it tightly, and boil in soap ley till the size 
appears diminished ; take the cloth out of the liquid, and after re- 
peated rinsings of cold water, beat it with a mallet to draw out the 
alkali. Open the linen, and the pure metal will be found in all its 
beauty. 

Tarnish on Electro-Plate Goods may be removed by immers- 
ing the article from one to ten or fifteen minutes, or until the tarnish 
lias been removed, but no longer, in the following solution : Rain 
water, 2 gals. ; cyanuret potassa, J lb. ; dissolve and put into a stone 
jug or jar and closely cork. After immersion, the articles must be 
taken out and thoroughly rinsed in two or three waters, then dried 
with a soft linen cloth, or, if frosted or chased work, with fine clean 
isawdust. Tarnished jewelry may be speedily restored by this 
process ; but make sure work of removing the alkali, otherwise it 
will corrode the goods. 

A Bright Gold Tinge may be given to silver by steeping it for 
a suitable length of time in a weak solution of suliDhuric acid and 
water strongly impregnated with iron-rust. 

To Refine Gold. — If you desire to refine gold from the baser 
metals, swedge or roll it out very thin, then cut into narrow strips 
and curl up so as to prevent its lying flatly. Drop the pieces thus 
l^repared into a vessel containing good nitric acid, in the proportion 
of acid, 2 ozs., and pure rain-water J oz. Suffer to remam until thor- 
oughly dissolved, which will be the case in from J an hour to 1 hour. 
Then pour off the liquid carefully, and you will find the gold, in the 
form of yellow powder, lying at the bottom of the vessel. Wash 
this with pure water till it ceases to have an acid taste, after which 
you may melt and cast into any form you choose. Gold treated in 
this way may be relied on as perfectly pure. 

In melting gold use none other than a charcoal fire, and during 
the process sprinkle saltpetre and potash into the crucible occasion- 
ally. Do not attempt to melt with stone coal, as it renders the metal 
brittle and otherwise imperfect. 

To Refine Silver. — Dissolve in nitric acid as in the case of the 
gold. When the silver has entirely disappeared, add to the 2^ oz. of 
solution nearly 1 quart of pure rain-water. Sink, then, a sheet of 
clean copper into it ; the silver will collect rapidly upon the copper, and 
you can scrape it off and melt into bulk at pleasure. 



WATCHMAKERS, . jewellers', &C., RECEIPTS. 345 

In the event of your refining gold in accordance with the foregoing 
formula, and the impurity was silver, the only steps necessary to save 
the latter would be to add the above named proportion of water to the 
solution poured from the gold, and then to proceed with your copper 
plate as just directed. 

To Refine CorPEK. — ^This process differs from the one employed to 
refine silver in no respects save the plate to "tee immersed; you use an 
iron instead of a copper plate to collect the metal. 

If the impurities of gold refined were both silver and copper, you 
might, after saving the silver as above directed, sink your iron plate 
into tlie solution yet remainuig, and take out the copper. The parts 
of alloyed gold laay be separated by these processes, and leave each 
in a perfectly pure state. 

Cold Silvering of Metals. — Mix 1 part of chloride of silver 
with 3 parts of pearlash, IJ parts common salt, and 1 part whiting; 
and well rub the mixture on the surface of brass or copper (previously 
well cleaned), by means of a piece of soft leather, or a cork moistened 
with water and "dipped in the powder. When i)roperly silvered, the 
metal should be well washed in hot water, slightly alkalized; then 
wiped dry. 

To Haiid Solder Gold, Silter, Copper, Brass, Iron, Steel or 
Platina. — ^The solders to be used for gold, silver, copper and brass are 
given in the precedmg part. You commence operations by reducing 
your solder to small particles, and mixing it with pow^dered sal- 
ammoniac and powdered borax in equal parts, moistened to make it 
hold together. Having fitted up the joint to be soldered, you secure 
the article upon a piece of soft charcoal, lay your soldering mixture 
immediately over the jomt and then with your blow-pipe turn the 
flame of your lamj) upon it until fusion takes place. The job is then 
done, and ready to be cooled and dressed up. Iron is usually soldered 
with copper or brass in accordance with the above process. The best 
solder for steel is pure gold or pure silver, though gold or silver solders 
are often used successfully. Platina can only be soldered well with 
gold ; and the expense of it, tlieref ore, contributes to the hindrance of a 
general use of platina vessels, even for chemical puriDOses, where they 
are of so much importance. 

To Soft Solder Articles. — Moisten the parts to be united with 
soldering fluid; then, liavhig joined them together, lay a small piece 
of solder upon the joint and hold over your lamp, or direct the blaze 
upon it with your blow-pipe until fusion is apparent. Withdraw them 
from the blaze immediately, as too much heat will render the solder 
brittle and unsatisfactory. When the parts to be jouied can be made 
to spring or press against each other, it is best to place a thin piece of 
solder between them before exposing to the lamp. Where two smooth 
surfaces are to be soldered one upon the other, you may make an ex- 
cellent job by moistening them with the fluid, and then, having placed 
a sheet of tin foil between l;hem, holding them pressed firmly together 
over your lamp till the fofl. melts. If the surfaces fit nicely, a joint 
may be made in this way so close as to be almost imperceptible. The 
bright looking lead which comes as a lining to tea boxes works better 
in the same way than tin foil. 

To Cleanse Gold Tarnished in Soldering. — The old English 
mode was to expose all parts of the article to a uniform heat, allow it 



346 WATCHMAKERS^ JEWELLERS', &Co Ris-CEIPTS. 

to cool, and then boil nntil bright in urine and sal-ammoniac. It is 
now usually cleaned "with diluted sulphuric acid. The pickle is made 
in about the proportion of one-eighth of an ounce of acid to one ounce 
of rain water. 

To Clean Silver Tarnished in Soldering.— Some expose to 

a uniform heat, as in the case of gold, and then boil m strong alum 

water. Others immerse for a considerable length of time in a liquid 

made of J oz, of cyanuret potassa to 1 pint rain water, and then brush 

,off with prepared chalk. 

Nickel Plating. — The following is the substance of the patent 
granted to Dr. Isaac Adams, March 22, 1870. The process is highly 
successful. " This improvement consists in the use of 3 new solutions 
from which to deposit nickel by the electric current. 1. A solution 
formed of the double sulphate of nickel and alumina, or the sulphate 
of nickel dissolved in a solution of soda, potash, or ammonia alum, 
the three different varieties of commercial alum. 2. A solution formed 
of the double sulphate of nickel and magnesia, with or without an 
excess of ammonia. I have foimd that a good coating of nickel 
can be deposited from the solution before mentioned, provided they 
are prepared and used in such a manner as to be free from any acid 
or alkaline reaction. AVhen these solutions are used, great care must 
be taken, lest by the use of too high battery power, or from the in- 
troduction of some foreign matters, the solution becomes acid or 
alkaline. I prefer to use these solutions at a temperature above 100^ 
Fah., but do not limit my invention to the use of these solutions at 
that temperature. I therefore claim, 1. The electro deposition of 
nickel by the means of solution of the double sulphate of nickel and 
alumina, prepared and used in such a manner as to be free from the 
presence of ammonia, potash, soda, lime or nitric acid or from any 
other acid, or from any acid or alkaline reaction. 2. The electro 
deposition of nickel by means of a solution of the double sulphate of 
nickel and potash, prepared and used in such a manner as to be free 
from the presence of ammonia, soda, alumina, lime or nitric acid, or 
from any acid or alkaline reaction. 3. The electro deposition of nick- 
el by means of a solution of the double sulphate of nickel and mag- 
nesia, prepared and used in such a manner as to be free from tho 
presence of potash, soda, alumtua, lime or nitric acid, or from any 
ac^d or alkaline reaction. " 

Stale a' s Nickel Plating Process. — Consists in plating witli 
nickel, by the action of zinc upon salts of nickel, in the presence of 
cliloride of zinc and tlie metal to be plated. By this process, Stalba 
states that he has succeeded in plating objects of wrought and cast 
iron, steel, copper, brass, zinc, and lead. It is only necessary that 
the size of the objects should permit them to be covered entirely by 
the plating liquid, and that their surfaces should be free from dirt. 
The following is the modus operandi : — ^4. quantity of concentrated 
chloride of zinc solution is placed in a clean metallic vessel, and to 
this is added an equal volume of water. This is heated to boiling, 
and hydrochloric acid is added drop by drop, until the precipitate 
which had formed on adding the water has disappeared. A small 
quantity of zinc powder is now added, which produces a zinc coating 
on the metal as far as the liquid extends* Enough of the nickel salt 
(the chloride or sulphate answers equally well, is now introduced to 



WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS/ &C., RECEIPTS. 347 

color the liquid distinctly green ; the objects to be plated are placed 
in it together with some zinc clippings, and the liquid is brought to 
boiling. The nickel is precipitated in the course of 15 minutes, and 
the objects will be found to be completely coated. The coating va- 
ries in lustre with the character of the metallic surface; when this is 
polished, the plating is likewise lustrous and vice versa. Salt of co- 
balt affords a cobalt platmg, which is steel gray in color, not so lus- 
trous as the nickel, but more liable to tarnish. 

To Make Silver Solutiois' for Electro-Plating.— Put to- 
gether into a glass vessel 1 oz. good silver, made thin and cut into 
strips ; 2 oz. best nitric acid, and J oz. pure rain water. If solution 
does not begin at once, add a little more water — continue to add a 
very little at a time till it does. In the event it starts off well, but 
stops before the silver is fully dissolved, you may generally start it 
up again all right by adding a little more water. When solution is 
entirely effected, add 1 quart of warm rain water and a large table- 
spoonful of table salt. Shake well and let settle, then proceed to 
pour off and wash through other waters as in tlie case of the gold 
preparation. Wlien no longer acid to the taste, put in an ounce and 
an eighth cyanuret potassa and a quart pure rain water: after stand- 
ing about 24 hours, it will be ready for use. 

To MAKE Gold Solution for Electro-Plating. — Dissolve fivo 
pennyweights gold coin, 5 grains pure copper, and 4 grains pure 
silver in 3 ozs. nitro-muriatic acid; which is simply 2 parts muriatic 
acid and 1 part nitric acid. The silver will not be ttiken into solution 
as are the other 2 metals, but will gather at the bottom of the vessel. 
Add 1 oz. pulverized sulphate of iron, \ oz. pulverized borax, 25 
grains pure table salt, and 1 quart hot rain water. Upon this tho 
gold and copper will be thrown to the bottom of the vessel witli the 
silver. Let stand till fully settled, then pour off the liquid carefully, 
and refill with boiling rain water as before. Continue to repeat this 
operation until the precipitate is thoroughly washed ; or, in other 
words, fill up, let settle, and pour off so long as the accumulation at 
the bottom of the vessel is acid to the taste. You now have about an 
18 carat chloride of gold. Add to it an ounce and an eighth cyanuret 
I)otassa, and 1 quart rain water — the latter heated to the boiling 
point Shake up well, then let stand about 24 hours, and it wUl be 
ready for use. Some use platina as an alloy instead of silver, under 
the impression that plating done with it is harder. I have used both, 
but never could see much difference. Solution for a darker colored 
X)late to imitate Guinea gold may be made by adding to the above 1 
oz. dragon's blood and 5 grs. iodide or iron. If you desire an alloyed. 
I)late, proceed as first directed, without the silver or copper, and with 
an ounce and a half of sulphuret potassa in place of the iron, borax, 
and salt. 

To Plate with a Battery.— If the plate is to be gold, use the 
gold solution for electro-plating; if silver, use the silver solution. Pre- 
pare the article to be plated by immersing it for several minutes in a 
strong ley made of potash and rain water, polishing off thoroughly at 
the end of the time with a soft brush and prepared chalk. Care should 
be taken not to let the fingers come in contact with the article while 
polishing, as that has a tendency to prevent the plate from adhering; 
it should be held in two or three thicknesses of tissue paper. At- 



348 WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 

tacli the article, -when thoroughly cleansed, to tlie positive pole of 
your battery, then affix a i)iece of gold or silver, as the case may be, 
to the negative pole, and immerse both into the solution in such a 
way as not to hang in contact with each other. 

After the article has been exposed to the action of the battery 
about ten minutes, take it out and wash or polish over with a thick 
mixture of water and prepared chalk or jewellers* rouge. If, in the 
operation, you find places where the plating seems inclined to peel 
off, or where it has not taken well, mix a little of the plating solution 
with prepared chalk or rouge, and rub the defective i^art thoroughly 
with it. This will be likely to set all riglit. 

Govern your time of exposing the article to the battery by the de- 
sired thickness of the plate. During the time, it should be taken out 
and polished up as just directed about every ten minutes, or as often 
at least as there is an indication of a growing darkness on any part of 
its surface. When done, finish with the burnisher or prepared chalk 
and chamois skin, as best suits your taste and convenience. In case 
the article to be plated is iron, steel, lead, pewter, or block thi, you 
must, after first cleaning with the ley and chalk, prepare it by ap- 
plying with a soft brush — a camels'-hair pencil is best suited — a 
solution made of the following articles in the proportion named : — 
Nitric acid, J oz. ; muriatic acid, J oz. ; sulphuric acid, l-9th oz. ; 
muriate of potash, l-7th oz. ; sulphate of iron, J oz. ; sulplmric ether, 
l-5th oz. ; and as much sheet zinc as it will dissolve. This prepares 
a foundation, without which the plate would fail to take well, if at 
all. 

To BIAKE Gold AMALGAM.--Eight parts of gold and one of mer- 
cury are formed into an amalgam for plating, by rendering the gold 
into thin plates, makmg it red hot and then i)utting it mto the mercury 
while the latter is also heated to ebullition. The gold immediately 
disappears m combination with the mercury, after which the mixture 
may be turned into water to cool. It is tlien ready for use. 

To Plate with Gold Aivialgaini. — Gold amalgam is chiefly used 
as a plating for silver, copper or brass. The article to be plated is 
washed over with diluted nitric acid or potash lye and prepared chalk, 
to remove any tarnish or rust that might prevent the amalgam from 
adhering. After having been polished perfectly bright, the amal- 
gam is applied as evenly as possible, usually with a fine scratch 
brush. It is then set uj^on a grate over a charcoal fire, or placed into 
an oven and heated to that degree at which mercury exhales. The 
gold, when the mercury has evaporated, presents a duU yellow color. 
Cover it with a coatmg of pulverized nitre and alum in equal parts, 
mixed to a paste with water, and heat again till it is thoroughly 
melted, then plunge into water. Burnish up with a steel or blood- 
stone burnisher. 

To Make aot) Apjply Gold-Platixg Solution. — ^Dissolve J oz. 
of gold amalgam in 1 oz. of nitro-muriatic acid. Add 2 oz. of alcohol, 
and then, having brightened the \ article in the usual way, apply the 
solution with a soft brush. Rinse and dry in sawdust, or with tissue 
paper, and polish up with chamois skui. 

To Maive and Apply Gold-Plating Powder. — ^Prepare a 
chloride of gold the same as for plating with a battery. Add to it, 
^vhen thoroughly washed out, cyanuret potassa in a proportion of 2 



WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 349 

oz. to 5 pennyweights of gold. Ponr in a pint of clean rain water, 
shake up well and then let stand till the chloride is dissolved. Add 
then 1 lb. of prepared Spanish whiting and let it evaporate in the open 
air till dry, after which put away in a tight vessel for use. To apply 
it you prepare the article in the usual way, and having made tho 
powder into a paste with water, rub it upon the surface with a piece 
of chamois skm or cotton flannel. 

An old mode of maldng a gold-plating powder was to dip clean 
linen rags into solution prepared as in the second article pre- 
ceding this, and having dried, to fire and bum them into ashes. 
The ashes formed the powder, and were to be applied as above. 

To Make and Apply SLLVER-PiiATixa Solution. — Put together 
in a glass vessel 1 oz. nitrate of silver, 2 ozs. cyanuret potassa, 4 ozs. 
prepared Spanish whitiug, and 10 ozs. pure rain water. Cleanse the 
article to be plated as per preceding directions, and apply with a soft 
brush. Finish with the chamois skin or burnisher. 

To Make and Apply Silver-Plating Powder. — Dissolve sil- 
ver in nitric acid by the aid of heat; put some pieces of copper into 
the solution to precipitate the silver; wash the acid out in the usual 
•way; then, with 15 grains of it mix 2 drams of tartar, 2 drams of 
table salt, and J dram of pulverized alum. Brighten the article to 
be plated with ley and prepared chalk, and rub on the mixture. 
When it has assumed a white appearance, expose to heat as in the 
case of plating with gold amalgam, then polish up with the burnisher 
or soft leather. 

To Destroy the Effects of Acid on Clothes. — Dampen as 
soon as possible, after exposure to the acid, with si)irits ammonia. It 
will destroy the effect immediately. 

To Wash Silverware.— Never use a particle of soap on your 
silverware, as it dulls the lustre, giving the article more the appear- 
ance of pewter than silver. Wlien it wants cleaning, rub it with a 
piece of soft leather and prepared chalk, tlie latter made into a kind 
of paste with pure water, for the reason that water not pure might 
contain gritty particles. 

To Cleanse Brushes. — ^The best method of cleansing watch- 
makers' and jewellers' brushes ig to wash them out in a strong 
soda water. When the backs are wood, you must favor that 
part as much as possible ; for being glued, the water may injure 
them. 

To Cut Glass Round or Oval without a Dia^iond.— Scratch 
the glass around the shape you desire with the comer of a file 
or graver ; then, having bent a piece of wire in the same shape, 
heat it red hot and lay it upon the scratch, sink the glass into cold 
water just deep enough for the water to come almost on a level 
with its upper surface. It will rarely ever fail to break perfectly 
true. 

To Re-Black Clock Hands. — ^Use asphaltum varnish. One coat 
will make old rusty hands look as good as new, and it dries in a few 
minutes. 

To Gild Steel. — Pour some of the ethereal solution of gold into a 
wineglass, and dip into it the blade of a new penknife, razor, lancet, 
&c. ; withdraw the instrument and allow the ether to evaporate. 
The blade will then be found covered with a beautiful coat of gold. 



350 



WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS', &C,, RECEIPTS. 



The blade may be moistened vnth a clean rag, or a small piece of 
very dry sponge dii:)ped in the ether, and the same effects Avill be 
produced. 

StLVERiNG Shells. — Silver leaf and gum water, a sufficient quan- 
tity; grind to a proper thickness, and cover the inside of the shells. 
For a Gold Color, grind up gold-leaf with gum water, and apply to 
the inside of the shells. 

Liquid Foil for SiLVERma Glass Globes, &c. — Lead, 1 part; 
tin, 1 part; bismuth, 1 part; melt, and, just before it sets, add mer- 
cury, 10 parts. Pour this into the globe, and turn it rapidly 
yoimd. 

Silver-Platers' Stripping Liquid. — Sulphuric acid, 8 parts; 
nitre, 1 part. Used to recover silver from old plated ware. 

To Silver Clock Faces, &c. — Old silver lace, J oz. ; nitric acid, 
1 oz. Boil them over a gentle fire for about 5 minutes in an earthen 
X)ot After the silver is dissolved, take the mixture off, and mix it in 
a pint of clean water, then pour it into another vessel free from sedi- 
ment; then add a tablespoonful of common salt, and the silver will be 
l)recipitated in the form of a white powder of curd ; pour off the acid, 
and mix the curd with 2 oz. salt of tartar, and J oz. whiting, all to- 
gether, and it is ready for use. To Use. — Clean your brass or copper 
plate with rotten-stone and a piece of old hat ; rub it with salt and 
water with your hand. Then take a little of the composition on your 
finger, and rub it over your plate, and it will firmly adhere and com- 
pletely silver it. Wash it well with water. When dry, rub it with a 
clean rag, and varnish with this varnish for clock faces. Spirits 
of wine, 1 pt. ; divide in three parts, mix one part with gum-mastic in 
a bottle by itself; 1 part spirits and J oz. sandarac in another bottle; 
and 1 part spirits and J oz. of whitest gum benjamin, in another bot- 
tle ; nix and temper to your mind. If too thin, some mastic ; if too 
soft, some sandarac or benjamin. When you use it, warm the 
silvered plate before the fire, and, with a flat camels' -hair pencil, 
stroke it over till no white streaks appear, and this will preserve the 
silvering for many years. 

Refining Gold and Silver.— The art of assaying gold and sil- 
ver is founded upon the feeble affinity which these have for oxygen 
in comparison with copper, tin, and other cheap metals, and on the 
tendency which the latter metals have to oxidize rapidly in contact 
with lead at a high temperature, and sink with it into any porous, 
earthy vessel in a thin, glassy, vitrified mass. The precious metal 
having previously been accurately weighed and prepared, the first 
process is Cupellation. The muffle^ with cupel properly arranged 
on the " muffle plate,** is placed in the furnace, and the charcoal ad- 
ded, and lighted at the top by means of a few ignited pieces thrown 
on last After the cupels have been exposed to a strong white heat 
for about half an hour, and have become Avhite hot, the lead is put 
into them by means of tongs. As soon as this becomes bright red 
and " circulating,** as it is called, the specimen for assay, wrapped 
in a small piece of paper or lead-foil, is added ; the fire is now kept 
up strongly until the metal enters the lead and " circulates ** well, 
when the heat, slightly diminished, is so regulated that the assay 
appears convex and more glowing than the cupel itself, whilst the 
^^undulations** circulate in all directions, and the middle of the 



WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 351 

metal appears smooth, with a margin of litharge, which is freely ah- 
sorbed by the cupel. When the metal becomes bright and shining, 
or, in technical language, begins to ^^ lighten^" and prismatic hues 
suddenly flash across the globules, and undulate and cross each other, 
followed by the metal becoming very brilliant and clear, and at 
length bright and solid (called the brightening), the separation is end- 
ed, and the process complete. The cupels are then drawn to the 
mouth of the "muffle," and allowed to cool slowly. When quite 
cold, the resulting ^^ button/' if of sil^^r, is removed by the 
"pliers'* or "tongs'* from the cupels, and, after being flattened on 
a small anvil of polished steel, with a polished steel hammer, to de- 
tach adhermg oxide of lead, and cleaned with a smaU, hard brush, is 
very accurately iveigJied. The weight is that otpure silver, and the dif- 
ference between the weight before cupellation and that of the pure metal 
represents the proportion of alloy in the sample examined. In the 
case of GOLD, the metal has next to undergo the operations of quah- 
TATiON. The cupelled sample is fused with 3 times its weight of 
pure silver (called the " witness''), hj which the gold is reduced to 
one-fourth of the mass less, and in this state may easily be removed 
hy PARTING. The aUoy, after quartation, is hammered or rolled out 
into a thin strip or leaf, curled iuto a spiral form, and boiled for a 
quarter of an hour with about 2 J to 3 ozs. of nitric acid (specific 
gravity, 1.3) ; and the fluid being poured off, it is again boiled in a 
similar manner, with IJ to 2 ozs. more nitric acid (sp. gr., 1.2); after 
which the gold is carefully collected, washed in pure water, and dried. 
When the operation of partmg is skilfully conducted, the acid not too 
strong, the metal preserves its spiral form; otherwise it falls into 
flakes or powder. The second boiling is termed the " reprise." The 
loss of weight by parting corresponds to the quantity of silver orig- 
iually in the specimen. 

For Alloys Containing Platintiri, which nsnally consist of 
copper, silver, platinum, and gold, the method of assaying is as fol- 
lows : The alloy is cupelled in the usual way, the loss of weight ex- 
l)resses the amount of copper, and the " button," made into a riband 
and treated with sulphuric acid, indicates by the portion dissolved 
that also of the silver present. By submitting the residuum to quarta- 
tion, the platinum becomes soluble in nitric acid. The loss after di- 
gestion in this menstruum expresses the weight of that metal, and the 
weight of the portion now remaining is that of pure gold. Gold con- 
taining PALLADIUM may be assayed in the same manner. Anneal- 
ing. — ^This consists in putting the pure gold into a small, porous 
crucible, or cupel, and heating it to redness in the muffle. Weighing 
must be done Avith the utmost accuracy. The weight in graius Troy, 
doubled or quadrujDled, as the case may be, gives the number of 
carats fine of the alloy examined, without calculation. According to 
the OLD French iviethod of assaying gold, the following quantities 
were taken ; For the assay pound, 12 gr. ; fine silver, 30 grs. ; lead, 
108 gr. These having been cupelled together, the perfect, button is 
roUed into a leaf (IJ X 5 inches), twisted on a quill and submitted 
to parting with 2J oz. and IJ oz. of nitric acid, sp. gr., 1.16 (20^ 
Baume. ) The remainder of the process is similar to that above de- 
cribed. Tne usual weight of silver taken for the assay pound, when 
the fineness is reckoned in lOOOths, is 20 grs., every real grain of 



352 AVATCIIMAKERS, JEWELLERS', &Co RECEIPTS. 

which represents 50-lOOOths of fineness, and so on of smaller divi- 
sions. 

Enaivielmng ois" Gold or Copper.— The basis of all enamels is 
a highly transparent and fusible glass, called frit, flux, or paste, 
which readily receives a color on the addition of the metallic oxides. 
Preparation. — Red lead, IG parts ; calcined borax, 3 parts ; pounded 
flint glass, 12 parts ; flints, 4 parts. Fuse in a Hessian crucible for 13 
hours, then i)our it out into water, and reduce it to powder in a bis- 
cuit-ware mortar. The following directions will serve to show how 
the coloring preparations are made : Black enamels are made witli 
peroxide of manganese, or protoxide of iron, to which more depth of 
color is given with a little cobalt. Violet enamel of a very fine hue is 
made from peroxide of manganese, in small quantity, with saline or 
alkaline fluxes. Red enamel is made from the protoxide of copper. 
Boil a solution of equal parts of sugar and acetate of copper in four 
jmrts of water. Tlie sugar takes possession of a portion of the cupre- 
ous oxide, and reduces it to the protoxide; when it may be precipi- 
tated in the form of a granular powder of a brilliant red. After about 
two hours of moderate boiling, the liquid is set aside to settle, de- 
canted off the precipitate, which is washed and dried. By this pure 
oxide any tmt may be obtained from red to orange by adding a 
greater or smaller quantity of peroxide of iron. "The oxide and 
IDurple of Cassius are likewise employed to color red enamel. This 
composition resists a strong fire very well. Green enamel can be 
produced by a mixture of yellow and blue, but is generally obtained 
direct from the oxide of copper, or, better still, with the oxide of 
chrome, which last will resist a strong heat. Yelloiu. — Take one part 
of white oxide of antimony, with from one to three i^irts of white 
lead, one of alum, and one of sal-ammoniac. Each of these sub- 
stances is to be pulverized, then all are to be exactly mixed, and ex- 
posed to a heat adequate to decompose the sal-ammoniac. This oper- 
ation is judged to be finished when the yellow color is well brought 
out. Blue. — This color is obtamed from the oxide of cobalt, or some 
of its combinations, and it produces it with such intensity that only a 
very little can be used lest the shade should pass into black, A 
white enamel may be prepared with a calcine formed of 2 parts of tin 
and 1 of lead, calcined together : of this combined oxide, 1 part is 
melted with two parts of fine crystal and a very little manganese, all 
l^reviously ground together. When the fusion is complete, the vitreous 
matter is to be poured into clear water, and the frit is then dried and 
melted anew. Repeat the pouring into water three or four times, to 
insure a perfect combination. Screen the crucible from smoke and 
flame. The smallest portions of oxide of iron or copper admitted in- 
to this enamel will destroy its value. The artist prepares his enamel 
colors by pounding them in an agate mortar, with an agate pestle, 
and grinding them on an agate slab, with oil or lavender rendered 
viscid by exposure to the sun, in a shallow vessel, loosely covered 
with gauze or glass. He should have alongside of him a stove, in 
which a moderate fire is kept up, for drying his work whenever the 
figures are finished. It is then passed through the muffle. 

"Black Enamel on Gold or Silver. — Take | pennyweight of 
pilver, 2h pennyweights of copper, SJ pennyweights of lead, and 2.H 
pennyweights of muriate of ammonia. Melt together, and pour into a 



WATCHMAKERS, JEWELLERS', «fcC., RECEIPTS. 353 

crucible with twice as much pulverized sulphur; the crucible is then 
to be immediately covered that the sulphur may not take fire, and the 
mixture is to be calcined over a smelting fire until the superfluous 
sulphur is burned away. The compound is then to be coarsely 
pounded, and, with a solution of muriate of ammonia, to be formed 
into a paste which is to be placed upon the article it is desigiied to 
enamel. The article must then be held over a spirit lamp till the 
compound upon it melts and flows. After this it may be smoothed 
and poUshed up in safety. 

Silver-Platln^g. — File the parts which are to receive the plate 
very smooth ; then apply over the surface the muriate of zinc, which 
is made by dissolving -zinc in muriatic acid; now hold this part over 
a dish containing hot soft solder, and with a swab apply the solder to 
the part to wliich it will adhere, brush off all superfluous solder, so 
as to leave the surface smooth ; you will now take No. 2 fair silver 
plate, of the right size to cover the prepared surface, and lay the 
plate upon it, and rub down smooth with a cloth moistened with oil ; 
then, with a tinned soldermg iron, pass slowly over all the surface of 
the plate, which melts the solder underneath it, causing the plate to 
adhere as firmly as the solder does to the iron; then polish the sur- 
face, and finish with buckskin. 

Plating WITH Nickel may be effected by placing the object to be 
plated, either of iron, steel, copper, bronze, zinc or lead in a 
boiling neutral solution of zinc chloride containing a salt of nickel 
and granulated zinc. If the zinc solution is acid, the coating of 
nickel is dull. A plating of cobalt may be made in the same 
manner. 

Elkixgton's Patent Gilding.— Fine gold, 5 oz. (troy); nitro- 
muriatic acid, 52 oz. (avoirdupois); dissolve by heat, and continue the 
heat until red or yellow vapors cease to be evolved; decant the clear 
liquor into a suitable vessel; add distilled water, 4 gals.; pure bi- 
carbonate of potassa, 20 lb. ; and boil for 2 hours. N. 13. — The nitro- 
muriatic acid is made with pure nitric acid (sp. gr., 1.45) 21 oz. ; pure 
muriatic acid (sp. gr., 1.15), 17 oz. ; and distilled water, 14 oz. The 
articles, after being perfectly cleaned from scale or grease, and 
receiving a proper /ace, are to be suspended on wires, dipped into the 
liquid boiling hot, and moved about therein, when, in from a few 
seconds to a minute, dependmg on the newness and strength of the 
liquid, the requisite coating of gold will be deposited on them. By a 
little practice the time to withdraAvthe articles is readily known; the 
duration of the immersion required to produce any given effect 
gradually increases as the liquid weakens by use. When properly 
gilded, the articles are withdrawn from the solution of gold, washed 
in clean water and dried ; after which they undergo the usual opera- 
tion of coloring, &c. 

A ^^ dead gokV* appearance is produced by the application to the 
articles of a xueaTc solution of nitrate of mercury previously to the 
immersion in the gilding liquor, or the deadening may be given by 
applying a solution of the nitrate to the neioly gilded surface, and 
then expelling the mercury by heat. 

Spot Gilding, or gilding in spots, producing a very fine appear- 
ance, is done by putting a thin coat of oil on those parts of the metal 
where you do not wish the gilding to appear, the gold will then be 

23 



354 MACHINISTS, engineers', &c., receipts. 

deposited in those spots only where there is no oil, and the oil is easily 
removed when the job is finished. 

Watchmakers' Oil.. — Put thin sheet lead into olive oil in a bottle, 
expose it to the sun for a few weeks, and i)our off the clear. 

Solution for Dipping Steel Articles, Previously to Elec- 
tro-Plating. — Nitrate of silver, 1 part; nitrate of mercury, 1 part; 
nitric acid (sp. gr, , 1.384), 4 parts ; water, 120 parts. For copper articles, 
— Sulphuric acid, 64 parts; water, 64 parts; nitric acid, 32 parts; 
muriatic acid, 1 part; mix. The article, free from grease, is dipped in 
the pickle for a second or two. 

Arrangement of Lapidaries Cutting Plates.— 1. Soft iron 
(very thin) with diamond dust in oil. 2. Pewter, with coarse emery 
and water. 3. Pewter, with fine emery and water. 4. Wood with 
sand and water. 5. Pewter with rotten-stone and water. 6. Leather 
with putty powder slightly wet. 

Polishing Diamonds. — The plan in use at all the large diamond 
cutters is simply a cast iron disc of good metal, with a vertical spindle 
run through its centre, balanced, and turned, and faced true in a 
lathe. The disc revolves at about 1000 revolutions per minute. With 
a little diamond dust and oil, the stone is set in a small brass cup filled 
with common soft solder; it is then screwed up in the clamps and 
applied to the skive till the facets is formed. 




KECEIPTS FOR MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS, 
MILLOWNERS, BLACKSMITHS, LOCOMO- 
TIVE BUILDERS AND METAL WORKERS 
OF EVERY KIND. 

Instructions to Engineers— G^e^^mf/ 2ip Steam.— Beiore light- 
ing the fire in the morning, raise your safety valve, brushing away 
all the ashes and dust which may impair its free action, and if it 
leaks steam grind it on its seat with fine emery or grindstone grit 
Valves with vibratory stems are safer than those with rigid stems, as 
they are not so liable to bind by the lever and weight getting out of 
true. To guard against loss by leakage and evaporation, leave the 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 355 

-water up to tho third guage at night and keep it up to the second 
gauge during working hours. Clean all ashes and cmders from the 
lumace and ash pit, and spread a layer of two or three inches of 
coal over the grate bars ; pile on plenty of shavings over the coal, 
with dry sawdust, split wood, &c., then start your fire. Keep the 
•fire even and regular over the grate bars, about 5 inches thick with 
soft coal, and about 3 inches with anthracite, and always avoid ex- 
cessive firing. Moderate charges or firings at intervals of 15 to 20 
minutes give the best results. In getting up steam from cold water 
the fire should be raised gi-adually, to avoid damaging the boiler by 
unequal expansion of the iron. Do not keep the damper and fur- 
nace door open at the same time, as the extreme draught expels the 
heat from the furnace into the chimney, and the cold air entering 
through the door induces a damaging contraction of the boiler plates 
wherever it strikes. The current of air enters the ash pit with a 
velocity of 12 feet per second, and every 100 lbs. coal requires about 
15.524 cubic feet for its combustion. With wood for fuel, the area of 
grate surface should be 1.25 to 1.4 that for coal. Volume of furnace 
for coal burning should be from 2.75, to 3 cubic feet for every square 
foot of its grate surface, for loood 4.6 to 5 cubic feet. The use of the 
pyrometer has satisfactorily established the following facts. 1st. 
That the admission of a certain quantity of air behind the bridge 
developes a greater amount of heat for raising steam by assisting 
combustion and consuming the smoke, the existence of smoke being 
always a sure sign of waste. 2. A regular and continuous supply of air 
to the furnace increases its heating powers 33J per cent. 3. The supply 
of air may enter behind the bridge, through" the bars, or through the 
furnace doors, as long as it is properly regulated. 4. The supply of 
•air may vary with the nature of the fuel ; light burning coal requir- 
ing less air than caking coal, because the latter becomes a compact 
mass in the furnace, excluding the air from the bars, while the latter 
is the reverse. 5. For perfect combustion a high temperature is 
necessary. In aU cases see that the bars are well covered and the 
fuel kept from caking. Knock away the clinkers as soon as formed, 
keeping the spaces open between the bars. Regulate the supply of 
air either by the dampers, ashpit, furnace doors, or by an orifice 
behind the bridge. A jet of steam from a pipe placed across the top 
of J and inside the door, will greatly assist in consuming the smoke 
and intensifying the heat, by j- ielding up its oxygen and hydrogen. 

If steam commences to blow off at the safety valve while the 
engine is at rest, start your i>ump or injector to create a circulation, 
cover or bank your fire with a charge of ashes or fresh coal to absorb 
the heat, and allow the steam to have free egress through the safety 
valve. If by neglect the water gets very low, and the boiler dan- 

§erously hot, the fire should either be drawn, or drenched with water, 
hould the fire be very hot and the water supply temporarily cut off, 
stop the engine and cover the fire quite thickly with fresh fuel to 
absorb the heat, keeping the usual allowance of water in the boiler 
until the sui^ply is renewed. Boilers should be blown out every 2 or 
3 weeks, or as often as mud appears in the water, but never until 
after the fire has been drawn at least one hour, aud the damper 
closed, otherwise the empty boiler might be damaged by the heat. 
Never fill a liot boiler with cold water, as the sudden contraction 



356 MACHINISTS^ engineers', &C*, RECEIPTS. 

many times repeated will eventually cause it to leak. Never blow 
out a boiler with a higher pressure than 50 lbs. to the square inch, as 
steam at a high pressure indicates a high temperature in the iron, 
which under careful management should always be let down gradu- 
ally. Previous to filling a boiler raise the valve to permit the free 
egress of the air which might otherwise do manifold damage. 

Use every possible precaution against using foul water as it in- 
duces foaming in the boiler ; soapy or oily substances and an insuffi- 
ciency of steam room have a like effect, causing the boiler to bum, 
on the spots where the water is lifted from it, and the glass gauges to 
indicate falsely, besides damaging the cylinder by priming, carrying 
mud, grit, water and slush into it through the pipe, and rendering 
the cylinder heads liable to be knocked out. Steam from pure water 
at 212° Fahr. supports a 30 inch column of mercury. Steam from sea, 
or impure water at the same temperature, will support only 22 inches. 

Pure soft water derived from lakes and large streams, rain water 
from cisterns, reservoirs, &c., and springs outside of limestone dis- 
tricts, is the best for steam purposes. Water from wells and springs 
in limestone districts and small streams, hold in solution large 
(][uantities of chloride of sodium, carbonate of lime, sulphate of 
Lme, &c., besides quantities of vegetable matter in suspension. The 
carbonic acid in the water, which holds the carbonate of lime, &c., in 
solution, being driven off by boiling, the latter is precipitated and 
forms an incrustation which adheres with obstinate tenacity to the 
boiler i^lates. By continual accretion the dei)osit of scale becomes 
thicker and thicker, and being a nou-conductor of heat it requires 
CO per cent, more fuel to raise the water to any given temperature 
when the scale is J of an inch thick ; the conducting power of scale 
compared with that of iron being as 1 to 37. The red scale formed 
from water impregnated with salts of iron, derived from percolation 
through iron ore, is still more mischievous and destructive to steam 
boilers. In no way can the evil be completely averted except by 
boiling the water to drive off the carbonic acid, but tliis is sometimes 
impracticable, although many feed water heaters are in successful 
operation. A list of scale preventives can be found in another part 
oi this work. 

In tubular boilers, the hand holes should be opened frequently and 
all sediment removed from over the fire ; keep the sheets, flues, 
tubes, gauge cocks, glass gauges and connections well swept and 
perfectly clean, and the boiler and engine-room in neat condition. 
Keep a sharp look out for leaks, and repair them if possible without 
delay, and allow no water to come in contact with the exterior of the 
boiler under any circumstances. Examine and repair every blister 
as soon as it appears, and make frequent and thorough examinations 
of the boiler with a small steel hammer. 

In case of foammg, close the throttle, and keep closed long enough 
to show true level of water. If the water level is right, feedmg and 
blowing will generally stop the trouble. With muddy water it is a 
safe rule to blow out 6 or 8 inches every day. If foaming is violent 
from dirty water, or change from salt to fresh, or from fresh to salt, 
in addition to following the above directions, check draught, and 
cover the fires with ashes or fresh fuel. 

Great watchfulness is necessary when steam is raised, the safety 



MACHINISTS, engineers', «&C., RECEIPTS. 357 

Talve fixed, the fire strong, and the engine at rest. In every case 
there is a, rapid and dangerous absorption of heat, the temperature, 
latent and sensible heat included, often rising to 1200° Eahr. 
Frequently it is hut the work of an instant to convert the latent mto 
sensible heat, thus generating an irresistible force which bursts the 
boiler and destroys life and property. The destruction generally 
coming at the moment of starting the engine, the opening of the 
valve inducing a commotion in the water, which flashes into steam the 
instant it touches the heated plates. Steam has been known to rise 
from a pressure of 32 lbs. to the square inch to 90 lbs. to the square 
inch, in the short space of seven minutes, with the engiue at rest. It 
ought to quicken the vigilance of every engineer to Icnow that the 
explosive energy in each and every cubic foot of water in his boiler 
at 60 lbs. pressure, is equal to that contained in 1 lb. of gunpowder. 

From avaricious motives it has become quite common to discharge, 
or to decline to employ, qualified and careful engineers. Incompe- 
tent men are employed because their labor costs a few dollars less 
than that of the former. This is too much of a bad thing to pass 
over without notice. Employ good skilful men in the management 
of steam power, or employ none at all, and pay them decent wagea. 
If an oversight takes place, and the best and most careful men are 
liable to make mistakes, never scold, reprimand, or exact service 
during dangerous emergencies, as in the event of lost water in the 
boiler. In no case risk life, limb, or property, and do not let the 
consideration of saving a few doUars debar you from securing intelli- 
gent assistants. The Turkish mode of driving business on a late 
occasion was to discharge the English engineers who brought out 
the war vessels which were built in England, and supi^ly the 
vacancies by installing cheap green hands. After getting up steam 
the new " Chief" proceeded to start the engines. A lift at a crank 
produced no results, a pull at a lever was equally useless. At length 
the illustrious official espied a bright brass cock, and thinking he had 
got hold of a sure thing this time, proceeded to give it a twist, when 
he was suddenly saluted with a jet of steam full in the face, which 
swept the "engineer" and his assistants out of the engine room, 
into the fire room down stairs. So much for cheap labor and the 
consequent results. 

Duties to the Enriine when under steam. — Before starting the 
engine, warm the cylinder by admitting steam so as to slowly move 
the piston back and forth, letting the condensed water flow from the 
drip-cocks, which should be left open aU night for this purpose ; 
especially should this be done during cold and frosty weather, during 
which time all pipes and comiections should have extra protection. 
The minimum speed of the piston should be 240 ft. per minute, and 
the maximum speed 700 ft. in any engine. The most economical 
steam pressure is from 80 to 90 lbs. to the square inch, on the piston 
of any high pressure steam engine. To attain this it is necessary 
that the boiler pressure should be considerably higher, for there is a 
loss of at least 30 per cent., arising from the irregularity of the steam 
pipes and steam ports, by radiation of heat, by improper packing, by 
friction of valve, by the effect of the governor and by atmosplieric 
pressure, which of itself entails a loss of 15 lbs. per square inch on 
the niston. The lower the steam pressure per square inch on the 



358 MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS*, «fcC., RXCEIPTS. 

piston, the greater the loss of power from the atmospheric pressure ; 
for instance, a steam pressure of 30 lbs. per square inch on the piston, 
leaves only 15 lbs per square inch effective pressure for actual work, 
the other 15 lbs. being required to overcome atmospheric pressure. 

In tightening piston rod packing, screw no tighter than merely to 
prevent leakage ; any more consumes power by friction, and will des- 
troy the pacldng. Spring packing in the cylinder should be adjusted 
with great care, always kept up to its place, and never allowed to 
become loose, or leakage will ensue, causing loss of power. On the 
other hand, if it is set too tight it will cut the cj^linder, and loss will 
result from friction. Keep your packing free from grit, ^and, filings, 
&c., as such substances will cut the cylinder and flute the rod. 
Remove all old pacldng before inserting new, observing to cut the 
packing into proper lengths, and breaking joints by placing each 
joint on opposite sides of the stuffing box. Keep the governor clean, 
€asy in its movements, and avoid excessive tight packing aromid the 
spindle. Use good oils. Avoid waste in the use of oil, as too great 
profusion generates gum and dirt. Use it with judgment in combi- 
nation with concentrated ley when it is required to remove gum or 
dirt from these or other parts of the machinery. Do not lubricate 
the cylinder until after startmg the engine, and closmg the drij) cocks. 
If you have occasion to separate a rust joint, or any cranlc from a 
shaft on which it has been shrunk, the simplest plan is to apply heat, 
when the bodies being of different dimensions will expand unequally 
and separate. Iron when heated expands with irresistible force. 
Railway contractors loiow that the heat of the sun on a warm day 
will cause such an extension of the iron, that the rails, if laid with 
close joints, will rise with the sleepers from the ballast, and form 
arches 4 or 5 feet high and 50 or 60 feet in length. In accommoda- 
tion to this law of exxmnsiou, spaces are left between the rails on rail- 
way tracks. 

The contraction of iron by cold is equally powerful, and has been 
put to good use in trueing up large bulging buildings by fitting irou 
girders across them with strong wall plates at each end. Then, by 
applying gas jets all along the girders they will expand ; the screws 
are then tightened up, and tlie girders allowed to cool, and the strain 
of these contractions several times repeated is sufficient to bring the 
walls to the perpendicular. Again, in hoisting heavy machinery, &c. 
by means of pulley-blocks, if the ropes stretch and the blocks come 
together too soon, wet the rope, and the object will be elevated by 
its contraction without any other force. These hints wUl be found 
useful when occasion offers. 

In driving the kegs on the crank-pin and cross-head, use a leaden 
mallet, or interpose a piece of leather, or a sheet of soft metal for 
protection, if a steel hammer is used. 

The piston should be removed every 6 months, and the parts in- 
jured by friction, &c. carefully ground, fitted, and if need be turned, 
trued, and made steam tight. If knocking occurs in the engine it 
may arise by the crank being ahead of the steam ; if so, move the 
eccentric forward to give more lead on the valve, if caused by too much 
lead move the eccentric further back, if caused by the exhaust closing 
too soon, enlarge the exliaust chamber in the valve ; if caused by the 
engine beiug out of line, or by hard or tight piston rod packing, these 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS 359 

faults must be corrected ; if caused by lost motion in the jam nuts on 
the valve, uncover the steam chest and adjust them correctly. It may 
be that Imocking is caused by lost motion in the crank-pin, pillow- 
blocks, key of the piston in the cross-head, or boxes on the cross- 
head, if so, tighten the key, or file off the edges of the boxes if they 
are too tight. Should knocking arise from shoulders becoming worn 
on tlie ends of the guides from any cause, replace the guides. 
Knocking may be caused by insufficient connterboring in the cylin- 
der, causing derangement in the movements of the piston. The 
remedy for tliis is to re-counterhore the cylinder to the proper depth. 

Keep a close watch over the journals of the crank and cross-head, 
if they are loose in the boxes, or too tight, they will run badly, if 
tightened too much, they will heat and wear out the brass shoes, if 
not tight enough there is danger of the keys flying out and breaking 
the engine. 

Be sure that your steam gauge indicates truthfully. It ought to 
tell accurately the pressure of steam in the boiler when the water is 
hotter than 212° Fahr., and indicate the vanation in the pressure of 
steam from time to time; but many gauges are much worse than the 
contrivance used by the colored engineer, wlio, disdainfully dispens- 
ing with a gauge altogether, used to ascertain the critical moment 
when steam was up, or danger at hand, by clapping his open hand 
on the outside of the boiler. 

Steam Packing. — Many varieties of packing are used, such as 
metallic packing, packing composed of a mixture of duck, paper 
and tallow m proper proportions, soapstone and loose twisted cotton 
coils, asbestos, jute, &c. An excellent packing is composed of hemp 
in long loosely twisted coils, well saturated Avith melted grease or 
tallow, with as much pulverized black lead as it will absorb. Pack- 
ing is always applied with the best effect when the parts of the engine 
are cold, and its efficiency is promoted by soaking it in beeswax and 
taUow previous to use. 

To Work Steam Expansively. — The volume of steam at 15 lbs. 
pressure to the square inch or atmospheric pressure is 1700 times 
greater than that of any given quantity of water from which it may 
be derived. When confined under pressure, as in the cylinder of a 
steam engine, it is always in the effort to expand itself to the fuUest 
extent, and a vast saving of fuel is effected by cutting off the supi)ly 
of steam from the piston by means of the main valve, before it 
reaches the end of its stroke, instead of allowing it to flow during 
the full length of its stroke. 

The most available pomts at which to cut off steam is J, \ and | of 
the full travel or stroke of the piston. If steam at 75 lbs. pressure 
to the square inch is applied to the piston and cut off at half stroke, 
the average pressure, during the whole stroke, owing to the expan- 
sive quality of the steam, would be G3J lbs., or only 11 J lbs. less than 
the full pressure, although but half the quantity of steam is used, 
requiring fully \ less fuel. 

Imagine the diagram to be a cylinder of 3 ft. in length, with steam 
at 60 lbs. pressure, entering the open port. Durmg the first 4 inches 
of the travel of the piston the steam port is open, permitting the 
full i^ressure of the steam to operate on the piston ; but at the twelfth 
inch marked C, the steam lap on the valve V closes the port. The 



360 MACHINISTS, engineers', &c., receipts. 



imprisoned steam will now propel the piston to the end of the 
stroke, driving out the liberated steam through the port A into the 
exhaust cavity B, hut hy the time the piston reaches T>, 12 mches 




from C, the original pressure of 60 lbs. per square inch will have 
decreased one-half, or to 30 lbs. , and when it reaches E, 24 inches 
from C, it will have still furtlier decreased to 20 lbs. Average pres- 
sure 39 lbs. Two-thirds of the stroke have thus been made without 
any supply of steam from the boiler, and forms the saving due to 
working the steam expansively. The lack of this contrivance is the 
true reason why some engines use more fuel and steam, than others 
of the same capacity and power. It has been stated that the economy 
of the Corliss cut-oJS is such that it requires only 2 tons of coal 
instead of 6| tons used by other engines of the same power, but the 
great trouble with that engine is the liability of the complex and 
costly valve-gear to get out of order, entailing difficult and expensive 
repairs. 

Table. — Slwwing the average Pressure of Steam on the cylinder 
when cut of at J, J and | of the stroke or travel of the Piston, com- 
mencing with 25 lbs, advancing by 5 lbs. and endiug at 100 lbs. 



30 35 

17| 20| 

25i 29^ 

281 33i 



45 
26i 
38 
43i 



55 |60 |65 ItO |7o |80 |85l 90 |95 |lOO 



53"^|57f;62i;67i|72j|77j|82j 87 |9l| 



To realize the best results from steam, keep the cylinders, pipes, 
&c., well covered with good non-conductors. Various materials are 
used, such as common felting, asbestos felting, hair, old wool, tow or 
hemp carpets cut up into strips of the proper size and smeared over 
with a substantial composition of mortar, teased hair, &c. before 
applying to the pipes. Cover the whole with coarse canvas, finish- 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 361 

ing with several coats of white lead over the canvas. Some cover 
boilers with a thickish composition of clay, intermixed with giey or 
■brown paper for a bind, to prevent cracking, &c., the paper being 
worked up into shreds along with the water and clay. Others use a 
mixture of mortar, teased hair, &c. Some use asbestos, wood ashes, 
&c., see "composition for covering boilers.'* Cylinders should bo 
well clothed and jacketed, and cased with wood or pohshed metal, 
the latter when kept constantly bright being a most powerful protec- 
tion against loss of heat by radiation. Among metals, silver is the 
best absorbent and conductor of heat. If we call its power of con- 
duction 100, tnat of copper is 74, gold 53, iron 12, lead 9, bismuth 2. 

To Set the val\te of an Engine.— Place the crank at the end 
of its stroke, and give the valve the proper amount of lead ; reverse 
the crank to the other end of its stroke, and if the valve has the cor- 
responding amounc of lead it is correctly set. The preponderance at 
either end, if any exists, must be equally divided. Be careful in ad- 
justing the nuts attaching the valve to the rod, that they do not 
impinge against the valves, preventing it from seating true. In ad- 
justing the slide valve to cut off at any point of the travel of the 
piston, the eccentric should be moved forward in proportion to the 
amount of lap given to the valve, without any reference to the ex- 
pansive working of steam, the valve must open at the same point of 
travel of the piston. 

To FIND THE Stroke op the Yalye. — Place the crank on the 
dead centre, and make a mark on the valve-rod, then reverse the 
movement to the opposite end and make another mark. The distance 
between the two marks constitutes the stroke of the valve. The 
stroke of the valve may be increased as the bearing m the rocker-arm 
that carries the eccentric hook is lengthened ; shorten the same and 
the stroke is lessened. 

To FIND THE Throw of the Eccentric. — Measure the eccen- 
tric on the heaviest side, then measure on the opposite or light side. 
The difference between the two measurements will be the throw of 
the eccentric. 

Lead on the Slide Yalve. — The lead of a valve is the width 
of opening which the valve allows to the steam port when the piston 
is at the end of its stroke, as shown on the diagram at A, which re- 
presents outside lead, inside lead, bemg sho^vn into the exliaust at B, 
which ought to be double the amount of outside lead in order to liberate 
the exhaust easily, and thus reduce or prevent back pressure. Care 
should be taken not to liberate the exhaust too soon, as it will greatly 
curtail the power of the engine, especially if the labor is heavy and 
the speed slow, as in engines with heavy trains on up grades, &c. To 
ascertain whether the exhaust opens at the right time or not, uncover 
the steam chest ; then uncouple the valve from the valve rod, place a 
short batten of wood lengthways on the exliaust port ; then with a 
scratch awl lay off lines on the valve seat, on each side of the exhaust 
port, that wiU appear above the valve. Next lay the batten on the 
face of the valve and lay off corresponding lines on the exhaust 
chamber that will show on the edges of the valve, now replace the 
valve on its seat, and give 1-32 of an inch lead, and if the Hues de- 
scribed on the face of the valve are past the lines described on the 
valve seat 1-lG of an inch, the exljp-ust opens at the x)roper time, if it 



362 MACHINISTS, engineers', &c., keceipts. 

does not the exhaust chamber in the valve should be enlarged to the 
right size. 




Lead is given to a valve to enable the steam to act as a cushion on 
the piston, by admitting the steam to it previous to the end of its 
stroke, in order to cause it to reverse its motion easily, without jar or 
noise, for it is not allowed to touch the top and bottom of cylinder for 
fear of knocking them out. The space between the top and bottom 
of the cylinder and the piston, when the latter is at the end of its 
stroke, is called the clearance^ shown at C C on diagram. The term 
clearance is also used to designate the capacity of the connecting 
steam ports and passages. It is necessary to guard against too much 
cushion as it greatly impairs the powers of the engine, causing violent 
thumping or knockmg, and sometimes a serious breakdown. One- 
eighth of an inch lead is sufficient for an ordinary freight and 1-16 is 
sufficient for passenger locomotives, the difference being on account 
of the greater speed of the latter. 

Lap on the Slide Valve.— The steam lap on the slide valve is 
the amount by which it extends over the extreme width of the 




cylinder ports, as illustrated in the diagram, the distance between tho 
dotted lines B B LL, and the sides of the ports P P, being in each 
case the lap, the lines B B indicating the outside lap, and L L denot- 
ing the inside lap, E P exhaust port, E exhaust cavity in valve. V S 

The einission of steam into the cylinder 



valve seat, C C valve face. 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 363 

is regulated by the outer and inner edges of the valve and of the 
steam ports. When the valve is so contrived that at J stroke the 
faces of the valve do not cover the steam ports internally, the space 
by which each face comes short of the inner edges of the ports is 
loiown as inside clearance. By means of the steam lap given to the 
valve the engine is enabled to use its steam expansively, as elsewhere 
explained. 

Table. — Showing the amount of Lap on the Slide valve at 
various points of cut off; also, the travel of the valve in inches. 

Travel or stroke of the Piston where steam is cut off. 



Travel 

of the 

Valve in 

inches. 



2i 
3 

3* 
4 
4i 
5 

5^ 
6 

7 

7i 

8 

Si 

9 

H 

10 
101 

ll' 

m 

12 



i 


A 


i 


iV 


1 


1 



10. 
12 



If 

'^ 

9 5 

21 

? 

a 

H 
Hi 

4 

!^ 

4_9_ 

ill 



The correct amount of Lap. 



1 

113 

hi 

2 7 

^16 

ill 

31-3- 
^16 



11 


5 


7 


13 


u 


1 6 


1^ 


1 


l± 


It 


l^Q 


HI 


lj\ 


2 


IH 


-\'. 


2 


^tV 


^A 


p 


23. 

2| 

2| 

213- 


3 3 


16 


16 


^t\ 


a 


35 


StV 


m 


a,^ 


4 




41 


35. 


t| 


31 
41 



11 

ii 

1^ 
li 

IS. 

i 

2 3 

ii 

2?! 
2il 

3" 

3 



1 

2 

t 



^ 



J* 
14 



2" 

2* 



r 



1 

If 

2t 

^* 
2| 
21 



r 

13. 

1^ 

11 

}* 
I' 

2JL 

^16 
2 3__ 

2^ 



Giffard's Injector, as made by Wm. Sellers & Co., is a novel 
and reliable invention for feeding boilers, economizing the heat and 
dispensing with pumps. By a simple and well known combination 
of 2 pipes, the one conveying steam, the other water, both terminat- 
ing in a third pipe or tube, a jet of steam from the boiler escaping 
through an orifice, of say, 1 inch in diameter, with 60 lbs. pressure, 



364 MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS', &C., RECEIPTS 

is condensed in perhaps 12 times its weiglit of water, wliicli itdrivej^ 
llirongli the third tube, causing it to enter the boiler through an 
orifice much smaller than the one by which it escai^ed. The momen- 
tum of the steam impels the water with great force and imparts all 
its heat to the water during transmission. The following table shows 
the maximum temperature of the feed-water admissible during 
different pressures of steam. 

Pressure per square inch. 10 ' 20 30 40 50 100 
Temperature of feed, Fahr. 148° 130^ 130^ 124° 120^ 110^ 

0:sr THE Form, Strength &c. of Steam Boilers. — Regard- 
ing the form of boilers, it is now an ascertained fact that the maxi- 
mum strength is obtamed by adoi^ting the cylindrical or circular form, 
the haycock, hemispherical, and wagon-shaped boilers, so general at 
one time, have now deservedly gone almost out of use. Good boiler 
plate is capable of withstanding a tensile stram of 50,000 lbs. or 
()0,000 lbs. on every square inch of section : but it will only bear a 
third of this strain Avithout permanent derangement of structure, 
and 40,000 lbs., or 30,000 lbs. even, upon the square inch, is a prefer- 
able proportion. It has been foimd that the tenacity of boiler-plate 
increases Avith the temperature up to 570°, at which point the ten- 
acity commences to diminish. At 32° cohesive force of a square inch 
of section was 56,000 lbs. ; at 570° it was 66,500 lbs. : at 720°, 55,000 
lbs. ; at 1050O, 32,000 lbs. ; at 1240°, 22,000 lbs. ; and at 1317°, 9,000 
lbs. Strips of iron, when cut in the direction of the fibre, were found 
by experiment to be 6 per cent, stronger than when cut across tho 
grain. The strength of riveted joints has also been demonstrated by 
tearing them directly asunder. In two different kinds of joints, 
double and single riveted, the strength was found to be, in the ratio 
of the plate, as the numbers 100, 70, and 56. 

Assuming the strength of the plate to be 100 

The strength of a double riveted joint would be, after 

allowing for the adhesion of tho surfaces of the plate 70 

And the strength of a single riveted joint 56 

These figures, representing the relative strengths of plates and 
joints in vessels required to be steam and water tight, may be safely 
relied on as perfectly correct. The accidental overheating of a boiler 
has been found to reduce the ultimate or maximum strength of the 
plates from 65,000 to 45,000 lbs. per square inch of section. Every 
description of boiler used in manufactories or on board of steamers 
should be constructed to a bursting pressure of 400 to 500 lbs. on the 
square inch ; and locomotive engine boilers, which are subject to 
much harder duty, to a bursting pressure of 600 to 700 lbs. Such 
boilers are usually worked at 90 to 110 lbs. on the inch, but are fre- 
quently worked up to a pressure of 120, and, when rising steep grades 
sometimes even as high as 200 lbs. to the square inch. In a boiler 
subject to such an enormous working pressure, it requires the utmost 
care and attention on the part of the engineer to satisfy himself that 
the flat surfaces of the fire box are capable of resisting that pressure, 
and that every part of the boiler is so nearly balanced in its powers 
of resistance as that, when one part is at the point of rupture, every 
other part is at the point of yieldmg to the sauie uniform force : for 
we find that, taking a locomotive boiler of the usual size, even with 



MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS , &C,, RECEIPTS. 365 

fi pressure of 100 lbs. on the square inch, it retains an expanding 
lorce within its interior of nearly 60.000 tons, which is rather in- 
creased than diminished at a high speed. To show the strain upon 
a high-pressure boiler, 30 feet long, 6 feet diameter, having 2 centre 
Hues, each 2 feet 3 inches diameter, working at a pressure of 50 lbs. 
on the square mch, we have only to multiply the number of the 
square feet of surface, 1030, exposed to pressure, by 321, and wo 
have the force of 3319 tons, which such a boiler has to sustam. To 
go farther, and estimate the pressure at 450 lbs. on the square in'jh, 
which a well-constructed boiler of this size will bear before it bursts, 
and we have the enormous force of 29,871, or nearly 30,000 tons, bot- 
tled up within a cylinder 30 feet long and 6 feet diameter. Boilers in 
actual use should be tested at least once a year, by forcing water into 
them by the hand f eed-pnmp, until the safety-valve is lifted, which 
should be loaded with at least twice the working pressure for the occa- 
sion. If a boiler wiU not stand this pressure it is not safe, and either 
its strength should be increased or the working pressure should be di- 
minished. Internal flues, such as contain the furnace in the interior 
of the boiler, should bo kept as near as possible to the cylindrical 
form ; and, as wrought iron will yield to a force tending to crush it 
about one-half of what wonM tear it asunder, the flues should in no 
case exceed one-half the dia: :'ter of the boiler, with the same thick- 
ness of plates they may be considered equally safe with the other parts. 
The force of compression being so different from that of tension, 
greater safety would be ensured if the diameter of the internal flues 
were in the ratio 1 to 2J instead of 1 to 3 of the diameter of the boiler. 
As regards the relative size and strength of flues, it may be stated 
that a circular flue 18 inches in diameter will resist double the pres- 
sure of one 3 feet in diameter. Mill owners, with plenty of room 
and a limited experience with steam power, would do well to dispense 
with boilers containing many flues, the expense is greater and the 
durability less than where there is one or two only. The foam 
caused by a large number of flues is apt to deceive an inexperienced 
en^neer, causing him to believe that there is plenty of water in the 
boiler when he tries the gauge cock when there is but very little, 
often causing an explosion. Some mill-owners insert a fusible plug 
in the crown of the furnace to indicate danger from low water. As 
common lead melts at 020°, a rivet of this metal, 1 inch in diameter, 
inserted immediately over the Are place, will give due notice, so that 
relief may be obtained before the mternal pressure of the steam ex- 
ceeds that of the resisting i)ower of tlie heated plates. In France, an 
extensive use is made of fusible metal plates, generally covered by a 
perforated metallic disc, which protects the alloy of which the plate 
is composed, and allows it to ooze through as soon as the steam has 
attained the temperature necessary to insure the fusion of the plate, 
which varies from 280° to 350°. The reader will fiind a number of 
such alloys under the tabular view of alloys and their melting heats, 
further on. Another method is the bursting plate, fixed in a frame and 
attached to some convenient part of the upper side of the boiler, of 
such thickness and ductility as to cause rupture when the pressure 
exceeds that on the safety valve. But, beyond all question, constant 
use should be made on all boilers of a good and reliable system of 
steam gauges, glass tubes, gauge cocks, safety valves, &c. By means 



366 MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS 

of the glass tubes affixed to the fronts of the boilers, the height of the 
water within the boiler is indicated at once, for the water will stand at 
the same height in the tube that it stands in the boiler, communication 
being established with the water below and the steam above, by 
means of stop cocks. 

When dry steam is an object, the use of the steam dome on boUers 
is strongly recommended ; opinions are divided as to the real value of 
mud drums, some reason strongly in their favor while others discard 
them entirely ; but there can be no question as to the true economy of 
heating the feed water previous to emission into the boiler ; it should 
always be done when practicable to do so, by means of some one of 
the many contrivances for that purpose which are now in the market. 
Regarding the power of boilers, it may be stated that a boiler 30 feet 
long and 3 feet in diameter, wUl afford 30x3x3.14x2 — 141.30 square 
feet of surface, or steam for 14 horse-power, if 10 feet are assumed 
for one horse-power. Two short boUers are preferable to one long 
one, on account of having more fire surface, — it being always necessa- 
ry to have as much fire surface as possible to make the best use of the 
fiiel — as the hotter the surface is kept, the less fuel it takes to do the 
same amount of work. When there is a large furnace it gives the 
fireman a better chance to keep the steam regular, for when clearing 
out one part of the furnace, he can keep a, hot fire in the other. For 
each horse-power of the engine there ought to be at least one square 
foot of grate, and three feet would be better. In setting a boiler, 
arrangement should be made to carry on combustion with the great- 
est possible heat This requires good non-conductors of heat, such as 
brick, with which to surround the fire. If these bricks are of a white 
color, the combustion is more perfect than if of a dark color. Tlie roof, 
as well as the sides, of the furnace should be of white lire-brick. The 
bars of the furnace should be 18 or 20 inches below the boiler or 
crown of the furnace. They should slope downward toward the back 
part, about half an inch to ttie foot A crack in a boiler plate may 
be closed by boring holes in the direction of the crack and inserting 
rivets with large heads, so as to cover up the imperfection. If the top 
of the furnace be bent down, from the boUer having been accidentally 
allowed to get short of water, it may be set up again by a screw-jack, 
a fire of wood having been previously made beneath the injured 
plate ; but it wiU in general be nearly as expeditious a course to 
remove the plate and introduce a new one, and the result will be more 
satisfactory. There is one object that requires very particular atten- 
tion, and which must be of a certaiu size to produce the best effect, 
and that is the flue leading from the boUer to the chimney, as weU as 
the size and elevation of the chimney itself. Every chimney should 
be buUt several feet above the mill house, so that there is no obstruc- 
tion to break the air from the top of the chimney. In England a 
factory chimney suitable for a 20 horse-power boiler is commonly 
made about 20 inches square iuside, and 80 feet high, and these di- 
mensions are correct for consumption of 15 lbs. coal per horse-power 
X)er hour, a common consumption for factory engines. In the Do- 
minion of Canada and the United States, chimneys of sheet iron, 
from 30 to 50 feet high, are ia quite common use by owners of saw, 
and other mills, and they seem to answer every requirement. 

Proportion of Steaqi BoiLEiis.^Cy?mc?er Boilers, The length 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 307 

should never exceed 7 times its diameter ; the unit for it is 12 sq. ft. 
of heating surface, and | of a square foot of grate surface for each 
horse-power ; a fail- evaporation is G lbs. of water for 1 lb of coal. 

Tubular Boiler, 




Cylinder Boiler. 

Very long cylinder boilers should have a central support. AH boilers 
should have an mclination of 1 inch in every 20 ft. towards the blow- 
off end. Tubular Boilers— Length 4 times the diameter. Evapora- 




LancasMre Boiler. Cornish Boiler. 

tion about 9 lbs. of water to 1 lb. of coal. Heatmg surface 15 square 
ft. and grate surface, J square ft. per horse-power. Flue Boilers 
require from 14 to 15 square ft. of heating surface, and h square ft. 
of grate per horse-power. Evaporation 7 lbs. w^ater to every lb. of 



368 MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 

coal. Length of flue "boilers should not exceed 5 times tlieir diameter, 
diameter of flues not more than 12 to 14 in. ; if made larger, use heavier 
iron than that used in the shell of boiler, and construct with butt 
joints. Cornish and Lancashire Boilers. In P2ngland, Cornish boilers 
are known as those furnished with one internal flue, and are usually 
of great capacity and i30wer, having plenty of steam room. Lanca- 
shire boilers have 2 flues. Jtetiirn Flue Boiler, When a boiler is 
fitted with a flue curving roimd at the rear, and returning to the 
front, it is called a return flue boiler. Sec diagrams of boilers. 

Boiler Shells. — For a boiler of 48 in. in diameter, to carry 90 lbs. 
per square in. pressure, use ^ in. to g in. good plates. "Wrought iron 
heads for ditto, § to f inch. Tube Sheets and Croion Sheets for ditto. 
I to I inch. Rivets on boilers up to 42 in. diam. and § in. iron, 
should be § in. for curvilinear, and § in. for longitudinal rivets 
for single riveted work. On double riveted work, f in. rivets 
will answer for both kinds of seams. For 5-lG iron down to 3-lG 
hi. smaller rivets will answer. Drilled rivet holes are preferable 
to punched. It is highly beneficial to heat the boiler plates before 
rolling to form the shell of the boiler. The fibre of the iron should 
always run around the boiler, never across it. A steel shell boiler 
4 ft. in diam. and J in. thick, is as strong as an iron boiler of same 
diam. and § in. thick, and will evaporate 25 per cent, more water, 
besides being more free from incrustation and corrosion. The work- 
ing pressure of boilers should be 5 times less than the bursting^ 
pressure. 

CoikiPOsiTioN FOR Covering Boilers, &c. — ^Road scrapings, free 
from stones, 2 parts ; cow manure, gathered from the pasture, 1 
part ; mix thoroughlj^, and add to each barrowf til of the mixturo 
G lbs of fire clay ; \ lb. of flax shoves or chopped hay, and 4 ozs. 
teased hair. It must bo well mixed and chopped ; then add as 
much water as will bring it to the consistency of mortar, — the more 
it is worked the tougher it is. It may either bo ])ut on with the 
trowel or daubed on with the hand, the first coat about 1 inch 
thick. AVhen thoroughly dry, another tlio same thicloiess, and so 
on, tliree inches is quite enough, but the more the better. Let each 
coat be scored like plaster, to prevent cracks, the last coat light 
and smooth, so as to receive paint, whitewash, &c. The boiler, or 
pipes, must first be brushed with a thin wash of the mixture to 
insure a catch. 

To Prevent Incrustation in Boilers. — 1. Charcoal has a great 
affinity for any tlnng that causes scale or incrustation in boilers. 
That made from hard wood is the best, broken in lumi^s of J to J 
Inch in size, and the dust sifted out TVo bushels of this will 
generally protect a boiler of 30 horse-power for 3 weeks when 
running, after which the old coal should be removed and fresh coal 
used. 2. Throw into the tank or reservoir trom Avhich your boiler 
is fed, a quantity of rough bark, in the piece, such as tanners use, 
sufficient to turn the water of a brown color ; if you have no tank, 
put into the boiler from a half to a bushel of ground bark when 
you blow off, repeat every month, using only half the quantity 
after the first time. 3. Add a very small quantity of muriate of 
ammonia, about 1 lb. for every 1,500 or 2,000 gals, of water evapo- 
i-atcd. It will have the effect of softemng and disintegrating the 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 369 

carbonate of lime and other impurities deposited Toy the water dur- 
ing the eyaporation. 4. Potatoes and some other vegetable substances 
introduced into the boiler are most effectual in preventing incrus- 
tation, and animal substances, such as refuse skiiis, are still more 
so. 5. An English firm put oak sawdust into their boiler in order 
to stop a leak, and to their surprise it also resulted in preventing 
incrustation. I should say if oak sawdust could prevent scale tu 
boilers, that there is no visible reason why hemlock and various 
otlier kinds of sawdust wUl not do the same thing. 6. Cows' feet, 
with the shanks attached, are strongly recommended as a preven- 
tive of scale. Two in a large boiler is amply sufficient, and those 
who wish to do business economically, can get their oU for lubri- 
catiQg purposes cheaply by boiling the feet and shanks for a few 
hours in a large kettle, setting it aside to cool, and then skimming 
off the oU from the surface of the water, using the feet for the boiler 
afterwards. If you wish to get rid of the hair on the shanks, you 
can get rid of that by using lime, &c., as done by tanners. 7. 
Sal soda, 40 lbs., gum catechu, 5 lbs., sal ammoniac, 5 lbs., is strongly 
recommended by an experienced i^erson, for removing boiler scale ; 1 
lb. of the mixture being added to each barrel of water in the tank ; 
after scale is removed use sal soda alone. By the use of 10 lbs. soda 
per week, a boiler 26 feet long, and 40 inches in diameter was cleaned 
from scale equal to a new boiler. 8. A rapid and effectual but not very 
good plan to scale boilers is to throw in a few wood shavings along 
the bottom of the boiler and set them on fire ; the heat expands the 
scale more than the shell of the boiler, as the heat cannot reach the 
latter, the scale is loosened; what remains after this must be removed 
with a hammer and chisel. 9. Calcareous deposits may be entirely 
prevented by the use of crude pyroligneous acid combined with tar. 
It may be either introduced into the boiler or mixed with the feed 
water in very small quantity ; just enough to redden htmous paper ; 
consequently it will never injure the boiler. 10. It is on record that the 
engineer of the French ocean steamer St. Laurent, omitted to remove 
a bar of zinc when repairing or cleaning out his boilers. On opening 
them at the end of the voyage, to his great surprise he found that the 
zinc had disappeared, that his boilers were entirely free from scale, 
and the boiler plates uninjured. 

Average Proportion of various Parts of Engines. — Steam 
Pipe should be ^ the diameter of cylinder, but varies on large engines. 
Exhaust Pipe should be J the diameter of cylinder. Piston Rod 
should be J the diameter of cylinder, if of iron, and smaller, if of 
i5teel. For high speeds, steel piston rods are the best. Steam Ports 
vary according to speed, fro 1-16 to 1-10 the area of piston. Safety 
Valves should possess an area of J square in. of surface for every 
foot of grate surface, and should be constructed with loose vibratory 
stems, for the reason that they are not so liable to get out of order as 
those with rigid stems. 

Rule for Size of Cylinder. — ^The requisite diameter of cylinder 
for a 25-horse beam engine is 28 inches, and about 5 feet stroke. 
The nominal horse-power of any sized cylmder can be found by 
the following formulae : — For low pressure or beam engines, 
divide the area of cylinder by 25, winch will give the number of 
Jiorse-power. For liigh pressure horizontal engines, divide tho 

24 



370 MACHINISTS, engineers', &c., heceipts. 

area of cylinder's diameter by 12*5, which wiU give the number of 
liorse-power, including all fiiction. 

Stroke of Engines. — The stroke of an engine varies according 
to circumstances, which the designer must take into consideration; 
but the general rule is to make the stroke about twice the diameter 
of the c;^nder. The diameter of the fly-wheel should be about 4 
times the stroke of the engine, and the rim should weigh about 
3 cwt. per horse-power. 

Rule to find the Horse-Power of Stationary Engines. — 
Multiply the area of the piston by the average pressure in lbs. per 
square inch. IMultiply this product by the travel of the piston in feet 
per minute; divide by 33,000, this will give the horse-power. — lioper. 

Example : 

Diameter of cylinder ..... 12 

12 

144 

7854 



Area of niston . 113,0976 
Pressure, 70 ; Average pressure, 50 50 * 



5654.880 
Travel of piston m feet per min. 300 



33,000)1696464.000 

51. horse-power. 

Balance Wheels. —Every balance wheel should be speeded up 
so as to run twice or three times as fast as the crank shaft it is in- 
tended to balance. When a balance wheel is applied in this way it 
makes the machine run a great deal more steadily, for, when the 
balance wheel is geared into the crank shaft, and runs two or three 
times faster than the crank shaft, it forms a power of itself 
when going over the centre, which propels the crank shaft until it 
reaches the quarter, where it again takes its power from the 
machine. Although it takes an additional shaft and gears to apply 
a balance wheel in this way, tlie saving of metal in the balance 
wheel fully comx^ensates for the extra labor; for, when a balance 
wheel is speeded three times as fast as the crank shaft, it needs 
only one third of the metal in it that it would were it not speeded 
up at all, and if balance wheels were applied in this way generally 
it would make all engines run far more steadily. 

To Reverse an Engine.— Make a legible mark on the eccentric 
near the shaft, make a similar mark on the shaft at the same place. 
Now place one point of the callipers on the mark made on the shaft, 
and with the other point ascertain the centre of the shaft on the op- 
posite side, making another mark there also. Next unscrew the 
eccentric and move it in the direction in which you wish the engine to 
run, until the mark on the eccentric comes into line with the second 
mark on the shaft, then screw the eccentric fast and the engine will 
run the reverse way. 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 371 




Marine Beam Engike. — The above cut represents a marine beam 
engine, being the kind so frequently seen on river, lake, and coasting 
steamers. The Workii^g-beam, W, is a massive casting in the form 
of a cross, surrounded, strengthened, and stayed, in every direction 
by a powerful wrought-iron strap, forged in one piece, and shaped to 
<?onf orm to the casting, which contains sockets at each extremity fit- 
ted to receive the end journals, besides containing intermediate sock- 
ets for the main centre and air pump journal, &c. , the whole mass 
resting on thQ frame composed of 4 stout beams of wood, forming 2 



372 MA.CHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 



triangles as shown at DD in cut. These again rest on massive beams 
styled keelsons, shown at KK, and are braced and rigidly secured to 
the vessel and machinery by other powerful timbers, knees, straps, 
and iron fastenings. The guides are shown at B. 

The main link is shown at A, the connecting rod at C, the valve 
stem at V, and the cylinder at F, in a vertical position over the con- 
denser. 

The steam cylinder F, is usually a massive casting, annular in 
form, bored and finished very true for the easy movements of the 
piston. It rests on a round flanged casting containing the lower steam 
port, called the cylinder bottom., which intervenes between it and the 
condenser S, and is securely attached to each, by bolts and steam 
tight rust joints. The elevated end of the cylinder is immovably, 
braced to the framing above. The valve chest is shown at EE, the 
air pump at I, the hot weU at G, the boiler feed pump at R, and the 
delivery pipe at P. 

The condenser S, in which the exhaust steam is reduced to a liquid 
form, is of the same shape and diameter as the cylinder, flanged at 
both ends, and its contents should be 13-30ths of the space through 
which the piston moves during* one stroke. The wooden frame 
which sustains the main beam is attached by stout bolts and keys to 
strong flanges which project from the condenser, the upper part is 
cast close and the lower end is open and fitted accurately on the bed 
plate to which it is attached by a rust joint and bolts. 

In the method known as " surface condensing" the process is ef- 
fected by causing the steam to pass through an arrangement of tubes 
submerged in rmming cold water ; the other method, known as " jet 
condensing," and by far the cheapest arrangement, consists in bring- 
ing the steam in contact with a jet of cold water as shown in the fol- 
lowing diagram, where J represents the jet; E, the exhaust pipe, P, 




the injection pipe; H, air-pump cylinder; AA, air-pump valves, V, 
air-pump rod ; D, delivery valve ; H, hot well. 

The next cut represents Sewall's surface condenser, in which the 
exhaust steam enters at B and is liquefied hj contact with the exterior 
surfaces of the tubes ; the injection water is admitted at the openmg 
K, passes through the foot valves L L L and is driven through the de- 
livery valves S. The water of condensation passes through the delivery 
valves N, O, P, and is driven through the delivery valves I and 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 373 

the outboard J, into a cistern from which the boilers are supplied 
by the feed pumps with their water. The apertures D F, are the 
ends of a pipe connecting the fresh and salt water cisterns, so that 
any shortage in the feed water may be furnished from the latter 
cistern. H represents the end of a pipe through which the auxiliary 
pump draws water, and A is an air chamber for the salt water 
cistern. The jet condenser is the lightest, simplest and cheapest of 
the two, only it has the fault of supplying salt water to the boilers, as 
the condensed steam and the sea water jet intermingle; on the con- 





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trary, the surface condenser preserves the water of condensation so 
that it may be used in the boilers many times in succession, and in 
this way maintains its freshness, dispensing with the necessity of 
frequent blowing off in order to avert the danger of salt deposits on 
the plates of the boilers. Care should be used to keep the steam and 
exhaust valves steam tight in order to prevent the leakage of steam 
into the condenser while the engine is at rest, thereby heating the 
former to such an extent that the injection water cannot find admit- 
tance owing to the pressure. In such cases the trouble may be recti- 
fied by applying cold water to the exterior of the condenser, or by 
starting the engine and moving it a few strokes. 

The 'pision of the marine engine possesses the usual form of spring 
packing, and is powerfully braced by diverging arms cast on the up- 
per and lower flanges, the cylinder head is similarly strengthened 



374 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 

iutemally, while the exterior or outside is turned and usually kept 
highly polished. The steam chests contain the usual appliances of 
the receiving and exhaust steam passages, valves and valve seats ; 
the lower chest contains the outlet or exhaust port communicating 
with the co;idenser, while the higher chest embraces the throttle 
valve pipe connected with the supply pipe, communicating with the 
boilers. The steam chests are very accurately fitted and strongly 
secured to the cylinder, and the valve bonnets and piston rod glands 
are turned and kept bright. The valves which control the flow of the 
steam are of the description styled double-balance valves, because 
the downward pressure on one valve is almost balanced by an oppo- 
site pressure on the other, the two being connected in pairs, and 
being retained in their seats, by the highest valve in the pairs on- the 
induction side and the lowest valve of each pair on the exhaust side 
being somewhat larger than the others, thus inducing a very slight 
unbalanced pressure. The valve gear embraces the lifter rods, and 
lifters, the rock-shafts and their levers. The lifter rods, four in num- 
ber, have a vertical movement up and down on guides attached to the 
steam chests and side pipes, and to these rods, eight projecting arms, 
called lifters, are attached by keys. Four of the lifters connect with 
the extremities of the valve spindles, screwed, and fitted with double 
jam nuts, the other four are set vertically over the levers on the rock- 
shaft, which imparts their motion to them. The rock-shafts, two in 
number, one for the induction and the other for the exhaust valves, 
are operated by distinct eccentrics. There are four levers on the 
shafts, oi^erating and raising the rods and lifters, and to induce a 
smooth movement, they are bent or inflected on their working faces. 
Cast iron side pipes polished, turned, and ornamented, connect the 
steam chests, and are fitted with expansion rings of sheet copper to 
accommodate or compensate for the unequal expansion or contraction 
of the metal. 

The lifter rods with the valves, are alternately elevated and de- 
pressed, by the rocking or reciprocating movement of the shafts. 
The length of the exhaust levers is so adjusted as to impart the exact 
amount of lift and lead, and are so regulated on their rock-shaft that 
the elevation of one rod commences at the very instant the other is 
completely depressed. The induction or steam levers are longer than 
the last noted, and are placed on thin rock-shafts so as. to incline to 
each other, so that a space intervenes between the elevation of one 
rod and the depression of the other, during which time both valves 
are down, and the steam connection stopped. This mechanism forms 
the expansive cut off gear, and may be partially changed by varying 
the fixture or position of the eccentrics on the shaft, the pin in the 
eccentric lever, and the levers on the rock-shaft ; the required lift of 
the valves may be adjusted by changing the position of the eccentric 
pin. 

The trip, or rock-shaft is a wrought iron shaft moving in solid bear- 
ings on the lower steam chest, and is fitted with substantial projec- 
tions commensurate with similar ones on the lifter rods, which when 
in motion elevate and depress the valves, operating in the same way 
as the large rock-shafts. The rock-shaft is fitted with apertures for 
the insertion of the starting bar, which in starting has to overcome 
the weight of the valves, lifter-rods and their connections. 

Duties to Marine and other Engines. — Among the varied 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 375 

tasks that devolve on the engineer, none of them are of more impor- 
tance than the imperative watchfulness required to see that all the 
parts of the engine are properly adjusted, fitted, and regulated; that 
everything is kept in efficient order; that there is neither dangerous 
looseness or extreme tightness about the keys, nuts, hearings, etc. In 
the event of the crank-pin heating, apply a mixture of tallow, lead- 
filings, and black lead, or sulphur, black lead, and oil. In steam 
vessels, the crank-pin and the pillow-blocks are the points most liable 
to heat. The latter may be treated with the cooling compound else- 
where mentioned, or water mixed with Bath brick dust, or pulverized 
pumice stome, may be poured in through the holes in the bearings. 
In trouble caused by grit, the application of concentrated potash lye, 
and subsequent lubrication, has good effect. 

If delayed in port, the piston should be removed and examined, and 
the faces of the rings, where they compose the joints with the flange 
of the piston-head and follower-plate, tried, and accurately fitted, 
by regrinding, etc., and the spring-packing properly adjusted. The 
tightness of the repairs may be tested by the admission of steam, the 
use of the indicator, and a few turns of the engine. The steam chest 
should be uncovered, the valves, seats, etc, examined, and any varia- 
tions from truth corrected by careful fitting and scraping, and the 
proper amount of lead imparted to the valves, by placing the cranlv 
on the top and bottom centres, adjusting the go-ahead gear in proper 
place, in order to determine whether or not the valves open and close 
at the proper time. 

The link-motion should be inspected and all derangements adjusted, 
repaired and corrected. The valves of the air-pump should be exam- 
ined as opportunity offers, and aU necessary repairs effected; the 
cover must be taken off and the bucket elevated for this express pur- 
pose. The sc7'€iv-shaft should be kept true, and great care taken to 
guard against the glands or any other parts becoming damaged or 
seriously deranged in any way. Close and frequent inspection should 
be made of the condenser, which should be tested by removing the 
openings and pouring in cold water; and should any ooze out, the de- 
ficient tubes should be either repaired or renewed. The condition of 
the vacuum may be ascertained by the vacuum guage connected with 
the condenser. If derangement exists, search out and rectify the 
cause. If the temperature of the hot-well exceeds 100°, add more in- 
jection water. Test the joinings of the parts connected with the con- 
denser with a lighted lamp or candle ; if the union is imperfect, the 
flame will be inhaled by the internal suction. Make thorough work 
in searching out leaks, and repair them weU whenever they are dis- 
covered. The entrance of air into the condenser and its connections, 
can, when ascertained, be stopped for a while, by entering in thin 
wedges, or using some of the numerous impervious compositions 
noted in this work. In the event of leakage into the condenser, it is 
useful occasionally to admit water through the aperture. Instances 
have happened where water-tight tanks have been fabricated (during 
long voyages at sea) between the side keelsons, in cases where the 
condenser had become inadequate to perform its use through corro- 
sion, or otherwise, thereby submerging the air-pumps and condenser 
in a reservoir of water supplied by the ocean, excluding the air, and 
finding its way into the leaks, assisting the injection water in condens- 
ing the steam, the aperture of the injection-cock being partly shut, to 



376 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPAHTMENT. 

conform to the amount of internal leakage. In the event of a violent 
storm imparting a rolling motion to the vessel, and consequent irregu- 
larity in the movement of the engines, owing to the alternate elevation 
and depression of the wheels or propeller, the machinery is liable to 
be stopped by a surplus of water in the condenser, and in all such 
cases the supply of injection water should be curtailed. As oppor- 
tunity offers during occasional detentions, search out and close all 
leaks connected with the injection-cock or air-pump, which may cause 
the condenser to fill with water, causing much delay and annoyance 
in starting the engine. Whenever this is anticipated, the sea-cock 
should be shut at the same time the injection-cock is closed. When 
the indications of the steam gauge exhibit any excess of pressure over 
the atmosphere, raise the valves and permit the steam to flow through 
the pipes into the cylinder, to expel the air, heat the cylinder, and 
prevent the liquefaction of the steam on the startmg of the engine. 
During temporary stoppage, the cylinder drip-coclis on stationary en- 
gines should be instantly opened, in order to j)ermit the water of con- 
densation to flow out, and they should not be closed until after starting 
up. Previous to starting an engine which has been stopped for some 
time, you should, as a precaution against danger, work the engine a 
few turns with the starting bar, and warm the cylinder by letting in 
steam. Lubricants should not be applied to the cylinder or valves 
until after the engme is started up and the drip-cocks closed, other- 
wise waste is sure to result from the expulsion of a portion of the oil or tal- 
low through the drip-cocks. On the production of steam equivalent to 
produce a vacuum, and work the air-pumps, the injection-cock should 
be slightly opened, the eccentric-hook disconnected, and the valves 
moved alternately hither and thither, with the starting-bar, or the 
link, as either is convenient, in order to effect an interchanging move- 
ment in the piston. The engine should then be finally tested by 
** turning over" three or four times for the purpose of making sure 
that all is right, and everythmg trim for the anticipated voyage ; after 
which, if everything is correct, the engine is brought to a stand, and 
aU the parts lubricated in readiness for the start. 

Previous to getting under way, the boilers should be filled with 
water to the upper gauge-cock. This can be easily effected, when the 
boilers are in the hold, by simply opening the "^blow-cock, and the 
water will flow into the boilers by gravitation, through the vessel's 
bottom, from the sea. In boilers otherwise situated, the fiUmg may 
be performed by the hand-force pump, or a pump worked by a donkey 
engine, etc. On starting the fires, slightlv elevate the safety valve, in 
order to permit the air to escape from the boilers ; but on 'the emission 
of steam, which indicates the complete expulsion of the air, close them 
at once. In stopping an engine, shut off the steam, open the furuace 
doors, close the damper in the chimney, curtail the supply of injec- 
tion-water, work the valves by hand, and unship the eccentric. To 
hack or reverse an engine fitted with the link-motion, all that is requisite 
is to change it to the reverse-motion ; but where only one eccentric is 
available, shut off the steam, throw the eccentric hook out of gear, 
and, with the starting-bar, apply the steam to the other end of the 
piston. 

On Marine and other Boilers.— In steam vessels, it is neces- 
sary, in order to maintain a proper equilibrium, that the boilers 
should be placed equidistant from the keelsons on either side ; any 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 377 




378 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 

deflection from perfect truth in this arrangement entails much trou- 
ble in adjusting the proper balance of the ship. To this end they 
ought to be secured by rigid fastenings to the hull, with the lower 
face of the boilers and the extension of the flues ranging or conform- 
ing with the load line in each' direction. In some places it is usual to 
place them on a substantial platform composed of 3 inch plank over 
the keelsons, on which the boilers are placed, the planks being pre- 
viously coated to a depth of IJ inches or more, with a tenacious mixture 
composed of drying oil and whiting, which affords a hard impervious 
protection to the boiler against water and rust. Another way, which 
has the advantage of presenting an opportunity for making incidental 
repairs, consists in placing the boilers on cast iron saddles attached to 
the boiler supporters. Boilers should be properly protected by a 
proper clothing of non conductors, such as asbestos, hair felt, &c., cov- 
ered with a lagging of wood ; or some of the other materials elsewhere 
noted in this work, may be used instead. Marine boilers demand the 
greatest attention and care in repairing, testing, cleaning, blowing off, 




GAKG OF STEAM BOILERS PROPERLY SET. 

and water supply. Especial care should be used at all times to keep 
"the brine at a low degree of strength when sea water is used, by blow- 
ing off every two hours at least, frequently testing the strength of 
the brine by the saline hydrometer, an instrument constructed to 
indicate by gradations the number of ounces of salt held in solution in 
each gallon of water. Sea water contains 3.03 parts of its weight in 
saline matter, or nearly 1 lb. in every 33 lbs. of water, and saturation 
is complete when it contains 36.37 parts. When by evaporation the 
proportion of salt increases to 4 lbs. in 33 lbs. of water, the formation 
of scale is imminent, and should be guarded against by blowing off, 
and the repletion of the supply by additional fresher water. While in 
port, as opportunity offers, the iiand-hole plates above the furnaces 
ought to be removed in order to permit the removal of any salme 
deposits on the crown sheet, and as dampness is inimical to the inte- 
rior of the boiler, the bottom hand hole plates should also be removed 
when a long detention is anticipated, in order to permit the water to 
drain off, and air to circulate, so as to dissipate any dampness, which 
otherwise might result in the rapid oxidation of the boiler plates. If 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 379 

this cannot be done, it is "better to keep the boilers full, rather than 
have them partially so. 

Scale is not the only danger to be guarded against, for it is attested 
by the reports of the Hartford Steam Boiler Inspection and Insurance 
Company that almost half of the sum total of imperfect boilers 
became such by reason of the deposit of sediment, there being no less 
than 40 per cent, more hazardous cases resulting from the deposit of 
sediment causing the plates to be burned, or overheated, than from 
scale when hard water is used, the lime, etc. , held in solution is pre- 
cipitated, and the deposit becomes concreted, forming a terrible 
obstacle to the transmission of the heat to the water, and rendering 
the plates exposed to the action of the fire liable to be burnt through 
or seriously weakened. 

In setting stationary boilers, it would be well to have an air space 
of 2 or 3 inches intervene between the boiler and the surrounding 
brick work, and fire-clay is every way preferable to mortar for the 
entire surroundings. Arrangements should be made to have con- 
venient apertures at suitable places in order to permit access for the 
removal of dust, soot, ashes, and other impediments interfering with 
the effective action of the fire on the lower parts of the boiler. A 
good way of setting long stationary boilers is to attach cast-iron knees 
to tneir middle and at each end, having them about 12 feet apart, and 
placed on brick foundations; these kness, if placed on substantial rolls 
on a solid seat, would ensure ample provision for the contraction and 
expansion of the boilers, as well as prevent all strains resulting from 
unequal settUng. 

As to the attachments called mud drums, past experience has 
shown, when their great cost and short duration are taken into account, 
that the benefits to be derived from their use, are, to say the least, 
very equivocal, as they impart but a slight amount of heat to the feed 
water, retain none of the ruinous carbonates which induce scale on 
the boiler, but only the muddy matter held in suspension in the water, 
while the cost of renewal consequent on their rapid decay, is very- 
heavy. 

Cleaning Boiler Tubes. — Weinlig recommends a copper pipe, 5 
millimetres in diameter, tapering at one end, and fitted at the other 
with a flexible india-rubber tube, by which it can be connected with 
the steam-cock of the boiler when required. The pipe is mounted on 
a 3ft. w^ooden handle, and should be long enough to reach through 
the fire-box. In use, tlfe wooden handle is held firmly mider the 
right arm, and the nozzle of the pipe introduced an inch or so within 
the tube to be cleaned. Steam is then turned on through the india- 
rubber tubing. 

Steam-Pipe Jacketing.— The Stettin Yulcan Works make use of 
wool for clothing steam-pipes. A lead cylinder is laid around the 
pipe, and the space between, which is about IJ inches, is filled up 
firmly with wool. The lead cylinder being drawn back, the wool as 
exposed is tied down with wire, and finally linen is sewed over the 
whole. 

Cement. — Sifted peroxide of manganese and zinc-white, equal parts ; 
and sufficient soluble glass (commercial) to form a thin paste. Apply 
immediately. This cement will resist a red-heat, water, and oils. 

Flanges to Stand Brazing. — Copper 1 lb., zinc J oz., lead § oz. 

Gedge's Metal.— Copper 60, zinc 38.2, iron 1.8. 



380 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS* DEPARTMENT. 




Engineeks' Tools. — The mechanical appliances represented above, 
should be kept within easy reach, and, if arranged on a vertical table 
of thick plank, fitted with recesses conformed and adapted for the re- 
ception of each tool, it would not only x^rove a great convenience, but 
also a ptrikins: ornament to the ens^ine room. 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 381 

FiKE AKD Waterproof Cement.— Pulverized litharge 5 lbs., fine 
Paris white 2 lbs., yellow ochre 4 ozs., hemp cut into shreds J oz., 
mix to the density of thick putty with boiled linseed oU, and it is 
ready for use. 




Marine Engine Counter, Clock, Yacuum Gauge, and Steam 
Gauges. — The Gauge A, B, represents an adaptation applica- 
ble to Locomotives . — A, shows the point of connection with 
Boiler, B, the Spiral Spring and Graduated Scale.— The above 
cuts, together with the following ones, represent a Marine engine 
counter and clock, together with steam and vacuum gauges of vari- 
ous kinds. The counter, inclosed in an annular box of cast-iron, con- 
tains a mechanism connected by suitable attachments to the engine, 
which impart such a correct mechanical movement to a regular series 
of figures or numbers displayed through the narrow apertures in the 
dial, as to exhibit at a glance the exact number of revolutions per- 
formed by the engine. The steam gauges used to determine the 
pressure of steam, operate either by the use of mercury, thin metallic 
tubes, or springs, and several of these adaptations are shown in the 
cuts we present. As used on stationary boilers, for it cannot be used 
on locomotives, the mercurial gauge is formed of an upright glass 
tube comiected with a cistern of mercury, resting on a round piece of 
steel or gutta percha ; on marine engines it consists of an inverted si- 
phon or tube bent in the form of a U, with one end exposed to the 
pressure of the steam, and the other open to the atmosphere. When 
not pressed by steam, the mercury will remain level in both arras of 



882 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 



the syphon, but as the pressure rises, it will act with increasing force 
on the mercury exposed to the action of the steam, and forces it to 
rise in the limb exposed to the air, and will determine the amount of 
the steam pressure over and above that of the atmosphere, the indi- 
cations being exhibited on the gauge, the gradations on which are one 
inch in length, consequently every inch that the mercury rises in the 
tube shows a change of 2 inches in the level of the mercury contained 
in the tube, and each inch of mercury on the scale represents 1 lb. 
pressure of steam. 




Many excellent gauges, nearly thirty in all, are in use in the United 
States and Canada, among others, that of the American Steam Gauge 
Co. and Bourdon's, or, as it is better known in the United States, 
Ashcroft's gauge, from the name of the 
manufacturer, the interior of which is 
shown in the cut. It is composed of a 
thin circular metallic tube, «, closed at one 
end ; the steam from the boiler is intro- 
duced at h. The result of the steam pres- 
sure on the interior of the circular tube is 
to enlarge the circle more or less in pro- 
portion to the pressure, the elastic proper- 
ties of the metal operating to contract the 
circle to its original position on the re- 
moval of the pressure. The sealed or 
closed end of the tube is united by the link 
c, to the lever d^ which operates a seg- 
mental gear or rack placed at the upper 
end in gear with a pinion, which imparts 
movement to a hand on a graduated circular scale as shown in the 
cuts above. 

The same invention, when fitted to a condenser by the pipe A, see 
cut above, will indicate the state of the vacuum in a condensing en- 




Interior of Ashcroft's 
Gauge. 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 383 

gine. In this case the indications are caused by exterior atmospheric 
pressure, the gauge is graduated to extend only from 1 lb. up to 15 
lbs., and the entire action is reverse from that of steam, as described 
above. • On the opening of the tap C, as the vacuum enlarges, the 
band will be flattened and the hand on the dial will move in an oppo- 
site direction from that caused by the action of steam. 

Care of Steam Gauges. — A little glycerme, or sulphuric acid, 
placed on the surface of the mercury will keep a mercurial steam 
gauge in good order, by lubricating both glass and metals, preventing 
their adhesion. 

Steam Pipes. — ^Ruptured steam pipes may be repaired by heating 
and then soldering them. The condensation of steam, in subterranean 
pipes may be prevented by enclosing the pipe inside a larger one, and 
filling the vacant space between the two with a mixture of clay and 
teased hair, or plaster-of -Paris. 

Substitute for Fire Clay for Boiler Furnaces. — To common 
earth well mixed with water, add a small quantity of rock salt and 
allow it to stand until the salt dissolves, then use as fire clay. It an- 
swers very well. 

Watch the Leaks. — ^Engineers should keep a vigilant eye for 
leaks, weak spots, &c., and apply a prompt remedy by repairing all 
defects without delay. See that all the seams and rivets are tight, 
and the tubes and tube sheets in good order. Leaky tubes should be 
replaced or stopped, by driving a tightly fitting wooden plug at each 
end and binding them by means of an iron-rod passing through the 
tube fitted with broad washers at each end, and screwed up tight with 
the ^^ Strong cement for Steam Joints" (see page 422) plentifully 
smeared on under each washer. A mirror or bright tin plate may be 
used advantageously to reflect light mto obscure places while repair- 
ing boilers. To apply a hard patch, describe the proper size on the 
plate to be patched, allowing from IJ to IJ ins. of good iron beyond 
the weak part or flaw. Now driU the rivet-holes through the patch, 
and chip its edges. Next, apply the patch to the boiler, and mark 
the places for corresponding holes by means of a small brush with 
white paint, drill the holes in the shell with a brace and ratchet drill, 
remove the deficient part of the shell, rivet on the patch, or secure 
well with tap bolts. A soft patch, is applied over the weak part of the 
sheU (after being previously coated with an intermediate layer of 
good cement), being fitted in the same manner as above described, 
and secured to its place by means of nuts, bolts, and washers, with a 
twist of hemp under the washers and bolt heads to ensure security, 
and prevent leakage. The first method is decidedly the best for parts 
of the boiler exposed to the direct action of the fire. 

Dimensions and Capacity of First Class Amoskeag Steam 
Fire-Engine. {See Cut.) Height from floor to top of smoke 
stack, 8 ft. 10 ins. Length over all, including tongue, 2Z it. 8 ins. 
Diameter of boiler, 2 ft. 8 ins. Diameter of jmmpSy 4i ms. Stroke of 
same, 8 ins. Diameter of steam 'cylinders Tf ins. Number oj dis- 
charge gates, 2. Cajmcity in c/als. loer minute, 900 gals. Weight, 
6,500 lbs. The boiler is an upright tubular, very simple m its com- 
bmation, and for strength, safety, durabUity, and capacity for genera- 
ting steam, 'unsurpassed. Starting with cold water m the boiler, a 
working head of steam can be generated in less than five minutes 
from the time of kindling the fire. The engine " Amoskeag, " owned 



384 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS* DEPARTMENT. 

by the city of Manchester, has played two streams iii three minutes 
and forty seconds after touching the match ; at the same time draw- 
ing her own water. The following instructions to engineers, given 
by the Amoskeag Co., for running their engine, may be easily adapted 
to efficient use in the case of steam fire-engines constructed by other 
builders. 

1. In laying your fuel m the fire-box, first lay plenty of shavings, 
then light, dry kindling wood ; filling your furnace full, which in 
most cases will give you steam enough, by the time you arrive at a 
fire to commence work, provided you light your fire when you leave 
the house, which, as a general rule, is advisable. 2. If you use coal, 
be careful to keep a thin fire, and not clog it. Use the coal in as 
large lumps as possible, and do not break it up unnecessarily in the 
furnace. The best coal for this purpose is a clean Cannel, in lumps, 
free from dirt and dust. 3. Be careful not to let so much fire collect 
under your engine as to burn the wheels \ — when working for a long 
time at fires there is a danger of doing so. 4. The Amoskeag boiler 
is an upright tubular body, with a submerged smoke-box and fire-box 
surrounded with water. When the engine is running, the water in 
the boiler should be carried so as to stand at the third gauge-cock, 
which is placed near the top of the tubes, and it should never be car- 
ried below the centre of the tubes at which point the first gauge-cock 
is located. 5. Avoid usuig an unnecessary amount of steam. The 
tendency is to use more than is required. From sixty to eighty 
pounds is as much as you will generally require to do good fire duty. 
6 The- engme nas two suitable feed pumps for supplying the boiler 
v/ith water. One of these pumps should be worked nearly all the 
time, m order to keep the water in the boiler at the proper height, 
and to preserve ah even pressure of steam. 7. If brackish water is 
used for supplying the boiler, or if the boiler becomes foul from long 
use without being blown ofi", it is likely to foam or prime. If foam- 
ing occurs while the engine is working at a fire, it may be prevented 
or diminished by opening the surface blow-off cock, which is located 
between the third and fourth gauge-cocks, and blowing off from the 
surface of the water the scum and oily matter which usually causes 
foaming. In this way the difficulty can generally be prevented with- 
out any serious interruption in the working of the engine. While 
doing this the water in the boiler should be carried as high as the 
surface blow-off cock. After the engine is returned to the house, the 
water should be blown entirely out of the boiler through the blow-off 
cock near the bottom of the boiler, with a steam pressure of about 
twenty pounds, and the boiler refilled with fresk water. This pro- 
cess may be repeated until the boiler becomes clean. 8. The pump 
upon the Amoskeag Engine is a vertical double-acting pump, with the 
cylinder surrounded by a circular chamber, divided vertically outside 
the cylinder, so as to answer both for the suction and discharge cham- 
bers of the pump. It has a separate valve-plate at the top and bottom 
of the pump, carrying both the suction and discharge valves ; the suc- 
tion valve upon one side of the plate, and the discharge valve upon 
the other. Each of these valve plates can be reached by taking off 
the top and bottom of the pump, which is so constructed as to be. 
readily removed. The discharge and suction parts of the water- 
chamber, surrounding the cylinder, are connected by a valve in the 
vertical partition, which is called a relief valve. 9. With a^- single 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 385 




o 

O 
< 

w 

O 

H 
m 

ft 



25 



386 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS* DEPARTMENT. 

long line of hose, it maybe necessary to open your relief -valve a little, 
but at all other times be particular to have it closed, except when 
you want to feed your boiler without forcing any water through the 
hose. 10. In the smoke-pipe, directly over the upper flue-sheet, a 
valve is placed, which is called the variable exhaust-valve. By oper- 
ating this valve the size of the aperture for the escape of the steam 
from the steam -cylinder is increased or diminished, thus regulating 
the draft of the chimney and the heat of the fire. This valve should be 
closed, when the engine is started, until a fair working pressure of steam 
is obtained, after which it may be opened. 11. Care should be taken to 
have the suction hose and its connections air-tight. 12. Open your 
discharge-gate and cylmder drain-cock before starting your engine. 
13. Don't let the flues of your engine get filled up. 14. Be particular 
to take your engine off the springs before you work it, and to place it 
on the springs again when done working. 15. With a long line of 
hose on, be particular to open your throttle gradually. If you open 
it too suddenly you are liable to burst your hose. 16. The pumps of 
the engine should be examined at least once in six months, to see that 
all the' valves and parts are in good condition. 17. The pump-valves 
should have a lift of about three-eighths of an inch, and the suction 
valves the same lift. 18. Tlie inside of the steam-cylinders and the 
steam-valves should be oiled or tallowed always after the engine has 
worked at a fire, and as often as may be necessary to keep them well 
lubricated ; and all the parts of the engine, where liable to friction, 
should be kept well oiled. Be particular to use an abundance of oil 
on the " link-block," Avhere there is more friction than in any other 
part. 18. The running-gear and every part of the engine liable to dis- 
arrangement or accident, should be thoroughly examined every time 
after the engine has been out of the house, whether it has been 
worked at a fire or not. 19. Whenever your engine is repaired, try 
to help to do it yourself, as by so doing you get a familiaritj^ with it 
that you can in no other way obtain. 




Besides the above noted, the Amoskeag Co. manufacture self pro- 
pelling steam fire engines capable of attaining a continuous speed of 
16 miles per hour. Steam fire engines of perfect workmanship and 
immense power, are also made at Seneca Falls, N. Y., Portland, Maine, 
Pawtucket, R. I., Boston, Mass. and many other places throughout 
the United States. 

A Firemak's Respirator, — Consisting of an iron cylinder attached 
to a mask, and packed with cotton wool, glj^cerine, and charcoal, 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 387 



has "been exhibited in London, by Prof. Tyndall; the wearer is enabled 
to remain in an atmospliere of smoke, which he could not otherwise 
bear, for a quarter or half an hour. 

An Izviproved Fire Escape, — called the Jenks-Richard's fire- 
ladder has been adopted in many places. It is a permanent fixture to 
the building, and is attached to the cornice of the house, and comes 
down when the alarm is sounded, giving the inmates a chance to 
escape when other exits are cut off, and the firemen a -pl^n to ascend 
with the hose, and fight the fire at the greatest possible advantage. 

Cast Iron for Steam Cylinders— i;e?'?/ hard. — Scrap iron, 300 lbs. 
Scotch pig, 40 lbs., charcoal pig, No. 5, 40 lbs. Another, very strong 
and close grained. Scrap iron, 100 lbs., Scotch pig, 100 lbs., charcoal pig 
No. 5, 80 lbs. 

Cylinders should be bored in a vertical position whenever possible, 
removing a heavy cut at first and gradually cutting to within 1-32 of 
an inch of the finished size, and finally brought down to the proper 
dimensions by removing the balance with a cutter embodying in its 
form a combination of the circular and diamond pointed shapes. 
Some manufacturers used a mass of lead (cast in the cylinder to give 
it the proper shape) together with emery and oil between the abrading 
surfaces, for finishing their cylinders, the latter revolving slowly, while 
the operation continues. 

Rule for Thickness of Steam Cylinder, — Divide the diameter 
of cylinder plus 2 by 16, and deduct a 1-100 part of the diameter from 
the quotient ; the remainder will be the proper thickness. The depth 
of the piston rings should be equal to J the diameter of the cyUnder, 
and the follower plate should be equal in thickness to the cylinder. 
The following table gives very good results. 



Diameter of 
Cylinder. 


Thickness. 


DiAJVIETER OF 
CY'LINDER. 


Thickness. 


6 


5-8 


14 


1 


8 


11-16 


15 


11-16 


9 


3^4 


17 


11-8 


10 


13-16 


18 


1 3-16 


11 


7-8 


19 


11-4 


12 


15-16 


' 21 


13-8 



Add to the foregoing dimensions 1-16 of an inch, when the piston 
speed exceeds 300 feet per minute. 

Piston Rings. — To prevent rapid wear in the cylinder, the piston 
rings should be formed of some material softer than the latter ; cast 
iron is much used for this purpose, as it soon attains a fiue smooth 
surface, has great endurance, and generates little friction. They 
should he fitted with judgment so as to move easily betAveen the flange 
of the piston-head and the follower plate, in order that they may 
adjust or conform themselves to any slight unevenness in the cylinder. 
To open piston rings, hammer them lightly with a round pene ham- 
mer all round their inside faces, and, as they become leaky and 
corrode around the edges, remove them from the cylinder and true 
them up in a lathe, grind, and refit them to the flange and follower 
plate. Piston springs are in the great majority of cases, too stiff and 



388 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 

rigid to render them in every way satisfactory, as in many instances 
they entail great loss of power by unnecessary pressure against the 
cylinder. Steam pistons possess the merit of low first cost, very little 
friction, simplicity, and after a proper adjustment by a competent 
person, give very little trouble. Solid pistons produce scarcely any 
friction, and when the cylinder is bored perfectly true through its 
whole length, produce excellent results, if they are properly fitted, but 
are irreparable when they become worn out, as they cannot be re-ad- 
justed. ThQ piston speed of small stationary engines ranges from 200 
to 250 feet per minute ; average speed 225 feet, tliat of large stationary/ 
engines, 275 to 350 feet; average speed 312 feet; that of C'orZzss Engines 
400 to 500 feet per minute ; average speed 400 feet; that of locomotives 
and Allen engines 600 to 800 feet per minute, average 700 ; that of 
engines of river steamers 400 to 500 feet, average 450 feet; that of 
ocean steamers 400 to 600 feet, average 500 feet. If the piston rod 
glands become tight, ease by revolving and sliding the gland back and 
forth on the rod, applying a little oil "to the rod at the same time. In 
trueing up a gland, it should be chucked in the lathe by the flange, to 
ensure the turning of the bore and outside diameter at one chucking, 
without depending on the accuracy of a mandrel. Piston rods should 
be secured to the cross head by means of a weU fitted key instead of 
by the screw and jam nut arrangement used in many cases. Piston 
rods are usually made of wrought iron, but steel is to be preferred on 
account of its great endurance, small friction, and extreme hardness, 
which render it less liable to be fluted by grit in the packing, &c. The 
cross-heads should, in every case, possess the essential element of, 
strength, to resist strains of every kind, and also capacious anti- 
friction bearings on the guides, to resist the wear and tear of protracted 
running. 

The guides should be powerful enough to withstand any degree of 
speed without springing or flinching from duty in tha slightest degree, 
and, on horizontal engines they should be made moveable, so that 
they may be easily replaced by others when they become worn out. 

Crank pins are usually made of wrought iron, although for obvi- 
ous reasons, steel is the best material. Owing to excessive friction the 
crank pins are liable to become hot, and for this reason they should 
receive close attention from the engineer. A mixture of a little sul- 
phur in oil, or plumbago and oil, forms a good cooling lubricant in 
such emergencies. The diameter of the crank pin should be from .2 
• to .25 that of the cylinder, and the length from .275 to .35 the diameter 
of the cylinder, or for a cylinder 12 ins. in diameter and 30 ins. stroke, 
the length of crank pin should be 3.3 to 4 ins., and the diameter 2.4 
to 3 ins. 

The Steam chest should be capacious enough to furnish sufficient 
room for the valve gear arrangement, the transmission of steam to 
the piston, &c., but not unnecessarily large to induce weakness in the 
parts, loss of heat by radiation, &c. 

Valve rods should be constructed of substantial material to with- 
stand the varied strains to which they are liable ; they are usually of 
wrought iron, but steel is to be preferred for various reasons. The 
length of valve rods may be correctly ascertained by placing the valve 
in a central position over the steam ports, and the rocker or interme- 
diate bearings in a vertical position, and measurmg from the centre 
of the rocker stud to the centre of the valve. 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEEJIS' DEPARTMENT. 389 

The dimensions of the rock shaft-hearing^ should be, if subjected to 
a twisting movement, or torsion, J or J the diameter of the engine 
shaft, if not so subjected, J the diameter of the engine shaft will an- 
swer. The diameter of the rock shaft pin ought to be no less than 
the valve stem; but if it is an overhanging pin, it ought to be from ^ 
to IJ the diameter of valve stem. 

Eccentric rods should be substantially made of good stock, and suf- 
ficiently stiff and rigid to withstand the mj:^nifold strains to which 
they are liable, without being subjected to extreme vibration, so that 
a steady movement may be imparted by the eccentric to the valve, 
and they are all the better for being long. 

To adjust an eccentric rod, place the crank at the end of its stroke, 
and the eccentric at right angles with the crank. Now regulate the 
eccentric-straps and adjust the rocker in a vertical position. The 
i:)roper length of the eccentric may now be determined if the eccen- 
tric-catch conforms itself to the rocker pin, without moving the latter 
to either side. The length of the eccentric rod is the space between 
the centre of the crank shaft and that of the rocker pin, when the lat- 
ter is vertical. 

The eccentric rod may he attached by turning the end of the rod ta- 
pering, to adapt it to a suitable hole in a sleeve cast on the forward 
straps of the eccentric, to which it may be secured by a proper key ; 
another way is to insert the rod into the sleeve and fasten with jam 
nuts. The diameter of the eccentric rod, should, at the neck, equal 
that of the valve rod, and should increase J inch to the foot of the 
eccentric. 

The, pillow hlocks or main hearings of an engine should be the ob- 
jects of close attention on the part of the engineer, as, owing to the 
excessive friction and wear and tear at this vital point, they are liable 
to become hot and cause much trouble. In such emergencies make 
use of the following 

Cooling Compound for Heavy Bearings.— Tallow, 2 lbs ; 
plumbago, 6 ozs ; sugar of lead, 4 ozs ; melt the tallow with gentle 
heat, and add the other ingredients, stirring until cold. For lubricat- 
ing gearing, wooden cogs, &c. , nothing better need be used than a 
thin mixture of soft soap and black lead. The following processes 
will prove useful to engineers and machinists in many cases : 

To Prevent Sperm Oil Gumming. — The addition of kerosene oil 
will greatly assist in preventing gummmg ; rummage 100 parts oil 
with 4 parts chloride of lime, and 12 of water ; now add a small quan- 
tity of the decoction of oak-bark to destroy all traces of gelatinous mat- 
ter still remaining, and allow the impurities to settle. Next, agitate the 
clear part with a little sulphuric acid, settle once more, and wash to 
remove the acid, which should never be permitted to exist in any oil 
used on machinery. If oil becomes rancid, boil it along with water 
and a little bi-carbonate of magnesia for 15 minutes or so, until it 
loses its power to redden litmus paper. 

Machinery Lubricants. — A patent has been taken out in France 
for lubricants compounded as follows : Fii'st, graphite, 35 parts ; 
talc, 25 ; sulphur, 20 ; wax or paraffin, 20. /S'econc?, graphite 30 parts ; 
bone-glue, 15 ; water, 32 ; sulphur, 12 ; wax or paraffin, 11. 

The Crank shaft being the primary agent for the transmission of 
power, should, in all cases be well proportioned iq order to perform 
effective duty and resist the shearing and twisting strains to which 



390 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 

it is subjected. They are often made of cast iron smoothly turned, 
and should be 5-10 tlie diameter of the cylinder for efficient use, or 
the diameter of the -shaft may be 4-10 that of the cylinder when 
wrouglit iron is used, and the length of the crank shaft hearing should 
be equal to IJ times its diameter, or, for massive machinery, twice 
the diameter will be required. 

The area of the crank at the central part should be exactly that of 
the shaft ; the thickness should be equivalent to that of the shaft 
journal multiplied by 6 : the thickness of the web of the crank 
should be equivalent to 3 times the diameter of shaft journal. The 
boss of the crank, if of wrouoht iron, should be equivalent to the di- 
ameter of the shaft journal or pin multiplied by 4, and if of cast iron, 
should equal double that of the shaft journal, and the depth should 
equal that of the crank journal multiplied by 7. The diameter of 
crank at the pin should equal twice the diameter of pin, and its depth 
at the same part should be equivalent to the diameter of the pin mul- 
tiplied by 12. 

The (jrovernor should be liept perfectly clean and free from all 
gummy deposits, or old dry packing which may retard, or impede its 
movements in any way whatever. The best of oil only should be used, 
and thorough duty should be performed when the governor spindle 
works through stuffing boxes, to have the boxes carefully iDacked at 
regular intervals. 

To FIND THE Diameter of Governor-Shaft Pulley. — Multi- 
ply the number of revolutions of the engine by the diameter of the 
engine shaft i^ulley and divide the product by the number of revolu- 
tions of the governor. 

To FIND the Diameter of the Engine Shaft Pulley.— Multi- 
ply the revolutions of the governor by the diameter of the governor 
shaft pulley, and divide the j)roduct by the number of the revolutions 
of the engine. 

Facts for Steam Users.— A fair horse-power in a steam boiler 
is an evaporation of 30 lbs. of water per hour, from a temperature of 
2120. Ten pounds of water, evaporated from a temperature of 2V2P 
for each pound of coal, is high economy. Six pounds is fair work, 
and above the average. Tender the best '^conditions, a horse-power can 
be had from an evaporation of less than 20 lbs. of water. Every 
owner of steam power should weigh the water evaporated in his 
boiler, and also the coal used to produce such evaporation. A meas- 
ure of some kind that will show the weight of feed water, passing 
into a boiler with accuracy, should be used with all boilers when 
economy is an object. It should be the duty of a fireman to know 
the weight of the fuel used as well as the weight of water. No man 
has any right to find fault with the economy of his boiler until he 
knows the amount of water evaporated per hour and the amount of 
coal required to produce the same. In getting the eva]3orative power 
of a steam boiler, it is necessary that the steam should be dry to get 
a fair result. A boiler that carries out water with its steam may show 
a large apparent evaporation, but the steam,being wet, is of less value 
in the engine. A boiler should give dry steam in all cases. Super- 
heating is beneficial. Boilers that are overworked, necessarily waste 
fuel. A boiler taxed to its full evaporative iDOwer, evaporates, say, 
5 lbs. of water to 1 lb. of coal : double the size of the boiler, and you 
will get the same amount of steam, with probably 30 to 50 per cent. 



Diam. of Cylinder. 

Length of stroke.. 

Area of steam port. 

Area of eduction 
port 

Diameter of blast 
pipes 

Diameter of pump 
ran\ 

Stroke of do. . . . . . 

Diam. of feed pipe. 

Length of connect- 
ing rod 

Diam. of piston rod 

Depth of piston.. . 

Diam. of crank pin 

Diam. of back pin. 

Diam. of forward 
pin 

Diameter of crank 
axle 


3 ^ 

3 nr. 

ni o 
• 3 

2, 


: g 4. 

0\ •tOU>H- HMH to H H 


9-in. Outside 
Passer. 


to 

Cn MM^H- H^^H M to hMm 
tOr- CE,»*cp-~i— uc^,:,i4k. ro'r- O ^t— ■''" tO M O tO 


i2-in. Outside 
Passer. 


OJ p <J 

Xu>.f».Moo M»H f»ito w^^M 

0\ O U) ^-t — ■^^'- • i.« to i^^ W OJ to 4>^ 


14-in. Outside 
Freight. 


w X 00 
XU)4>-K3 M tdHMM 


15-in. Outside 
Passer. 


0\ X-F^ O » OJOJ-lOw 


i6-in. Outside 
Passer. 


4>i' 

fi^ CO 
W W X V, H 
OlXX-*"- • 4>'W. MtOM 


18-inch, 
6 drivers. 
Freight. 


W U> X W 
OnXX-^. ^ .MMM 

».=!- W CO fir-cn CO ^ » Cn tor- ■*>• Cn ^ 4>> 00 


18-inch, 

6 drivers. 

Anthracite. 


CO to X vj M 
M- CO CO (Oi-Cn COO\ »0\«0!- toH Cn 4>.-f».0O 


18-inch, 

6 drivers, 

Br'd Gauge. 




Diam. of valve rod 

Length eccentric 
rods 

Diameter of eccen- 
trics 

Width of sheaves.. 

Diameter of boiler. 

Length of boiler. .. 

No. of tubes 

Superficial feet fire 
Box 

Do. tube surface... 

Do. total heating 
surface 

Ditto, fire grate 
surface 

Ratio fire surface 
in sq. ft. to cubic 
contents of cyl'r. 

Diam. of chimney. 

Diam. truck axle.. 


Wo 
3 2. 

orqxJ 




^^^1^^ CO to 00 to M 4^ 

•H. W^-P-VO-'tOM. H 
• • 00 ^ ^ OO-vJ Ost^r-ro- Q cc^ 


9-in. Outside 
Passer. 


'^^^'^ OOCn M 
^ M ^j CO cn 

O to 0\ Cn • . -CO H -N 
-^- 4>- M OS CO 0\-f^ OOiok- K3 KoLMO.- CO co,-. 


i2-in. Outside 
Passer. 


«. C?\ w 00 cn 
Q O, K 0\CnCn H-CO H 

-^4k.MOsCn -f>-Cn ^i" Os=iv*5,— c~,^ i->- 


14-in. Outside 
Freight. 


Q M OO vj H coco W Cn 

4k->-«^0OW H t0OO-t>.--t0M • w 

4^t-^^ MM^ 4>- CntO 4^4». O-c-.-'^-' \0 lo.- 


15-in. Outside 
Passer. 


M CO 

,- 0\ M VO CO M 
OOs4>. to 00- '-ivO-t«- 4^ 
4>-M-' ^co-^cn-' M . w 
■^r-Cn HMCO • ><IK) MO\tOCO-f^ CO cc^ 


i6-in. Outside 
Passer. 


„ 0-. w w H 

OOs4>- M GO Ht04>- -*^ 
H • ^ OsO ^q HI • w . w 
C/lO\HtnCn 0\ 00' O'tOCO.*". CO ocriJ 


18-inch, 
6 drivers. 
Freight. 


H K3 
,-fCn to w M vO » 
t^ O ^ • ';i 00 HCo-f>. -^ 

-P^-OOO 0- ^J'- W • H 

Cn l^ir- wio OS to cnto OOOtoCo-*- Co ci.^ 


18-inch, 

6 drivers. 

Anthracite. 


H M 
rr^ O M M W to 

H°. coco tOOOO- 
tnOsHCnCO vO UJ- Cfi-t^toco^ O-J ^- 


18-inch, 

6 drives, 

Broad Guage, 



ST 

o 

►-<♦ 

o 

CO 

p, p 

CO 



CO 



CO 



CO 
CO 






CO 



to. 



o 
o 

o 
CO 

ca 

o 

«-♦- 



392 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS* DEPARTMENT. 

less fuel. A boiler may generate steam with great economy, and, 
owing to the steam being wasted by improper application to the work, 
through the engine, the result in work be very unsatisfactory, and 
the boiler blamed unjustly. When steam is used expansively, under 
the best conditions, it will give double the power for the same amount 
of steam that can be got from it worked at full stroke, or without 
expansion. When steam is used in non-condensing engines at low 
pressure, the loss is great, owing to the pressure of the atmosphere 
(15 lbs. ) being a greater x^ercentage of a low than of a high pressure. 
The loss ioT piston— not boiler — pressures is as follows : — 
Atmosphere. Pressure steam. Total pressure on piston. Loss. 



15 

15 


5. 

10. 


15 


15. 


15 


20. 


15 


25. 


15 


30. 


15 


35. 


15 


45. 


15 


60. 


15 


75. 


15 


90. 



20 


3-4 


25 


3-5 


30 


1-2 


35 


3-7 


40 


3-8 


45 


3-9 


50 


3-10 


60 


1-4 


75 


1-5 


90 


1-fi 


L05 1-7 



The steam, made from a certain weight of water, used tlirough a 
non-condensing engine, at 10 lbs. per square inch pressure above the 
atmosphere, without expansion, Avould give only about one quarter 
the power that would be got from the same steam if used at 75 above 
the atmosphere, and with the best expansion. Boilers can scarcely 
be too large ; 20-horse power can be obtained in a 40-horse power 
boiler more economically than in a 20-horse power. John B. Root. 

A prominent authority verifies the astounding statement, that a 
record of Boiler Explosions that have occurred in the United States 
extending over about five years, shows the appalling results of nearly 
600 exiDlosions, about 3,000 killed, over 1,000 wounded, besides an im- 
mense loss of property. Fire insurance does not cover the loss by 
explosion, unless fire occurs, and, even then, litigation often ensues.'* 
The infliction of this terrible aggregation of suffering, loss of life and 
property, might have been averted by the exercise of common sense 
in the selection of boilers which possess the elements of strength and 
endurance in such a degree as to put the question of safety beyond a 
peradveiitLira. Setting aside the beclouded theories of self-styled ex- 
perts, regarding certain explosive gases, mysterious chemical changes, 
electricity, etc., in the boiler, the simple truth is reached when we 
come down to the solid basis of cause and effect; and in every case 
of boiler explosion we will find that the true cause is simply imperfect 
strength in the boiler. The deficiency may arise from defective 
material, or faulty workmanship, overheating, overpressure, over- 
lirmg, burning of the boiler-plates, caused by shortness of water, or 
the tolerance of scale or deposits in the boiler, or by criminal negli- 
gence.^ These are only different forms or phases of expressing the 
truth just noted, and whoever constructs a boiler absolutely free from 
liability to destructive explosion, has achieved an engineering triumph 
which entitles him to recognition as a public benefactor. As one who 
IS cognizant of much suffering arising from the causes enumerated 
above, the writer can truthfully aver that he is moved by no motives 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. o93 
other than those of humanity in making: favorable mention of 







■IffnTr*"'' 


""""TT'-^ia 


fe'^l ''' 




FiP-i^! "1 '^^' 




|lte^'^ 1 ' 








Ili^M ' . 




lllPv^4l\ 1 




ll^^^f-TT: 





^=^ ^..^'^-^yAT^^rS:- 



The Root Wrought Iron Safety Boiler. 

These boilers, made by the Abendroth & Root Manufacturing Com- 
pany of New York, are constructed on correct scientific principles, on 
what is Imown as the sectional system, being composed entirely of 
wrought iron lap-welded tubes, which are tested to a pressure of 500 
lbs. per square inch, and are said to be capable of withstandmg two 
or three times that pressure. These tubes, 4 inches in diameter, and 
10 feet in length, are lap-welded, consequently they have no rivetted 
joints, thereby enhancing their strength. The boiler is constructed 
entirely of these uniform and interchangeable parts, 'perfectly free 
from explosion^ easily enlarged or diminished in size, all parts being 
easily accessible for cleaning, repairs, or removal ; also economical, 
durable, and a rapid generator of steam. Of these boilers, nearly 
50,000 horse-power have been sold, and are giving good satisfaction to 
the purchasers. 

The next cut represents the Benshaw Cast Iron Sectional Boiler, 
constructed by Dougherty & Broome, New York, which embodies the 
possession of a perfect constellation of most excellent requirements 
as a generator of steam power, among others, complete immunity 
from explosion. As to the capacity, etc. , of this boiler, limited space 
will only permit the insertion of the following valuable testimony, by 
Dr. P. H. Van der Weyde, the able editor of the Manufacturer and 
Builder : "We have 'had the pleasure of witnessing the rapidity 
with which steam may be raised in a boiler of this kind, in one rated 
at 25 horse-power, at the establishment of Messrs. Dougherty & 
Broome, 143-147 Bank street, New York. The fire was started while 



394 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS* DEPARTMENT. 



cold, and in half an hour there was a pressure of 70 pounds, and the 
engme started. As the water used was for the purpose of measure- 
ment inclosed in a tank of 2 by 4 feet, and 3 feet high, we could easily 
measure the evaporating capacity, and found it to be 600 pounds per 
hour, for which duty the furnace consumed 50 pounds of coal. This 




The Renshaw Cast Ikon Sectional Boiler. 



agreed with the testimony of the engineer, that J ton of coal was used 
per day of ten hours, while it showed the capacity of the boiler and 
furnace to be the evaporation of 12 pounds of water with 1 i)ound of 
coal. This is a very high ratio, when we consider that theoretical 
maximum, when no heat whatsoever is lost, is 14 pounds of water for 
1 of coal, (see "Theory of Steam -Engineering," on page 26 of our 
February number for this year)." 

Proportion of Land Boilers— ¥or each nominal horse power a 
land boiler requires : 1 cubic foot of water per hour; 1 square yard of 
heating surface ; 1 square foot of fire grate surface ; 1 cubic yard 
capacity; 28 square inches of flue area; 18 square inches of area over 
bridge wall. 

For Cylindrical Douhle-flued 5oz7e?'5— Length multiplied by diam- 
eter divided by 6 = nominal horse power. 

Tubular Boilers require for each Horse Pouter — 1 cubic foot of 
water per hour; 10 square feet of heating surface; J square foot fire 
grate; 10 square inches sectional area of tube; 13 square inches flue 
area; 7 square inches chiimiey area; 8 cubic feet total boiler capa- 
city; 2 cubic feet of steam room. Diameter of tubes l-30th of their 
length. 

The number of square feet of heating or flue surface required to 
evaporate a cubic foot of water per hour, which is equivalent to an 
actual horse power, is in different boilers as follows : Cornish Boilers, 
70 square feet; Land and Marine Boilers, 8 to 11 square feet; Loco^ 
motive Boilers, 5 to 6 square feet. 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 395 



PUT OX A Lever 
Kxowx.— Multiply 



Rule to find the Weight xecessart to 

'WHEN THE AREA OF YALVE, LeVER, &C. ARE 

the area of yalve by the pressure in pounds per square inch; multiply 
this product by the'^distance of the lever from the fulcrum ; multiply 
the weight of lever by one-half its length (or its centre of gravity) ; 
then multiply the weight of valve and stem by their distance from 
the fulcrum ; add these last two products together, and subtract their 
sum from the JSrst i)roduct, and divide the remainder by the length 
of lever ; the quotient will be the weight of the ball. — Roper, 



EXA]MPLE : 

Area of valve 7 sq. in. 
Pressure . . 60 lbs. 



Fulcrum 3 in. 



Length of lever 24 in. 



60 lbs. 
Tin. 

420 lbs. 
Sin. 

1260 
126 lbs. 



9 lbs. 
12 in. 

108 lbs. 
18 lbs. 

126 lbs. 



6 lbs. 
Sin. 

18 lbs. 



24) 11S4 lbs. 
"Weight of lever 9 lbs. 

47.25 lbs. weight of baU. 
Weight of valve and stem 6 lbs. 




Marine Engines. — Duties to machinery ichen in Harbor before 
f/etting under Steam, by a Practical Engineer. When an engineer 
takes charge of the machinery of a boat his first attention ought to be 
directed to his boilers ; for, being the source of power, they may be- 
come the source of great danger if not properly looked after. In in- 
specting the boilers, three things require special attention. 1. The 
thickness of the plates above the fires and other places of importance. 
2. The state of the stays. 3. The position of the gauges, viz. : the 
water gauge, cocks, and glass water gauges. Respecting the first, a 
general plan is to drill a small hole through the plate, and thus find 
its real thickness, for it is often the case that a boiler plate may to 
far thicker at the seams than in the middle. At the seams the proper 
thickness cannot always be correctly ascertained on account of the 
way in which, they are caulked, by which a x^iate may appear con- 



396 MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 

siderably thicker than it really is. After the hole has served its pur- 
pose, it is tapped and plugged tightly up again. 

As regards the stays, they require a great amount of attention; for 
they are very apt to get eaten through, near the plates by oxidation. 
The gauge cocks are often placed just above the highest row of tubes. 
Now this is a very dangerous practice, for it is possible for an engineer 
to lose his water, let him be ever so careful, when great danger fol- 
lows ; while if the cocks were placed a Little higher, the loss of water 
would not be attended by so much danger. 

Duties to Macliinenj when Steam is getting up. The water in tho 
lioiler when the fires are lighted ought to be just above the bottom of 
the glass. In a large or even moderate sized boiler, the water will 
expand, and there is also not so much water to heat at first ; and we 
know, by reason of conduction and radiation, that small bodies of 
water are heated comparatively more rapidly than larger. On first 
lighting the fires they should not be kept too large, but just sufficient 
to cover the bars. A large thin surface of fire is found to be the most 
effective in getting under way. When the fires are lighted, and the 
steamer is going on a long voyage, it is the practice to rub the polished 
parts of the engine over with a composition of tallow and white lead. 
This prevents any rust forming on the rods, etc., from water dropping 
on them which may have been used for keeping the bearings cool. 

The discharge valve is also opened now, or else on starting the 
engine something will give way. Several accidents have occurred by 
neglecting to do this. 

The safety valves are now to be inspected to find whether they are 
fast or corroded to their seatings. If so, they must be freed and made 
ready to act before starting. 

It is a good plan and one much practised, to give the engines a good 
blowing through whilst the steam is getting up. This warms the 
cyhnder and tries any joints that may have been made since the 
engines were worked last. It also saves the steam, for if not done now 
(when the engine is startmg) a great amount of steam is wasted in 
heating the cylinder, instead of imparting its elastic force to the 
piston. 

Starting the Engines. — ^All steamships are now fitted with the 
double eccentrics or "Stephenson's Link Motion," by which the 
engines are started, or rather by this the slide valves are under the 
control of the engineer, and can be worked back or forward as 
command is given, by either a bar, lever, or generally, in large 
engines, by a wheel. 

The handles, by which steam is turned on and off, with the injec- 
tion cock handles, are placed beside the wheel, so that one man can 
now generally start the engine. 

Some large ships have a steam piston so fitted that it rises and falls 
by steam admitted above or below, thus raising or lowering the link ii>. 
its motion. This is what is called steam starting gear, and is very 
handy when the link is of great weight. There is always hand gear 
fitted as well, which can be used in cases of emergency. In giving in- 
jection to a common condenser, it should be opened just after the 
Bteam is turned on to the cylinders, or else if going slowly the con- 
denser may become too full of water, and the air pump not able to 
perform its work properly. 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 397 

In starting an engine that is fitted with surface condensers, the only 
filing requiring attention before going on, is to open botli valves 
communicating witli the sea above or below tlie condenser, viz.: 
suction to the circulating pumps and delivery from them. 

Duties loJien under Steam. — ^Always keep looking at the water 
level. This is sometimes a source of great anxiety, for some boilers 
require the water to be kept at a certain fixed level. If water be too 
high they will not keep steam, and if too low the steam wiU generate 
too fast. Some boilers require a high water level : nothing but practice 
can determine it. A safe rule is to keep the glass gauge about 
two thirds full. Blowing out marine boilers should be practised every 
two or three hours. Practice has proved this to be a good rule, on 
account of not so much water being required to be blown out at a time, 
and therefore the steam pressure is not reduced to a very great 
extent. 

In steamers fitted with surface condensers, a little sea water is 
supplied to the boiler to make up for the loss m the steam pipes, 
jackets, caps, in the condensers, etc. This in time may injure the 
boiler if not counterbalanced some way or other. The general rule is 
to blow out about two or three inches every twelve hours. The water 
in these boilers is never allowed to reach more than 2-30 of saltness. 

The fires require much consideration. A furnace is best worked 
with a heavy fire, but not tou heavy, thicker towards the back than 
front. The fresh fuel should be placed in front, and then pushed 
back after being thoroughly heated. Every four hours (at the least) 
the fires should be cleaned out, as large clinkers or refuse of the coals 
adhere to the fire bars and prevent the draught, making the fires 
burn dead, especially towards the back of the furnace. Sometimes 
the slag wiU stick fast to a furnace bar, and cannot be removed from 
it. This causes a great amount of trouble, as in trying to remove it, 
the fire bars are occasionally puUed out of their places, and the 
greater part of the fire falls through causing much waste and often 
danger. 

The principal thing to pay attention to when the engines are under 
steam, is to keep the bearings cool and the glands steam tight. Oil 
is generally used for keeping bearings cool, but when larger ones are 
working hard, a jet of water is kept playing on them. This is 
found to answer very well when the water is turned on before they 
have had time to heat. It should Mot be used after they have been 
allowed to get heated, for it may crack them by too sudden contraction. 
A good stream of water should be kept ruiming on the thrus t block 
from the time of starting, this with the tallow, which is always put 
into it before starting, keeps this all important bearing cool. The cap 
of the thrust block requires great care in adjusting. If screwed on too 
tightly it is almost sure to heat, or fire as it is termed, and if not 
screwed down sufficiently tight the unpleasant jumpmg shake so often 
experienced in our screw ships is sure to follow. The packmg of the 
gland at the stem tube should be well looked after, and kept quite 
tight and well tallowed. 

In paddle-wheel steamers there is frequently not sufiicient care 
taken about the outer bearings of the shafts. In very few ships are 
proper means provided for lubricating these important parts. At the 
commencement of a voyage, the outer bearings are weU tallowed, and 



398 MACHINISTS, ENGINEERSV &C., RECEIPTS. 

often put down, screwed np, and left to look after themselves as best 
they may. Very few ships, indeed, being provided with tubes lead- 
ing down from the paddle boxes to the oil holes of the blocks, or in 
which means are provided for their lubrication. 

The coals in the bunkers must be carefully watched, to prevent 
spontaneous combustion. The stoppers over the holes should be 
kept open as much as possible, and care taken not to keep damp coals 
longer in the bunkers than can be avoided; for it is only damp coal 
that is liable to spontaneous combustion. 

In new fast running engines, castor oil is a very good thing to use on 
first starting. When new brasses have been fitted into the bearings, 
till they form a good bearing for themselves, the same should be 
used. It appears to have a much finer body in it to lubricate than 
other oils have. The difference in the cost of the oil is not very much, 
coarse castor oil being very little dearer than good machine oU. 

Duties to Machinery when the Ship has ai^ived in Port, — ^The white 
lead and tallow should be rubbed off with a piece of oily waste, and 
then the bright work of the engines will give no trouble by rusting. 
The engines should have a good blowing through to drive out aU 
water in the condensers, then the Kingston's valves communicating 
with the sea, should be shut, next opon the condenser drain cocks, 
which let out all water left in them. Tills is allowed to run into the 
bilges, which can be pumped out by the donkey pump, or the hand 
pump if no steam is left in the boilers. 

Some engineers always blow out their boilers after steaming, others 
io not, the latter only let the fires out and shut the valves in the 
steam pipes ; both plans have their advantages and disadvantages. 
Perhaps the majority keeps the water in the boilers, only blowing out 
when repairs or an examination of the boiler is required. An engineer 
should always examine for himself, whether all the fires are properly 
out, and not take the word of the stokers for it. A great amount of 
damage may be done by the fire not being properly put out in the 
ash pits. A frequent practice is to get a heap of hot ashes together 
and dash some water over it. This makes it black outside and leaves 
it burning inside. The ashes should rather be spread out evenly, and 
the water thrown over gradually and gently, to put out the fire 
effectually, and to create as little dirt and dust as possible. 

To find the amount of Lap on the Slide Valves (before setting the 
slides). Take a batten of wood, and place it on the cylinder slide 
face at right angles to and over the ports. Mark off on it the edges 
of the steam and exhaust ports with a square and scriber. By placing 
this on the face of the slide valve, the amount of lap can at once be 
found. 

To Set the Slides. — Put the piston at the top or bottom of its stroke. 
If the eccentric is rightly fixed on the shaft, simply fasten the slide 
valve on the spindle with the required amount of lead. Then turn 
the engine to the other end of its stroke, and see if the lead is the 
same ; or in some engines more lead is given at the bottom than at tho 
top (as in vertical engines). If the engine is fitted with the link 
motion, the reversing eccentric is then connected and the valve tested 
in like manner. Also with the link motion, the shde rod is placed ia 
the centre of the link; and although the position of the eccentrics on 
the shaft ought to destroy any motion of the valve, yet there is a little 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPAKTMENT. 399 

with a short link. This is tested to see that the steam ports are always 
closed and thus the engines can be stopped, even if the fall pressure 
of steam be admitted to the back of the slide by the stop or throttle 
valves. 




PORTABLE CONDENSING STEAM ENGINE. 

The above cut represents a portable condensing steam engine of a 
pattern quite common in Europe. A, Working-beam ; 6, Steam pis- 
ton; C, Cylinder; c, Upper Steam port; d, Lower Steam port; E, 
Throttle valve ; F, Fly-wheel ; i, Crank ; K, ^, Eccentric and eccentric 
rod for working the steam valves ; Z, Steam valve and valve casing ; n, 
Condenser; o, Injection cock; g, Hot well; ?% Shifting valve to cause 
a vacuum in the condenser previous to starting the engine ; S. S, Feed 
pump; f, Cold water pump for supplying the condenser cistern; w, 
Governor; V, Connectmg rod; lo, Air pump; X. X, The parallel mo- 
tion; ?/, Condenser. 

Sterro Metal. — Copper, 55 to 60 parts, zinc, 34 to 44 parts, iron 2 
to 4 parts, tin, 2 to 4 parts. Sterro Metal is used for the pumps of 
hydraulic presses, &c. It is capable of withstanding a pressure of 
from 43,000 to 85,000 per square inch. 

Steam Fire Engines are or should be constructed with steel 
boilers and blast tubes, copper tubes and large water spaces, together 
with a good fit out of gauges, safety valves, injectors, &c., with facility 
of getting up steam in from 6 to 10 muiutes from cold water, and in 



iOO MACHINIST.S5 engineers', &c., receipts. 

about 5 minutes from Tvaterat 130°. These machines as now con- 
structed are of great elegance and power, some of them having pro- 
jected a continuous, solid stream of water over 300 feet, through 100 
feet of hose, fitted with 1 J inch nozzle. Steam pressure about 80 lbs, 
per square inch. The principle is that of a steam pump, being 
•fitted with the usual air chamber to iuduce a continual steam. See 
diagram of fire engine with horses attached. 

FoRTAiBLE Engines are constructed as light as possible, consistent 
with proper strength of parts, in order to render them available for 
easy transportation. Sometimes they are mounted on wheels, and 
are in quite extensive use for drivmg light saw-mills, threshing, 
brick-making, pumping, chaff-cutting, &c. 

Cornish ENGixES.-Are usually single acting beam en^es which use 
the steam at a very early "cut off," and only on one side of the pis- 
ton, making great use of its expansive property, and are used entirely 
for pumping water in mines and cities. Steam is used in effecting 
the downward movement of the piston, being the stroke which lifts 
the water, the upward movement is caused by the weight of the plun- 
gers, rods &c., at the pump end of tlie beam. Cornish engines are 
usually very massive and powerful, but the first cost is enormous, 
and there is quite an outcry against them in some places. 

In the line of pumping machinery, possibly the largest engines in 
the world are those doing duty at Haarlem Lake, Holland. "The en- 
gines, three in number, drain a surface of 45.230 acres, an average 
lift of the water, depending on the state of the tides, being 16 feet. 
Each eugine lifts 66 tons of water per stroke to a height of 10 feet ; 
when pressed, each lifts 109 tons to that height. Running economic- 
ally, each lifts 75,000,000 lbs. of water 1 foot high for 94 lbs. of Welsh 
coal. Diameter of cylinders (annular in form), 12 feet, with inner 
cylinders 7 ft. diameter. 

Instructions to Engineers and Firemen on Locomotives. — 
Keep the fire evenly and uniformly spread over the grate without 
elevations or depressions. Eire from large coal, as it leaves wider 
openings between the lumps for the admission of air, may be deeper 
than when the coal is small and lies close together. Remove all 
incombustible material and clinkers from the furnace as soon as pos- 
sible, they prevent the draught from producing proper results. The 
bulk of fuel on the grate should always be in proportion to the 
quantity of fuel consumed. The dampers in the front and rear of 
the ash-pan regulate the draught admitted to the furnace, and require 
very careful attention, as the stream of air issues with a velocity of 
72 ft. per second when the dampers are open and train under full 
lieadway. At a speed of 60 miles per hour the pressure of the cur- 
xent of air amounts to 9 lbs. on every square foot. One ton of bitumi- 
nous coal requires 300,000 cubic feet of air for its combustion, of 
which 100,000 is required to consume the gases evolved from it. 
Anthracite coal requires 310.480 cubic feet of air per ton for its com- 
bustion. It burns without smoke, requires a good supply of oxygen 
and intense heat to burn it, but .makes a very fierce fire. Good 
practice requires complete combustion of the carbon and hydrogen 
available in the fuel ; insufficent air causes a dense black smoke to 
issue from the chimney, and the loss of heating effect, and too muc*h 
air, lowers the temperature of the flame and dissipates the heat. Of 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 401 

good coal, G2.2 per cent, go to form steam, and 1 lb. ^vill in good 
practice evaporate 7J lbs. of water. In practice the greatest evapora- 
tive power of 1 lb. of coke is 9J lbs. of water, in common practice it 
is 8i lbs. and 78 per cent of its products go to form steam, 22 per cent, 
being lost by products of combustion, ashes, etc. The heating power 
of coke as compared with that of coal is in the proportion of about 
14 : 12. The temperature produced by the combustion of coke in the 
hottest part of the fire box, may be estimated at 1666° Centigrade. 
The temperature produced by wood is usually less than 1111° Centi- 
grade, (lOOo Centigrade is equivalent to 212° Fahr). The proper com- 
bustion of coal requires the admission of air both through and above 
the grate, the right proportion dei^ending upon the percentage of the 
gaseous components in the coal : In the combustion of coke the air 
may be admitted through the grate only, 1 lb. of coke requiring about 
200 cubic feet of air. For receiving the best effects from the fuel, 
the emission of the gases from the furnace should be retarded, in 
order to promote complete combustion under high temperature, for 
this reason the grate surface should be as large as possible to induce 
a slower current, and the weight of the steam exhausted and the air 
inhaled should be in every case, tho same. For the prevention of 
smoke, engineers usually rely on the damper, the ash pan and tho 
fire door, with careful stolong. They endeavor to prevent tho 
formation of smoke by controlling the admission of air through the 
grate, adjusting it exactly to the demands of the fuel, also by the fire 
door for the admission of air above the fuel, by firing with large 
pieces of coal, and deep fires for heavy duty, and smaller coals with 
shallow fires for lighter duty, by firing more frequently to lighten 
the duty, and at all times by keeping the bars covered with fuel to 
prevent excessive local draughts through the grate. Fresh coal should 
be thrown on under the fire door directly inside, and, when partly 
burned, pushed forward towards the tubes ; but when the grates are 
inclined, it wiU work downwards by gravitation. Never fill a hot 
boiler with cold ivater, and always allow it to cool off before running 
the water out; never blow out a boiler while hot, under any circum- 
stances, as the heated plates will be sure to bake the deposits of mud 
into a compact scale of great tenacity ; if allowed to cool, these 
deposits will settle down in a soft mass easily swept out with a hose 
and water. Frequent duty should be made of washing out all 
deposits of foreign matter from the barrel of the boiler, the tubes, 
and from the crown sheets between the crown bars, especially whUo 
using bad water, and after heavy rains ; and screw-plugs, made of 
hard brass, should be fitted to every boiler near the sides of the fire 
box, to permit the use of a hose with water for this purpose. 

To avert danger from intense heat, to save fuel, and keep up a 
free circulation, engineers should adjust the injector so that the 
boiler will lose a little water while running between- stations, if the 
injector is kept at work during stoppages, this loss wiU be compen- 
sated, and a fuU supply always kept up, absorbing the surplus heat 
and preventing explosion. Incessant watchfulness is necessary to 
look out for impending danger in every possible direction, and no 
engine driver, while on duty, should relax liis energy, care, caution, 
watchfulness, decision, and presence of mind for a single moment. If 
vigilance and endurance were ever necessary in any business or call- 

26 



402 MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS, 



ing, most certainly they are of paramount importance in this above all 
others. See that the safety yalves are properly acting, and that 




'^.miA 



O O 



5'^ 



ft . t- l: ^ ? ."2 

02 > c3 









--^Masl2 






^^= 



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. c3 O^ 

Ph S ho © 

r^ O <^ tH M 



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<J TO-P ^«c2 p^ 



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5 =« s 8 jg !^ si 

2-OC'd'^'SD*5b 

^ 05 ft ^( iM © <» 



the indications of the steam gauge are correct. In experiments made 
with a locomotive hoiler, the fire being kept regular, and the engine 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 403 



at rest, in 9 minutes the pressure increased from 32 lbs. to 74| lbs. per 
square inch, being much more than double, a most surprising increase, 
and one which will enable us to account for many explosions which 
have happened while engines were at rest. 

Pay the closest attention to the cylinder and piston rod packing, 
;and exercise judgment and care in selecting the best kinds and also 
in applying them when- selected. Use due precaution agaiiist making 
•mistakes either in jpacking too tight or too loose, as each extreme in 
its degree is productive of much mischief, waste, and loss of power. 
It requires the exercise of considerable intelligence and care to make 
the best possible adjustment of either spring or steam packing. 

Equal vigilance is necessary in guarding against mcrustation and 
scale in boilers. In order to raise steam to a pressure of 120 lbs. to 
the square inch, a very common pressure in locomotive boilers, the 
water must be heated to a temperature of 345°. This involves a 
high temperature in the furnace plates and other parts of the boiler, 
imposing a very severe duty at any time, but doubly destructive in 
the event of the existence of incrustation or scale. 

The annexed figures are inserted with a view to render assistance in 
adjusting the valves of locomotives. The first diagram represents the 




position of the valve as it should be when at half stroke. The second 
figure indicates the proper position of the valve when at the end of its 
stroke with the crank at the dead centre. A represents exhaust cavity 




in valve. F ditto in valve seat. P P steam ports. E lead. The third 
cut represents the position of the valve when the link is exactly under 
the saddle-pin and the reverse latch in the outer notch in the quadrant 
or sector. V V shows the lap. Full steam is the position of the valve 
when fully open, and the engine in motion. Cut-off is the position of 
the valve when it has just closed the port against the admission of 
steam. Angular Advance is the angular measurement of the arc de- 



404 MACHINISTS, engineers', &C,, RECEIPTS. 

scribed by the centre of the eccentric while passing from the place it oc- 
cupies when the valve is at half stroke, to that which it occupies at the 
commencement of the stroke of the i^iston. Linear Advance is the dis- 
tance which the valve moves while the centre of the eccentric in describ- 
ing the above angle. See diagram of EccentnCf Link and valvz motion 




A majority of railways aUowfor the travel of valves, on Express PaS' 
senger Engines, 5 inches, for outside lap, $ inches, for inside lap, J 
inch, for lead in full gear 1-10 inch. On Express Accommodation 
Engines, for travel of value, 5 inches, for outside lap, | inch, for in- 
side lap, I inch, for lead in full gear, 1-10 inch. On Heavy Freight 
Engines, for travel of valve, 5 inches, for outside lap, g inch, for in- 
side lap 1-16 inch, for lead in full gear 1-16 inch. 

Power of Engines. — Horse-power in.steam engines is calculated 
as the power which would raise 33,000 lbs. a foot high in a minute, 
or 90 lbs. at the rate of 4 miles an hour. One-horse power is equal 
to the lifting, by a pump, of 250 hogsheads of water ten feet in an 
hour. Or it would drive 100 spindles of cotton yam twist, or 600 
spindles of No. 48 mule yam, or 1000 of No. 110, or 12 power looms. 
One horse power is i)roduced by 19 lbs. of Newcastle coals, 50 lbs. 
of wood, or 34 lbs. of culm. Coals 1, wood 3, and culm 2, giv© 
equal heats in the production of steam. 

Sixteen lbs. of Newcastle coal converts 100 lbs. of water into steam. 
A bushel of coal per hour raises steam to 15 lbs. the square inch, 
whose velocity is 1350 feet per second, and 2 bushels raise it to 120" 
lbs., or velocity of 3800 feet per second. A horse-power requires 
from 5 to 7 gallons of water per minute for condensation of steam. 
A steam engine whose cylinder is 31 inches, with 17 double strokes 
per minute, performs the constant work of 40 horses with 5 tons of 
coal per day. One of 19 inches and 25 strokes, of 12 horses, with 1 J 
tons per day. They raise 20,000 cubic feet of water 24 feet for every 
hmidred weight of coals. One bushel of good coals raised from 24 
to 32,000,000 lbs. one foot per minute. Four bushels of coal per hour 
with cylinder of 31J inches and 17 J strokes of 7 feet per minute, is a 
force equal to 40 horses constantly" A rotative double engine, with a 
cylinder of 23.75 inches, making 21.5 strokes of 5 feet per minute, is 
a 20 horse-power ; and a cylinder of 17.5, making 25 strokes of 4 feet, 
is a 10 horse -power ; the consumption of coals being proportional. 

Pkoportion of Locomotive Boilers, &c. — Boiler sheets, best cold 
blast charcoal iron § in. thick, or best cast steel 5-16 in., double rivets 
along horizontal seams and junction of fire box to be double riveted. 
Waist formed of 2 sheets rolled in the direction of the fibre of the 
iron or steel. One longitudinal seam in each, above the water lino 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., EECEIPTS, 



405 



to be double riveted. All iron sheets | in. thick, riveted with | inch 
rivets placed 2 inches from centre to centre. Steel plates 5-16 in. thick 
riveted with f inch rivets, placed IJ inch, from centre to centre. 
Extra welt pieces, riveted to side of side sheets, giving double thick- 




406 MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 

ness of metal for stud bolts and expansion braces. Furnace Plates, 
if of iron, 5-16 inch, if of copper J in., if of steel, crown sbeets, g in., 
side and back sheets (steel) 5-16 in., flue sheets (steel) J in., water space 
3 ins., sides and back, 4 ins. front. Staj/ Bolts^ J in. diam. screwed 
and riveted to sheets, 4J in. from centre to centre. Crown Bars, made 
of 2 pieces of wrought iron 4^ in. by § in. set 1 J in. from centre to 
centre, and secured by bolts fitted to taper holes in crown-sheets, with 
head on under side of bolt and nut on top, bearing on crown bar. 
Crown Sheets braced to dome, and outside shell. Furnace Door 
} opening formed by hanging and riveting together the outer and inner 
sheets. Tubes, 11 feet long, and 2 in. diam. set ta vertical rows | of 
an inch apart, give the best results. Grate Bars, for burning wood 
or soft coal, should have \ in. openings. Smoke Stack for wood 
bummg engines should have the ^* bonnet stack," from 5 to 5J ft. 
diam. at top, with wire netting ; for engines burning soft coal, a much 
smaller area of cone is required; but for engines burning anthracite 
coal, use a plain open stack without cone or netting. Safety Valves, 
Every locomotive should be provided with two safety valves fitted to 
brass seats, and secured by springs of sufficient elasticity to allow a 
lift of the valve adequate to permit the emission of all the steam the 
boiler will generate after it exceeds the maximum pressure. The 
bearing or mitre on the valve face should not exceed § in. Mud Pluf/s 
should be provided on the side of the shell on a level with the crown 
sheet. To avoid weakeniug the boiler, rivet a welt on the inside of 
the shell in the line of the holes. Steam Room, 6 to 7 cubic feet per 
square' ft. of growth surface. Good work has been obtained from 
boilers possessing 1, cubic foot of steam room to 1 square foot of water 
surface, and a water surface 1-13 that of heating surface. 

Average Proportion of the Various' Parts of Locomo- 
tives. — Cylinders of locomotives vary in size, ranging all the way 
from 8 in. up to 20 in. diam. Crank Pin should be ^ the diam. of 
cylinder. Valve Stems should be 1-10 the diam. of cylinder. Piston 
Rods should be J the diam. of cylinder. Pump Plunger should be 1-9 
the diam. of cylinder. 3Iain Steam Pipe. Area should be from J 
to J the diam. of cylinder. Steam Ports. Area should be 1-12 the area 
of cylinder. Exhaust Port. Area should be equal to J the area 
of cylinder. The width of hridcjes for different sized cylinders of 
locomotives vary from g to IJ inches. Cliimney. Height should not 
exceed 14 ft., diameter a little less than the diam. of cylinder. Diam. 
of Boilers vary from 3 ft. to 4 ft. 3 in. Tubes vary in number from 
100 to 220, top row should be 8 inches under water. Heating surface. 
Total should be from 1000 to 1500 square ft. Fire Grate Surface ranges 
from 12 to 30 sq. ft., usual rule 15 sq. ft., with about 90 sq. ft. of 
heating surface in fire box. Evaporative Power should range from 
100 to 200 cubic ft. of water per hour. Proportion of heating surface 
to each sq. foot of grate, should be from 68 to 80 feet. Petticoat Pipe 
should be § the diam. of the inside pipe of the stack. Ash Pans, 
should be 9 inches below bottom of grate for wood burning engines, 
JO in. for soft coal, and 12 to 14 in. for anthracite coal burners, and 
should be as nearly air tight as possible when dampers are shut. 
Dampers, should when shut stand at an angle of 35° from perpendicu- 
lar. Smoke Box, diam. should equal diam. of boiler, length from flue 
gheet to inside of front door IJ times the length of the stroke of tho 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C,, RECEIPTS. 407 

engine. Tires, when new 2J to 2| ia. thick, must not be worn down 
to less than 1^ to IJ in. Wrought iron tires wear about 1-12 of an inch 
per annum. {For further details see page 413. ) 

Rule to find the Horse-Power of a Locomotive. — Multiply 
the area of the piston by the pressure per square inch, which should 
be taken as § of the boiler pressure ; multiply this product by the 
number of revolutions per minute. Multiply this by twice the length 
of the stroke in feet or inches ; if in inclies they must be divided by 
12), multiply this product by 2 and divide by 33,000 ; the result will 
be the power of the locomotive. — Roper. 
Example : 

Cylinder 19 inches 

Stroke 24 „ 

Diameter of Drivers ... 54 „ 

Running Speed, 20 miles per hour. 

Area of piston, 283,5 square inches. 

Boiler pressure, 130 lbs. per square inch. 

Maximum pressure in cylinders, 80 lbs. 

283.5X80X4X124X2 ^ 681. G horse-power. 
33,000 

Stephenson's "Rocket." — Tlic annexed figure represents the 
"Rocket" as it appeared when it ran in the memorable Rainliill 
competition, in 1829, and gauied the prize of £500 offered by the 
directors of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. The stipulations 
were: (1.) That the engine should consume its own smoke; (2.) If the 
engine weigh 6 tons, it must draw after it 20 tons, 10 miles an hour ; 
the pressure on the gauge not to exceed 50 lbs. ; (3.) There must be 2 
safety valves, the engine and boiler must be supported on springs and 
rest on 6 wheels, the height of the whole not to exceed 15 ft. to the 
top of the chimney; (4.) It must not weigh more than 6 tons, less 
weight preferred, which may draw a less weight behind it, then it 
may have 4 wheels; (5.) The price not to exceed £550. 

Dimensions — Boiler. Cylindrical in form, length, G ft., diam. 3 ft. 
4 in. Cylinders, two, diam. 8 in., stroke 16^ in. Weight of Engine, 
4 tons, 5 cwt. with water in the boiler, vrith loaded tender 7 tons, 9 
cwt. Chimney, diam. 12 in. Heating surface, 117| square ft. The 
boiler contained 25 copper tubes, 3 inches in diameter ; the use of those 
tubes with coke for fuel, gained Stephenson his victory, and estabUshed 
his fame. The cylinders were set inclining to the rails at an angle of 
45°, this proved a poor arrangement, as the jolting motion slightly 
lifted the boiler up and doAvn on the springs. Driving Wheels, diam. 
4 ft. 8 in. Highest Speed during tnal, 24 miles per hour, for a dis- 
tance of IJ miles. The " Rocket" with all its defects, was a great im- 
provement on Stephenson's first engine constructed at Killingworth, 
m 1814, and used to "lead coals" from the pit, the motion being 
transmitted to the wheels by the intervention of cranks and toothed 
gearing. 

There is a vast contrast between the " Rocket" and locomotives of 
recent construction. Some freight engines are now in use, wliich 
weigh 66 tons, having 4 cylinders and 12 coupled driving wheels. 
Some have cylinders 20 in. diam., with 26 inches stroke, others have 
driving wheels 9 ft. diam., cylinders 18 iq. diam., and 24 inches tstroke. 



408 MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 

English express engines have attained a speed of 73 miles per hour, 
between Holyhead and London, 




The illnstrious Stephenson is well deserving of double honor as the 
■worthy champion of the loftiest description of mechanical progress, 
at a time when it might truly be said that he was opposed by almost 
the entire nation. In interference with the old state of affairs nearly 
every one, high and low, seemed to see visions of bankrupt coach 
companies, deserted hotels, ruined landlords, roads overgrown with 
grass, buildings and mansions burned to the ground by flying sparks 
from the engine, commerce ruined, and man and beast everywhere 
run over and crushed under the car wheels. During Stephenson's 
memorable examination before the committee of the House of Com- 
mons, one of the questions put to him w^as — "Would it not be an 
awkward thing for an engine to run over a cow? " The honest 
Northumbrian's reply is well known, " Yes, it would be awkward for 
the coo.'* 

Fire Cement.— Fire clay, wet, 100 parts, white lead, 3 parts, pow- 
dered asbestos, J part, mix all together and use as mortar. 

Railway Train Speed Table.— A train going 1 mile an hour 
travels one and seven-fifteenths— say one and a half foot per sec- 
ond. To form a table of speed from these data is a mere matter of 
multiplication. Example:— A train going 70 miles an hour travels 
per second 1 and 7-15 ft. multiplied by 70=102 and two thirds feet 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 40? 




7 J-O. 



The locomotive, with its entire connections and surronndings, 
should, while on the road, be the object of a care and vigilance 
which knows no weariness. Before starting from a station, the en- 
gine should be closely inspected to be sure that all is right; the boiler 
should be well replenished with water, and a good surplus stored in 
the tank. The injector should be closed before starting, and while 
ascending grades, but should be opened to admit feed water during 
stoppage, or while descending a down grade if required, and fuel 
may be added at the same time. In descending down grades, the 
steam should be either partially or entirely shut off, and the engineer 
should, like a trusty sentinel, be always at his post, with his hand on 
the lever, and with all the faculties of his body and mind on the 
alert, ready to act in response to signals, or on the first intimation of 
danger in any of its varied forms. Modem improvements have ren- 
dered it an easy matter to stop an engine at very short notice, al- 
though it sometimes happens, on critical occasions, that some of the 
most powerful patent brakes have proved inoperative, owing to com- 
plicated or imperfect mechanical adjustment. Broken rails, more es- 
pecially during winter, in cold climates,' like that of Canada and Rus- 
sia, are a fertile cause of numerous disasters, severe loss, and much 
solicitude and anxiety to the engineer. The frequency of these break- 
ages always increases in proportion with the rigor of the climate. 



410 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 







The valve gear and eccentrics should be frequently examined, and 
if found defective in any way, no time should be lost in adjusting 
them by following the directions given elsewhere. Use clean water ; 
by so doing mnch trouble and danger will be averted. Keep the 
tubes well swept, and if one should burst, plug both ends of it with 
as little delay as possible ; if impeded by the emission of steam or 
water, an ample supply of cold feed water will decrease the pressure 
and permit work . If the leak is very serious, it would be the best 
plan to quench the fire in order to secure proper access to repair the 
defective tube. Every engineer should make a point of having on 
hand all those appliances which experience has shoAvn to be neces- 
sary for use during i^ossible emergencies, such as plugs for the tubes, 
screw jack, wrecking tools, wrenches, hammers, signals, wedges, 
files, rope, buckets, chisels, waste, oil, tallow, &c. 

Railway Signals. — A red flag by day, or red light by night, is a 
signal of danger. Hoisted at a station it is a signal for a train " to 
stop." Hoisted by the road side, it is a signal of danger on the train 
ahead. Carried unfurled on an engine, it is a warning that another 
engine or train is on its Avay. One short sound of the Avhistle is the 
signal to apply brakes; two, to let them go; three, to back ui); 
four, to call in the flagmen ; five, for road crossings. 

A sweeping parting of the hands on a level with the eye is a signal 
to go ahead. A downward motion of one hand, with extended arm, 
to stop. A beckoning motion of one hand, to back. 

A lantern raised and lowered vertically, is a signal for starting ; 
when swung at right angles, or across the track, to stop ; when swung 
in a circle, to back the train. 

One stroke of the alarm-bell signifies stop; two, to go ahead; three, 
to back. 

Speed of Passenger Trains. — In the United States, the News- 
paper Express train, between N ew York and Philadelphia makes the 
daily trip of 93 miles in 1| hours, inclusive of four stoppages. 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 411 

The most remarkable feat of railway travel on record, was accom- 
plished June 4, 1876, hy a fast special tram, which made the journey 
from New York to San Francisco, a distance of 2900 miles in 26 min- 
utes less than 84 hours, bemg at the rate of 40 miles per hour. 

Regarding English railways, the following table embraces an enu- 
meration of trains which run over 60 miles without stopping, shows 
the distance run, and the average speed per hour. It will be seen 
that the London and Northwestern run the longest distance without 
stopping, as their engines suck up water on the way Avhile running at 
full speed. The fastest is the 11.45 a. m. from Paddington over the 
Great Western, which runs from London to Exeter, 194 miles in 4J 
hours on the "broad gauge." The Great Northern, though running on 
the "narrow gauge," mam tains an average speed of more than 50 miles 
per hour, and the 10 A. m. Express from London to Edinburgh, called 
by some of the country people the " Flying Scotchman," travels 188J 
miles in 4 J hours, from London to York. The Great Northern R., 
with their new engines, having 8 ft. driving wheels, sometimes at- 
tains 51 miles per hour. 



London to Swindon (Broad Gauge Express) G. W. 

London to Peterborough G. N. 

York to Newcastle N. E. 

Grantham to York G. N. 

Newcastle to Berwick N. E. 

New Cross to Canterbury S. E. 

Garstairs to Carlisle Caledonian 74 J 

Oxford to London G. W. 63^ 

London to Dover S. E. 78 

Rugby to Crewe L. &N. W.75i 

London to Rugbv L. & N. W. 82| 

Kentish Tn. to Wellingboro' M. 

Holyhead to Chester L & N. W. 

Wigston to Luton M. 

Carlisle to Preston L. & N. W. 



62 
85 
614 
89 



'^ <v o 

< a. 



Besides the above, there are well attested cases of passenger trains 
running 78 miles per hour with 16 coaches attached, and even as high 
as 84 miles per hour have been attained. 



THE FOLLOWING TABLE EXHIBITS THE EFFECTIVE ADHESION OF 
LOCOMOTIVES PER TON DURING DIFFERENT WEATHERS, ON THE 
RAILS : 

Lbs. 



During damp weather 400 

During fine dry weather 760 



Lbs. 

During frost or snow 200 

During misty weather 350 

During wet rainy weather. .600 

The adhesion of a locomotive with 4 wheels, compared with one 
having 6 wheels, is in the proportion of 5 to 8. 



412 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT, 



Experiments have demonstrated that trains (properly fitted with 
good brakes), moving at the rate of 33 miles per hour, can be stopped 
within a distance of 57 yards, and within 273 yards if moving at the 
rate of 60 miles an hour, the resisting power of brakes being about 
129 lbs. per ton of train. Resistance caused by defects of roads vary 
fromS to40per cent., and strong side winds resist to the extent of 
20 per cent. Resistance increases with the speed in about the follow- 
ing ratios : — 
Speed of Trains in miles per hour. ... 10 15 20 | 30 40 50 



131/4 



QV2 
141/4 



101/2 I 131/4 



15% I 201/4 



i7y2 

261/4 



22% 
341/4 



Resistance on level railway in lbs. per 
ton 

Resistance on irregular or curved road 

and high winds 

Effective Pkessure of Steam on Piston, with different de- 
grees of expansion, boiler pressure being assumed at 100 lbs. per 
square inch. 

Steam cut off at | of stroke = 90 effective pressure. 



(( 


(( 


ti 


1 


it 


li 


= 


69 


a 


li 


(( 


n 


ii 


li 


11 


z=: 


50 


it 


a 


a 


ii 


a 


li 


ii 


— 


40 


ii 


11 



In experiments with Locomotive No. 47, North London Railway, it 
was found that in two 17 inch cylinders, 24 ins. stroke, lap of valve, 
I in., lead, J in., position of gear, 4th notch from middle gear, drivers, 
5 ft. 6 ins. diam., with boiler pressure 160 lbs. per square inch, the 
actual horse-power of both cylinders was 840.552 

That the friction of both valves was 54.952 

" " " eccentrics 74.326 



Total friction of valves and eccentrics 129.251 

or 15 per cent, of the power of the engine required to move them. 
Revolutions of Driving Wheels per Mile. 



Diam. 
in ins. 


Rev. per mile. 


Diam. 
in ins. 


Rev. per mile. 


Diam. 
in ins. 


Rev. per mile. 


42 


480.4 


54 


373.5 


66 


306 


43 


469 


55 


367 


72 


280 


46 


439 


60 


336 


78 


258.6 


48 


420 


62 


325.4 


81 


249 


50 


403.5 


63 


320 


84 


240 



The average life of a car wheel under a load of 3| tons, is 45,000 
miles. The weight of iron rails per mile varies from 78 tons, 11 cwt., 
48 lbs., to 157 tons, 3 cwt., 84 lbs., according as the rails range from 
50 lbs. to 100 lbs. weight to the yard. 

No. of 15 ft. rails per mile, 704 I No. of 18 ft. rails per mile, 587 
16 ft. '' " 660 " 20 ft. *' " 528 



A rise of 60^ in the temperature of a 25 ft. rail lengthens it to 25 ft. 
in. The last table refers to No. of rails required for single track. 



MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS , «&C., RECEIPTS. 



413 



Table Showing Proportions of the Various Parts of Loco- 
motive Engines, from the Best Authorities. 



in. 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 



in. 
3 



m. 
21 

2« 
3 
3 
3 

3i 

i 



4 
4| 



in. 
3 

I 

9 



05 

4 
4J-5 



« 



m. 
IJ 
it 
ll 

l| 

2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 



in. 



in. 
5 

I 

8 

7 
7 

^? 

7* 



Depth of Main 
Rods. 



m. 

2 
2 

2i 
2I 

2| 

3 

3 

2J 
3 
3 
3 



I 



in. 

^ 

if 

1: 
1: 
Ij 
1; 

l| 

l| 
2 
2 
24 



Diameter of 
Cylinder. 



S 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 



Steam 
Port. 



7iX I 

7|x I 

7|x I 

10 XI 

10 xi 

12 Xl^ 

13 Xl] 

14 Xl] 

15 Xlt 

16 XlJ 

17 xl^ 

17 XI2 

18 xli 



Exhaust 
Port. 




Bridges. 



1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 



414 machinists' and engineers department. 




GEORGE STEPHENSON, 

THE FIRST LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEER, 

Born June 9, 1781. Died August 12, 1848. 

The iron energy, indomitable perseverance, sterling integrity, and 
thorough practical sagacity for which this Father of Railways was 
noted, have indelibly enrolled his honored name among the benefac- 
tors of the race. Of the first railway, that between Stockton and 
Darlmgton, George Stephenson was iDoth surveyor and contractor, 
laying out every foot of the road, and taking the sights through the 
spirit level with his own hands and eyes. On his persistent recom- 
mendations, the intended i^lan of a wooden tramwaj^ was set aside 
and iron rails substituted, and reluctant permission given him to 
place upon the road, which had been intended only for horse-draught, 
a steam locomotive. The trial day was fixed for the 27th of Septem- 
ber, 1825, which may be regarded as the natal day of railway travel. 
A great throng of people was present to witness the new-fangled and 
much ridiculed aifair, the multitude being ready to applaud the sue- 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 415 




ENGINE NO. 1.— STOCKTON & DARLINGTON R. R.— 1825. 

cess or deride the failure of the man. whom they were equally ready- 
to canonize as the wisest, or condemn as the craziest man in England. 
The veteran was fully prepared to withstand the ordeal. A long pro- 
cession of vehicles was formed, consisting of 6 wagons, loaded with 
flour ; a covered coach, containing directors and passengers ; 21 coal 
wagons, fitted up for and crowded with passengers. Locomotive en- 
gine No. 1, represented in the cut, driven by our hero, headed the 
procession, which was preceded by a precursor on horseback, who 
rode before to herald the coming of the train, the velocity of which 
was not expected to exceed 4 or 5 miles an hour. But different re- 
sults followed. An immense multitude of people, both on horseback 
and on foot, accompanied the train, but not long ; they were soon 
distanced, the man on horseback who heralded was compelled to 
leave the track, and the first train that ever carried passengers fin- 
ished its journey at the rate of 12 to 15 miles an hour. The load 
carried amounted to 90 tons, including 450 passengers. The railway 
passenger coach which formed part of the procession was totally 
unlike anything now in use, and was drawn by horse power. It was 
several years before passengers were drawn over the road by steam 
(the traffic being confined to freight only), as the terror mspired by 
the locomotive was such that the Liverpool & Manchester R. R. 
Committee pledged themselves not to require any clause empower- 
ing its use, and as late as 1829 the Newcastle and Carlisle Act was 
conceded on the express condition that it should not be worked by 
locomotives, but by horses only. 

The plans of the Liverpool & Manchester R. R. were fought 
through Parliament by the indefatigable Stephenson in the face of 
difficulties which would have appalled any common man ; and when 
at last the charter was obtained, and the work begun, he perBonally 



41^ MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT 




lis 

o 



4) 



02 

fl-> *^ *-• 

(D O _, 

'§&? 

cTP ^ 
p ^ o 

0)0)0 
0).1=. M 

O S ^ 

2^g 
tTrd OJ 

c« eS w 

O) 2 fl 
rt OS 4> 

::-'§ 

o fi o 
s ?s ^ 

g O) '^ 
<X> ^ ZD 

O c3 0> 

c «, o 



•S •^''{-i • ^ =« ?:; 

OJ ^ ^ GO -tJ '-I tH 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 417 



supervised it from beginning to end, getting his breakfast of oatmeal 
with his own hands, livmg on horseback, personally inspecting the 
progress of the work, supervising the pay-rolls of the men, and per- 
fecting with his own hands the working drawings. In 1829, we find 
Robert, the younger Stephenson, at a later day engineer of the famous 
Victoria Bridge, Montreal, treading in his father's footsteps, and 
coming oft the victor at the noted contest at Rainhill, when the 
Rocket, as sho^vii on a previous page, eclipsed the performance of 
the Novelty, Sanspareil, and Perseverance. Soon the Liverpool & 
Manchester R. R. was opened Avith the Rocket, altered and im- 
proved, as locomotive, running at the rate of 30 miles an hour. The 
illustration exhibits the Rocket, as remodelled after the trial and 
as now to be seen in the South Kensington Museum. 




Sparks from the Locomotive.— (i7?. Cent. E.) Fuel, etc., 
Average number of miles run to 1 cord of wood, 43.98. Ditto to 1 
ton of "coal, 39.87. Ditto, to 1 pint of oil, 13.83. Cost of Bepairs, 
Mechanics' wages, 62 per cent. Materials — iron, steel, brass, etc., 31 
per cent. Superintendence, paints, tools, etc., 7 per cent. Average 
cost per mile, in cents, for passenger engines, 20.10, for freight, do, 
35.42. 

French Locomotives. — Average actual power exerted, 450 horses ; 
speed of passenger trains with 15 vehicles, is 24 miles per hour; 
freight trains, 18 miles, mixed engines, 20 to 30 miles per hour. 

American Locomotive. — A 10 wheeled engine, 18 x 22 cylinder, 
total weight. 30 tons 9 cwt. ; vv^eight on drivers, 22 tons, on Readin' 



418 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 




EDSON'S TIME, PRESSURE, SPEED RECORDING, AND 
ALARM GAUGE. 

M. B. EDSON, 91 I.IBERTY ST., NEW YORK, INVENTOR AND PATENTEE, 
ACCORDED EXCLUSIVE MENTION AT THE CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION 
OF 1876. 

RR. ; will haul 130 loaded cars ; weight of coal, 676 tons ; of cars, 380 
tons ; total load, 1,085 tons ; on a down grade, maximum, 13-5 ft. pei 
mile ; minimum, 0.65 per mile. Same Engine will haul 70 loaded cars, 
or 561 tons, over an ascending grade 35.3 ft. per mile. 

New York City Street Dummy Engines. — Cylinders, 6 ins. by 10 
ins. stroke ; can haul 2 cars, containing 100 passengers each, up a grade 
100 ft. per mile, at 5 miles per hour ; on a level and low grade, at 10 
miles per hour, runs 125 miles per day, burns 1,200 lbs. of coal ; steam 
pressure, 130 lbs. 

A Crampton locomotive, drawing 12 carriages, consumes 35 lbs. 
of coke per mile in summer, and 37 lbs. in winter ; the weight with 
tender is 90,000 lbs. ; the cost of running a trip per mile, all items 
inehided, is 33 cents (gold). An engine is generally worn out when 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 419 



it has travelled 186,000 miles, although some have run more than 
twice that distance ; the usual performance is from 15,600 to 25,000 
miles per annum. The lifetime of an engine may be taken at 10 years ; 
the cost, in England, 1^9,600 (gold), tender, $2,200, and the annual 
earnings about $25,000. 




GirnJRD-S'lNlECT^R 



wTtrt SeOers InrorDvenianS 



GIEFARD'S I2TJECT0R. 
A, steam-pipe connecting with boiler. B, tube or cylinder, 
through which steam passes into the space b. C, screwed rod for 
regulatmg the passage of steam through circular conical space c, and 
worked by the handle shown above. E, water supply pipe connect- 
ing the reservoir or hot-well with the small chamber m. C, I, circular 
conical opening or discharge pipe, the dimensions of which is ad- 
justed by the movement of the tube or cj^ Under C. G, hand wheel 
for operating the cylinder C. H, opening, in connection with the at- 
mosphere, intervening between discharge pipe and the receiving 
pipe through which the water is forced. I, tube through which the 



420 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS^ DEPARTMENT. 

water is passed to the boiler. K, valve for preventing the return of 
the water from boiler when the injector is closed. L, overflow or 
waste-pipe. 

Method of Operation. — Turn the wheel so as to allow a little 
water to flow into the injector. Open tlie tap connecting the instru- 
ment with the boiler ; the admission of the steam wiU'create a par- 
tial vacuum, into which the water will flow with rapidity. The steam 
condenses as it mingles with the water, and as it rushes forward it 
carries the water along in its course, driving it into the boiler with 
great force. The quantity may be increased or diminished by means 
of taps fitted to the steam and water supply-pipes, and any surplus 
water will escape at the overflow or waste-pipe. This invention 
effects great economy in the transmission of hot water to the boiler, 
for not the slightest particle of heat is lost. 

Samuel Rue^s injector, a most valuable invention, is well adapted 
to operate as a boiler feeder on land or water ; but may be considered 
as indispensable on marine boilers, as from its peculiar construction, 
with steam of from 40 to 50 lbs. pressure, it is capable of forcing 
water against a pressure of over 200 lbs. per square inch. 

In 40 years the miles of railway in the United States have mcreased 
from 3 miles to 60,000 miles. 
Railway Cross Ties, No. per mile, 2 ft. centre to centre, 2.641 
a ic a u 2J " " 2.348 

" u u u 2h " u 2 113 

" u a u 2| '' '* i;921 

u a u u 3 u u -^j^^ 

The usual dimensions of railway ties are 9 feet long, 10 ins. wide 
X 5 ins., average life time, 7 years ; best material, seasoned white 
oak. If ties are preserved by Burnettizing they will last 15 years. 

The test for new steel car axles, is 5 blows of a ram, weighing 
1,650 lbs., falling 30 ft. on axle placed on supports 3 ft. apart. The 
test for new iron axles, is 5 blows of a ram, weighing 1,650 lbs., fall- 
ing 20 ft, on axle placed on supports 3 ft. apart. 

NoN-CoNDUCTOR FOR Steam Pipes AND CYLINDERS.— Good clay, 
50 lbs., finely sifted coal ashes 50 lbs., hair for a bind 12 ozs., mix all 
thoroughly with water to the consistence of mortar, and allov/ it to 
rest for a few hours, but just previous to use, add 50 lbs. plaster of 
Paris, working it in well. Now apply it to the pipes, &c. , while warm, 
in a thin coat, and when dry, add another, continuing until the prop- 
er thickness is secured, whitewashing or painting over all. 
Evaporative Powers of Fuel, etc. — 

1 lb. of coal evaporates 9 lbs of water. 
1 " coke " 74 to 9 '' 

1 " wood " 4i 
1 " turf (peat)" 6^ 
Stationary engines use from 3 to 7 lbs. of coal per horse power per 

hour. 
Locomotive passenger engines 25 to 30 lbs. coal per mile. 

*' freight '' 45 to 55 " " 

Wood-burning " 1 cord of wood to 42 miles. 

Bulk of coal is 6 times less than its equivalent in wood. 
60 bush. Newcastle coal will make 92 bush, of coke. 
1 bush, anthracite coal weighs 86 lbs ; bituminous coal = 80 lbs. ; 
charcoal (hardwood) = 32 lbs. ; coke = 32 lbs. 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPAIITMENT. 421 




THE FIRST RAILWAY PASSENGER COACH. 

Tlie magnificent caravan represented by the cut conveys a good 
idea of railway passenger travel and accommodations previous to 
the use of steam power for that purpose. 




M. W. BALDWIN'S LOCOMOTIVE " IRONSIDES" — 1B32. 

M. W. BALDWIN'S LOCOMOTIVE " IBONSIDES "— 1852. 

Tlie engine represented above, constructed by M. W. Baldwin, 
founder of the Baldwin Locomotive Works, Philadelphia, Pa., U. S. 
A., was first run on the Philadelphia & Norristowai R. R., in 1832, 
and proved to be the pioneer of successful railway locomotion in the 
United States. 

The average life of an iron rail is 15,000,000 of tons, or equal to 
100,000 trains of 150 tons each. On the Great Northern Railway at 
Bamet, tlie life of an iron rail was 5 years, with 13,484,661 tons of 
fast trains, and 38,303,028 tons of slow traffic. Steel rails vretrc only 
half w^orn out with 95.577,240 tons traffic. 



422 iiACiiiNisTS, engineers', &c., receipts. 

Latent Heat of Steam. — Take 2 small vessels connected at their 
tops by a tube. Let one contain 1 lb. of water at 32° Fahr. , the other 
5i lbs. at the same temperature. Apply a spirit lamp below the ves- 
sel containing the 1 lb. of water until it is all boiled away and its vapor 
condensed by passing through the tube and mingling with the 5J lbs. 
of water in the other vessel. At this point the heat absorbed by the 
54 lbs of water will raise the temperature to 212° Fahr. or boiling 
heat, and the combined weight will be 6i lbs. instead of Sjlbs.jas 
placed in the vessel at first. The whole of this heat has been trans- 
ferred from the 1 lb. of water held over the spirit lamp, although at 
no time has its heat exceeded 212<^. Inasmuch as this heat cannot bo 
measured by any Imown instrument, it is called latent heat. The 1 
lb. of water made the 5J lbs. to boil, and from this we Imow by cal- 
culation that the combined latent and sensible heat of steam is about 
12000. 

The pressure of steam is measured by atmospheres. Steam of 15 
lbs. pressure is steam of one atmosphere, of 30 lbs. pressure, of 2 
atmospheres, &c. It is frequently used as high as G or 7 atmospheres. 
Steam below 2 atmospheres is called low pressure steam, and all pres- 
sure above, high pressure steam. Heat, by expanding water, 
imparts motion to the gulf stream, when transformed into steam 
it evolves sufficient power to drive the rolling mill, cotton and other 
mills, the machme shop, the locomotive, and impel the steamship 
over the trackless ocean. As the temperature of water falls below 
100° Centigrade (212°.) the boiling point, it will contract or occupy a 
smaller space until it descends to 3°. 8 Centrigrade, when it will con- 
tract no more, as its greatest density is then reached. From 5°. 8, as 
the water becomes colder, it expands, till it reaches the freezing 
point 0°. Centigrade, so that is specifically lighter than water, and 
floats on the surface, being about 10 per cent, lighter. Were it not 
for the interposition of this merciful law, and were ice to sink in 
water, many of the lakes, rivers and streams within the temperate 
zones would be rendered incapable of navigation during the greater 
part of the year by reason of the ice at the bottom. 

Applicatio:n" for Bukns and Scalds. The following has been 
tested in the severest cases of burning and scalding from railway and 
steamboat accidents. Glycerine, 5 ozs. ; white of egg, 4 ozs. ; tiiict, of 
arnica 3 ozs. ; mix the glycerine and white of egg thoronghly in a 
mortar and gradually add the arnica. Apply freely on linen rags 
night and mornmg, previously washing with warm castile soap suds. 
In urgent cases, if nothing better can be had, clap on a mud poultice, 
a favorite and very effectual remedy with school boys who are stung 
while making war on hornets* nests. 

Cement to mend Leaky Boileks. — ^Powdered litharge, 2 parts, 
very fine sand, 2 parts, slaked quick lime, 1 part. Mix all together. 
To nse, mix the proper quantity with boiled linseed oil and apply 
quick. It gets hard very soon. 

Strong Cement for Steaivi Joints. — ^Wliite lead groimd in oil, 
10 parts, black oxide of manganese, 3 parts, litharge, 1 part. Reduce 
to the proper consistency with boiled linseed oil and apply. 

Cement For Holes or Cracks. — Red lead ground in oil, G parts, 
white lead, 3 parts, oxide of manganese, 2 parts, silicate of soda, 1 
part, litharge, ^ part, all mixed and used as putty. 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 423 

Rust Joint, Quick Setting — Sal ammoniac pulverized, 1 lb. , flour 
of sulphur, 2 lbs. ; iron borings, 80 lbs. ; mix to a paste with water iu 
quantities as required for immediate use. 

Quick Settijs^g Joekt better than the last, but requires 
ivroRE tume to Set. — Sal ammonia, 2 lbs., sulphur 1 lb., iron filings 
206 lbs. 

Air Ain) "Water tight Cement for Casks and Cisterns. — 
Melted glue, 8 parts, linseed oil, 4 parts, boiled into a varnish with 
litharge ; hardens in 48 hours. 

Marine Glue.— India rubber 1 part, coa] tar 12 parts, heat gently 
mix, and add 20 parts of powdered shellac, i)our out to cool, when used 
heat to about 250°. 

Another Ditto. — Glue 12 parts, water suflficient to dissolve, add 
ycUow resin 3 parts; melt then add turpentine 4 parts, mix thor- 
oughly together. 

Ceiment for External Use. — Ashes 2 parts, <Jlay 3 parts, sand 
1 part; mix with a little oil, very durable. 

CE3IENT to Resist Red Heat and Boiling Water. — To 4 or 5 
parts of clay, thoroughly dried and pulverized, add 2 parts of fine iron 
fiUngs free from oxide, 1 part of x)eroxyde of manganese, 1 part of 
common salt, and J part of borax. Mingle thoroughly, render as fine 
as possible, tlien reduce to thick i)aste with the necessary quantity of 
water, mixing well ; use immediately, and apply Iveat, gradually in- 
creasing almost to a white heat. 

Cement to Join Sections of Cast-Iron Wheels, &c. — Make 
a paste of pure oxide of lead, litharge, and concentrated glycerine. 
Unrivalled for fastening stone to stone or iron to iron. 

Varnish for Boilers. — Asphaltum dissolved in turpentine. * 

Soft Ceiment for Steam-boilers, Stea^i-pipes, &c. — Red or 
white lead, in oil, 4 parts; iron borings, 2 to 3 parts. 

Hard Cement. — ^Iron borings and salt water, and a smaU quantity 
of Fal-ammoniac, with fresh water. 

Gasfitters' Cement. — Mix together resin, 4j parts ; wax, 1 i)art ; 
and Venetian red, 3 parts. 

Plumbers* Cement. — Black resin, 1 part; brick dust, 2 parts, 
well incorporated by a melting lieat. 

C0PPERS]NnTHs' Cement. — Boiled linseed oil and red lead mixed 
together into a putty, are often used by coppersmiths and engineers 
to secure joints ; th(^ washers of leather or cloth are smeared with 
th^s mixture in a pasty state. 

CoiviPOSiTiONS TO Fill Holes in Castings.— Mix 1 part of borax 
in solution witli 4 parts dry clay. — Another : Pulverized binoxide of 
manganese, mixed with a strong solution of silicate of soda (water 
clay) to form a thick paste. 

Cast Iron Cement. — Clean borings, or turnings of cast iron, 16 
parts ; sal-a,mmoniac, 2 parts ; flour of sulphur, 1 part ; mix them 
well together in a mortar, and keep them dry. When required for 
use, take of the mixture, 1 part ; clean borings, 20 parts ; mix thor- 
oughly, and add a sufficient quantity of water. A little grind-stone 
dust added imj)roves the cement. 

Cement for Steam-pipe Joints, etc., with Faced Flanges. — 
White lead, mixed, 2 parts ; red lead, dry, 1 part ; grind, or otlicr- 
wise mix them to a consistence of thin putt^y ; apply Interposed layers 



424 MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 

with 1 or 2 thicknesses of canvas, or gauze wire, as the necessity of 
the case may he. 

Cement for Joints of Iron Pipes or IIoles in Castings. — 
Take of iron horings, coarsely powdered, 5 lbs. ; of powdered sal- 
ammoniac, 2 oz. ; of sulphur, 1 oz. ; and water sufficient to moisten 
it. This comi^osition hardens rapidly, hut, if time can he allowed it 
sets more firmly without the sulphur. Use as soon as mixed, and 
ram tightly into the joints or holes. 

Best Cement for Aquaria. — One part, by measure, say a gill of 
litharge ; 1 gill of plaster of Paris ; 1 gill of dry, white sand ; ^ a gill 
of finely powdered resin. Sift, and keep corked tight mitil required 
for use, when it is to be made into a putty by mixmg in boiled oil 
(linseed) with a httle patent drier added. Never use it after it has 
l3een mixed (tbat is, with the oil) over fifteen hours. This cement 
can be used for marine as well as fresh water aquaria, as it resists 
the action of salt water. The tank cf.n be used immediately, but it 
is best to give it three or four hours to dry. 

Another. — Mix equal quantities of any white lead and red lead to 
a paste with mastic varnish and use as soon as mixed. 

Cement for Belting. Waterproof. — Dissolve gutta percha in 
bisulphide of carbon to the consistence of molasses, slice dowu and 
thin the ends to be united, warm the i^ai-ts, and apply the cement, 
then hammer lightly on a smooth anvil^ or submit the jmrts to heavy 
pressure. 

To Repair Leakages in Fire Engine TIose.— Pass a round bar 
of iron into the hose under the leak, then rivet on a jnitch of leather, 
previously coated with marine glue. 

To Repair Rubber Hose. — Cut the hose apart where it is defec- 
tive ; obtain from any gasfitter a piece of ironi)ipe 2 or 3 inches long, 
twist the hose over it imtil the ends meet, wrap with strong twine, well 
waxed, and it will last a long time. 

Portable Glue for Draughtsmen. — Glue 5 ozs. ; sugar 2 ozs. ; 
water 8 ozs. ; melt in a water bath, cast it in molds. For use dissolve 
in warm water. 

Cementing Emery to Wood. — Melt together equal imrts of 
shellac, Avhite resin and carbohc acid in crystals ; add the last after 
the others are melted. 

To Coat Iron with Emery. — Give the iron a good coat of oil 
and white lead, when this gets hard and dry, apply a mixture 
of glue and emery. 

To Clean Cotton Waste. — Pack the waste in a tin cylinder 
with a perforated false bottom and tube with stop-cock at bottom. 
Pour on the waste bisulphide of carbon sufficient to cover, and 
allow to soak a few mmutes, then add more bisulphide, and so on 
for a time or two, and then squeeze out. By simple distillation 
the whole of the bisulphide, or nearly all, can easily be recovered 
and so be used over again. This ^Hl free the cotton completely 
from grease. 

French Putty. — Seven pounds linseed oil and 4 lbs, brown 
umber are boiled for two hours, and 62 grammes wax stirred in. 
After removal from the fire 5^ lbs. fine chalk and 11 lbs. white lead 
are added and thoroughly incorporated ; said to be very hard and 
permanent. 



MACHINISTS, ENGINEEKS'; &C..i KECEIPTS. 425 

To Mend Cracked Cast-Ikon Vessels. — ^Drill a hole at each ex- 
treme end of the crack, to prevent its further extension, plug rivet 
the holes with copper, and, with fine iron filings saturated with 
urine, caulk the crack. Four j)arts of pulverized clay and one 
part of iron filings made into a imste with boiling linseed oil and 
appUed hot is a good cement for the same purpose. 

To Pke^tent Iron Rusting. — Give it a coat of linseed oil and 
whiting, mixed together in the form of a paste. It is easily removed 
and will preserve iron from rusting for years. 

Glue for Labelling on Metals. — Boilm^g water, 1 qt. ; pulver- 
ized borax, 2 ozs. ; gum shellac, 4 ozs. Boil till dissolved. Used for 
attaching labels to metals, or it will do to write inscriptions with, 
and dust or dab on a little bronze powder over it, varnishing over 
the bronze. 

Ce3ient for Petroleum Lai^its.— Boil 3 parts of resin with 1 
part of caustic soda and 5 of water. The composition is then mixed 
Avith half its weight of plaster of Paris, and sets firmly in J to | of an 
hour. It is of great adhesive power, not permeable to i^etroleum, a low 
conductor of heat, and but superficially attacked by hot water. 

For Lute, or cement for closing joints of apparatus, mix Pans 
l)laster with water to a soft paste, and apply it at once. It bears nearly 
a red heat. To render it impervious, rub it over with wax and oil. 

IvOMAN Cement. — Slaked lime, 1 bush., green copperas, SJ lbs., 
fine gravel sand, J bush. Dissolve the copperas in hot water, and mix 
all together to the proper consistency for use ; use the day it is mixed 
and keep stirring it with a stick while in use. 

Vic at' s Hydraulic Cement is prepared by stirring into water 
a mixture of 4 parts chalk and 1 part clay ; mix with a vertical wheel 
an a circular trough, letting it run out in a large receiver. A deposit 
soon takes place which is formed into small bricks, which after be- 
ing dried in the sun, are moderately calcined. It enlarges about § 
when mixed with water. 

Glue to Resist Moisture. — Glue, 5 parts, resin, 4 parts, red 
ochre, 2 parts, mix with the smallest possible quantity of water. 

CEiiiENT TO Fasten Leather on Top Rollers. — Gum arable, 22 
ozs., isinglass 2J ozs., dissolve each separately in water and mix. ; 

Parcegment Glue. — Parchment shavings, 1 lb., water, G qts. 
Boil till dissolved, strain and envaporate to right consistence. 

To attach Glass or Metal Letters to Plate Glass.— Copal 
vaniish, 15 parts ; drying oil, 5 parts ; turpentine, 3 parts ; oil of tur- 
pentine, 2 parts ; liquefied glue, 5 parts. Melt in a water bath and 
add 10 parts of slaked lime. 

Turners' Ceiment.— Beeswax, 1 oz.; resin, J oz. ; pitch, ^ oz.; 
melt, and stir in fine brick dust. 

Bank Note Glue. — Dissolve 1 lb. of fine glue or gelatine in water; 
evaporate it tni most of the Avater is expelled; add h lb. of brown 
sugar, and pour it into moulds. 

Cement for Electrical Machines ant) Galvanic Troughs.— 
Melt together 5 lbs. of resin and 1 lb. of beeswax, and stir in 1 lb. of 
red ochre (highly dried and still warm) and 4 oz. of plaster of Paris, 
contmuing the heat a little above 212°, and stirring constantly till all 
frothing ceases, or (for troughs) rosin, 6 lbs. ; dried red ochre, 1 lb., 
calcined i)laster of Paris, i lb. ; linseed oil, i lb. 




'■Cliiiir 



giio^ 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 427 



The Corliss High Pressure Steam Engine is constructed in 
the most substantial manner, and embodies many valuable improve- 
ments in its massive fly wheel, governor, valve arrangements, &c. It 
is questionable if any other engine effects a higher economy of steam 
than the engine in question. The following cut exhibits a sectional 
view of the Corliss Cylinder, valve gear, &c. — 




In the cut, S, S, represents the steam or induction valves. E, Y, the 
exhaust valves. P, induction pipe. X, exhaust pipe. A and B, steam 
valves. The immense number of Corliss engines emploved in cotton 
mills and large factories, furnishes abundant proof that they give 
great satisfaction. The action of the Corliss Governor Cut-off ensures 
perfect regularity irrespective of the amount of work performed; for 
It one quarter of the machinery is suddenly turned off, the governor 
cut-off will respond to the call by repressing or cutting off the steam 
m the cylinder at an earlier portion of the stroke. 

The following are the dimensions of the magnificent double actino- 
Corliss vertical beam engines put in operation bv President Grant 
and the Emperor of Brazil, at the Centennial Exhibition, m Phila- 
delphia, May 10, 1876: Engines, 2, of 700-horse power each, or 1500 
collectively, capable of being increased to 2500-horse power ; eleva- 
tion of engines 39 ft. Cylinders, 40 ins. diam., 10 feet stroke, piston 
rods of steel, 6J ins. diam., piston speed 720 ft. per minute. Fly 
Wheel, 30 ft. diam., weight, 56 tons; face, 2 ft., with 216 cogs meshing 
with a pinion on the main line of underground shafting, which is 



428 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 




MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS* DEPAIIT3IENT. 429 



252 it long ; fly-wheel niJikes 36 revolutions per minute, being a 
peripheral speed of 3,384 ft. per minute, or about 38 miles per hour; 
the pinion gear with Avhioh the fly-wheel meshes, is 10 ft. diam., and 
weighs 17,000 lbs. The cranks weigh 3 tons each ; the loorkimj beams 
are 27 ft. long, 9 ft. wide, and weigh 11 tons each. The connecting 
rods are of horse shoe scrap iron, are 24 ft. long, and are formed of 
9,600 horse shoes. The weight of the main gearing, shafting, mitre 
gearing and piiUeys is 365,855 lbs. Boilers, vertical, 20 of 70-horse 
power (nominal) each; the main steam-pipe is of wrought iron, 320 
ft. long, 18 ins. diam., and traverses an alley beneath the floor. 
Weight of engines, boilers, and underground shafting, 700 tons. 




M ASSET'S ROTARY ENGINE. 

A good, efficient, and thoroughly reliable rotary engine would prove 
a great benefaction, as from its manifest simplicity, ease of manage- 
ment, portabilitj% cheapness, &c., such an engine could not fail to 
come into general use. Owing to almost insuperable difficulties, how- 
ever, most of the rotary engines invented during past years have re- 
sulted in failure. In Massey's Rotary Engine, represented in the 
above cut, the inventor claims to have accomplished the signal 
achievement of having surmounted the obstacles just noted, and of 
having produced an engine on the rotary principle which is nearly 
perfect in every respect. 

Imperishable Putty. — Linseed oil, 7 lbs. ; brown nmber, 4 lbs. ; 
boil together two hours ; stir in 2 oz. beeswax, remove from the fire, 
and mix in 5J lbs. chalk and 11 lbs. white lead, mixing thoroughly. 

Cheap Gold Varnish for Ornamental Tin- Ware.— Turpen- 
tine varnish, 2 gals.; turpentine, 1 gal.; asphaltum, 1 gill; umber, 8 
oz, ; yellow aniline, 4 oz. ; gamboge, 1 lb. Boil and mix for 10 hours. 



430 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPAKTMENT. 




JAMES WATT. 

An illustrious and honored name. In 1764, Watt constructed the 
first steam engine of real practical value ever made in England, and 
in 1786 he patented and introduced the first non-condensing engine. 
This improvement consisted in his discovery of the power of cold 
water to condense steam, and he applied this means in a separate 
vessel. Four ounces of water will, in a second, condense 200 feet of 
steam, and reduce their expansive force to one-fifth. 

The Waterous Engine Works Co.'s High Pressure Engine, 
represented in the cut, is in very extensive use in Canada, and is credi- 
ted with first class performances. The improved governor ased on 
this engine is superior to most of the best kinds now manufactured 
in its controlling and regulating action, combined with easy adjust- 
ment. Outer bearings are added to the valve spindles, and brass 
glands to the stuffing boxes, which are held to place with a cap 
screwed on, thus obviating any liability to get out of line. The piston 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 431 




432 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPAKTMENT. 



rods aud crank-pins are of steel, and all valve spindles and engine 
bolts are made of Lowmoor iron. 

The above noted engine must not be confounded with the 20 and 
25-horse power direct action portable engines manufactured by the 
same company, so well known and so extensively used in driving jsaw 
mills, and performing work comiected with ship building in the 
Maratime Provinces, and other parts of the Dominion of Canada. 
These engines and mills are considered by many who use them as 
marvels of perfection, several parties having sent in attestations of 
having performed nearly double the work guaranteed by the com- 
pany. 




RICHARD'S INDICATOR, BY ELLIOT BROTHERS, LONDON. 

The above cut represents a Richards Steam Engine Indicator, 
consisting of a cylinder containing an accurately adjusted piston, the 
upper side of which is always exposed to the downward pressure of 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPAKTMENT. 433 

the atmosphere, and fitted with a stiff spiral spring of known strength 
to resist the upward movement of the steam when it operates from 
beneath. The indications of the instrument are exhibited by means 
of a pencil connected with the piston and operated by the fluctuating 
pressure of the steam, whereby the pencil is compelled to move up or 
down in a vertical direction, and describe a line on a piece of paper 
placed on the card barrel or drum shown in the cut, with the gradu- 
ated scale, the drum in the meantime being compelled to move hither 
and thither on its axis by means of a cord connecting it with a suit- 
able part of the engine operating to draw it one way against the ten- 
sion of a spring during the forward stroke of the engine, the back- 
ward movement of the drum towards its original position being 
effected by the operation of the spring while the cord is relaxed dur- 
ing the return stroke of the engine. The piston to which the pencil 
is attached, is -very light, has very little friction, small momentum, 
and very limited motion, the spring on the upper part being quite 
stiff and rigid, and so graduated in strength that a variation in the 
pressure of 1 lb. to the square inch will force the pencil up or down a 
definite part of an inch. The indicator is intended to exhibit the 
pressure of steam in the cylinder at every part of the piston's travel, 
and thus show the actual or indicated horse-power. In applying the 
indicator to horizontal cylinders, the proper place for insertion is on 
the upper side, near the ends, but averted as much as possible from 
the steam ports, as the rushing steam has a tendency to derange the 
indications. ^ Vertical cyhnders should be tapped at the upper end, 
and the indicator cock screwed in, or the aperture in which the oil 
cup is inserted maybe used for that purpose; for the lower end, drill 
through the side of the cylinder, and insert a tube with the end bent 
upwards for the reception of the indicator cock. The indicator be- 
ing in position, a cord (fine wire is preferable), from the paper barrel 
is attached to a " reducing wheel," which is secured to some part of 
the engine frame; another cord connects the reducing wheel with the 
piston head ; the intervention of this wheel is necessary in order to 
diminish or reduce the long movement of the piston to a sufficient 
extent to conform to the small size of the instrument used. The 
connection being complete, ^^^ the engine in motion, the paper bar- 
rel will commence to revolve with the forward movement of the 
piston, in antagonism to the tension of the coiled spring above noted, 
when the cord^is relaxed bv the return stroke of the piston, the paper 
barrel, operated by the spring, will resume its original position, and 
this motion will contmue as Ions: as may be desirable. The pencil, 
if now allowed to press upon the moving paper, will describe a 
straight horizontal line, called the atmospheric bne. On the admis- 
sion of steam by turning the tap of the indicator, this horizontal 
motion vrill suddenly change into an upward or downward move- 
ment, just as the piston in the indicator is driven upwards by the 
steam or downwards by the atmosphere, as either gains the ascend- 
ancy; and the pencil will describe, on the moving paper, a space or 
outline, compounded of the two motions, called an indicator diagram, 
each point in the course of which will determine, by its elevation or 
depression above the atmospheric line, the exact amount of pressure 
in that part of the cylinder during each part of the forward and re- 
turn stroke. Many prefer to trace the indicator diagram previous to 
tracing the atmospheric line. 

-28 



434 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 

In diagram E, the atmospheric line A B, described by the pencil 
without steam, is equivalent to the stroke of the piston, which may- 
be divided into as many aliquot parts as there are inches in the stroke 
of the piston. Perpendiculars raised on this line will cut the diagram 
at points indicating the corresponding pressure. The curved line 
A B, traced by the pencil, exhibits the varying pressure of the steam 
during the steam stroke, in the direction A B, and during the return 
stroke B A ; the continuation B C A represents similarly the back 
I)ressure due to incomplete exhaust. The curve is thus arranged to 
begin and end in itself, and it plainly represents the pressure of the 
steam on one side of the piston during a double stroke. Divide the 
base line into inches of stroke, say 20, and at each division draw 
vertical lines ; similarly draw lines parallel to the atmospheric line 
at equal distances, of say 10 lbs. pressure by the indicator scale ; the 
force of steam at all joints of the stroke will be obvious. 



JExpajision-^ — « ^ ^tartin^ 

Comer St earn Stroke. Corner 



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Meturn Stroke, 



To Compute the Power of the Diagram— Set down the length of 
the spaces formed by the vertical lines from the base, in measure- 
ments of a scale accompanying the indicator, and on which a 10th of 
an inch usually represents a pound of pressure; add up the total 
length of all the spaces, and divide by the number of spaces, which 
will give the mean length, or the mean pressure upon the piston in 
pounds per square inch; multiply the area of the piston in square 
inches by the pressure in pounds per square inch, and by the speed 
of the piston, in feet, per minute, and divide by 33,000, which gives 
the actual number of horses' power. 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 435 

At such times a register should be used to count the number of 
revolutions per minute. Note the size of the ports, the form and 
kind of engine, the lap and lead of the A^alve, the exhaust lead, the 
pressure of steam in the boiler, diameter of cylinder, number of 
strokes per minute, the diameter and length of steam pipe, the pomt 
of cut-off, the height of the barometer and temperature of the engine 
room ; and the vacuum by gauge, the temperature of the hot- well, 
and that of the injection water, if the operation has been performed 
on a condensing engine. To take a diagram with absolute truth it 
is necessary to operate at each end of the cylinder. 
Power Required for Various Purposes. — 

To drive a 20 to 30 inch circular saw, 4 to 6 horse power. 
" 32 to 40 " " 12 " " 

" 48 to 50 " " 15 " '' 

" ^ 50 to 62 " " 25 " '' 



POWER ISTECESSAIIY TO 


GRIND GRAIX WITH PORTABLE MILLS. 


Horse 
Power. 


Size of 
Stones. 


Revolutions 

per 

Minute. 


Bushels Corn 

Ground 

per Hour. 


Bushels of 

Wheat Ground 

per Hour. 


2 to 4 
4 to 6 
6 to 8 
8 to 12 
12 to 15 


12-inch. 

20 " 
30 " 
36 " 

48 " 


800 to 900 
650 to 700 
550 to 600 
450 to 500 
350 to 400 


Ito 4 

5 to 8 

10 to 15 

18 to 25 

25 lo 35 


Ito 3 

4 to 6 

7 to 10 

12 to 15 

15 to 18 



Saw Machit^e for Stoxes. — Soft Sand Stone : Breadth of saw- 
cut, J inch; time required to saw 10 square feet, 5 mmutes 25 seconds; 
power expended, 4.54 horses, Hai^d Sand Stone: breadth of cut, 
5 inch ; time employed to cut 10 square feet, 1 hour 37 minutes ; pow- 
er required, 2 horses. In sawing stone the labor on calcareous stones 
is as 45 to 50; on granite, as 500 to 700; on porphyry 1,200. A mar- 
ble saw requires half a horse power. 

Water WoiiKfi.—(Moleswort7i.)—l gal. of water = 16 cubic ft. ap- 
proximately; 1 cubic foot of water = 61/4 gallons approximately. 

Consumption of water in toivns.— 16 gallons per head per day in non- 
manufacturing towns; 20 gallons per day in manufacturing towns. The 
mam should be large enough for double the usual quantity. Impoundinff 
reservoirs to contain about 120 days' supply in the less rainv districts in 
^^ ?^ ^ A^^^^i^® reservoirs to contain 3 davs' supply. On the average, 
about 6-lOths of the rainfall is available for storage. Loss from overflow 
ot storm-water, about 10 per cent. Evaporation is 50 per cent, less on 
T* fl'^l'"^ than on an undulating rocky country. 

Infiltration, m England, in winter 33 per cent. 

,, ,, inspring 35 '^ " 

" msummer 2 *' <* 

" „ " in autumn 48 " " 

Average of the year - 42 «* « 

Filters for' Water Works.— 1 square yard' of filter* for every 700 
gallons m 24 hours; formed of 2 ft. 6 ins. of fine sand, 6 in. of com- 
mon sand, 6 ins. of shells, 2 ft. 6 irs. of gravel. 

Perforated pipes to be laid in the lowest stratum. 

To Unite Water Pipes.— An excellent material for uniting 
water pipes is prepared by combining 4 parts of Portland cement and 
1 part of unslacked lime, mixed together in small portions in a stout 
mortar, adding enough water to permit it to be reduced to a soft paste. 



436 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 




THE ALLEN" HIGH PRESSURE CUT-OFF ENGINE. 

The enoliie represented above is constructed in the best manner, and 
valuable improvements have been introduced Avith a view to attain a 
very high speed and thus ensure immense power in a limited space. 
The travel of the piston is from 600 to 800 ft. per minute, and the 
engine is constructed of the best material, and is of excellent design 
throughout. 

Hampson akd Whetehill's High Pkessure Engine. — This 
massive and powerful engine (see cut) is in quite extensive use, and 
is noted for its substantial construction, its excellent valve arrange- 
ment, powerful governor, economical expansion gear, and many other 
valuable points. 

The following Table shows the Dimensions, Power. Weight, 
&c., of different kinds op Portable Steam Engines and 
Boilers.— Haswell. 



Power. 


Cylinder. 


Driving or Fly 
Wheels, 


Weight of 
Engine and 






. 






Nom- 


Act- 


S 


^• 


Revolu- 


Boiler. 


inal. 


ual.* 


Dial 

Stro 




tions. 










ins. 




lbs. 


4 


4.7 


4x 10 


2V2X 6 


175 


2,800 


5 


7.3 


5x 10 


3X7 


175 


3,200 


7 


10.5 


6x 10 


31/2 X 7 
32/3X 8 


175 


4,200 


8 


14.3 


7 X 10 


175 


4,900 


12 


19.2 


8 Xl2 


4X8 


150 


6,100 


15 


24.3 


9X 12 


5X9 


150 


6,900 


20 


30.9 


10 X 16 


6 X 10 


116 


11,200 


25 


36.3 


11 X18 


6 X 10 


100 


12,.300 


30 


43.2 


12 X 18 


6 X 12 


100 


13,800 


40 


58.8 


14X18 


7 X 14 


100 


16,700 



* Computed at 60 lbs. pressure. All the Portable Engines have two fly 
wheels, or Driving pulleys. 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 437 




438 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS^ DEPARTMENT. 



The Baxter Portable Steam Ei^gi^s^e, as manufactured by 
the Colt Arms Co. of Hartford, Comi., is made of five sizes, embracing 
two, four, six, eight, and ten-horse power, respectively, is certainly 
one of the most complete, unique, simple, and economical portable 
eno-ines ever constructed. It is too well known to require a detailed 
descri on ; but two illustrations are presented herewith, the first 
showi g a front view of the exterior part, and the other exhibiting a 
sectional view of the plain boiler for the two-horse power engine. 




The largest size has a bursting strength corresponding to 500 lbs. 
to the square inch, whereas the working pressure is about 70 lbs. ; the 
smallest size a bursting strength of 1000 lbs., and a working pressure 
of about 90 lbs. All the heating surfaces are below the water line, 
which ensures safety to the boiler. The circulation of the water within 
the boiler is perfect, thus holding the sediment in suspension, so that 
it may be expelled by blowing out. The cylinder and its parts are 
kept hot by immersion in the'steam, so that no caloric is lost, and the 
piston has a vertical movement, so that there is but little wear and 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT, 439 

tear resulting from friction. It is hardly possible to explode the 
boiler in any contingency, and 100 lbs. of coal will run a four-horse 
engine for 10 hours. The whole machine is composed of about 130 
component parts, all interchangeable, so that each article can be fur- 
nished by the manufacturer, as it may be required to effect repairs 
rendered necessary by wear or breakage. The engine has a piston 
speed of about 200 feet per minute, the diameter of the piston is about 
the same as the length of the stroke, and the valve arrangement is 
most complete. 

Griffith and Wedge's Yertical Portable Engine. — The 
engine represented below presents a combination of many valuable 
features, among others, the mini- 
mum of friction, owing to the 
vertical position of the cylhider, 
an iiiiprovement which is quite a 
novelty on engines of this de- 
scription, and effectually pre- 
vents the unequal Avear of the 
cylinder and piston to which all 
horizontal engines are liable. 
The whole mechanical arrange- 
ments are most complete, ' and so 
efficient that it can be driven from 
275 revolutions, the i)roper speed 




GRIFFITH AND WEDGE'S VERTICAL PORTABLE EN"GINE. 



for saw iiiills, to 460 revolutions per minute, without' overtasking the 
boiler. 



440 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 




ROBERT FULTON, 



THE PIOKEER OF STEAM NAVIGATIOIS^ IN AMERICA. 

While Robert Fulton was in England, converting a speculation into 
a reality, he was on friendly intercourse with Sir R. Phillips, to whom 
he wrote a triumphant letter on the evening of his first voyage on the 
Hudson. This letter was shown to Earl'Stanhope and four or five 
eminent engineers, but treated with scorn as descriptive of an impos- 
sibility, sir R. Phillips then advertised for a company to repeat on 
the Thames what had been done on the Hudson, but he obtained 
only two ten-pound conditional subscribers, after expending some 
pounds in advertising! He then printed, with commendation, Ful- 
ton's letter in the Monthly Magazine and his credulity was general- 
ly reprobated. Then, for several years, the American accounts were 
treated as falsehoods, till a man ruined himself by launching a vessel 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 441 

on the Clj'de. Three Scotchmen afterwards made experiments. It 
was, however, a mere speculation until taken up by Fulton in 1806-7, 
a-nd introduced on the American rivers. Thence Bell introduced it to 
the Clyde. At first every one derided the inventor as well as the in- 
vention, being afraid to trust themselves on the boat. The ignoble 
treatment accorded by America to the memory of her noble son, the 
generous Fulton, is a blot most foul upon her banner. Hundreds of 
thousands now avail themselves of the great invention which his 
genius brought to light, on the waters and wharves where 70 years 
ago, during his life time, the name of the poor unrequited inventor 
was a laughing stock and a bye-word. It is but a few days ago that 
a relation appeared in the New York Sun, giving an account of the 
accidental discovery of his bones in a vault, where, as we now learn, 
they had been granted a temporary resting place by ihe favor of the 
owner, and finally forgotten. 

Sugar Mill for C.ajn'es.— A 3-cylinder mill, with rollers 5J f t. 
long, 30 ins. diam., and making 2J turns per minute, driven by an 
engine of 25 to 30 horse power, will express the juice out of 100 tons 
of canes in 12 to 15 hours. An acre of land produces from 10 to 20 
tons of canes, according to the age and locality of the canes. The 
juice stands from 8 to 12 of the sacchrometer, according to the localitj^ 
The product in sugar varies from 6 to 10 per cent, of the weight of 
the canes, according to the locality and mode of manufacture. Well 
constructed mills give in juice from 60 to 70 per cent, of the weight of 
the canes, and one main condition of efficiency is, that the rollers 
shall travel slowly, as with too great a speed the juice has not time 
to separate itself from the woody refuse of the cane, and much of it 
is reabsorbed. To defecate 330 gals, of juice, 6 boiling pans or caul- 
drons are required, 4 scum presses, and 10 filters, and to granulate 
the sugar, 2 vacuum pans, 64 feet diam., are required, with two con- 
densers, and it is better also to have two air pumps. The steam for 
boiling the liquor in the vacuum pans is generated in 3 cyhndrical 
boilers, each 6 ft. in diam. To whiten the sugar, there are 10 centri- 
fugal machines, driven by a 12 h. p. engine, which also drives a pair 
of crushing rollers. — Bourne. 

Oil Mill.— Weight of edge runners, 6,000 lbs. ; number of turns 
of the vertical spindle per minute, 6; weight of seed introduced every 
10 minutes, 55 lbs. ; weight of seed crushed daily, 3,300 lbs. ; product 
in oil m 12 hours, 1,320 lbs. : power expended, 2*72 horses. 

Hydrostatic Press.— 30 bales of cotton per hour. Engine {high 
pressure cylinder), 10 ins. diam. ; stroke of piston, 3 ft. ; Pressure of 
steam, 50 lbs. per square inch; full stroke; Revolutions, 45 to 60 per 
minute; Presses, 2, with 12-inch rams; stroke, 4-5 ft.; Pumps, 2; 
diam., 2 ms. ; stroke, 6 ins. — Haswell. 

FuLLixG Mill.— In fulling the cloth called '' Beauchamps,*' 
each piece bemg 220 vds. long and .66 wide, and weighmg from 121 to 
127 lbs., the fuller makes 100 to 120 strokes per minute; each piece 
requires 2 hours to full it, and the expenditure of 2 horse power 
during that time. — Bourne. 

Indelible Red Ink for Cotton and Woollen Mills.— Use 
equal parts of copperas and cinnabar, both in fine powder, sift, and rub 
up ^ith linseed oil with a mnller; then squeeze through cloth. 
Used for writing or stampmg on cotton or woollen goods, it cannot be 
bleached out. 



442 MACPIINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 

Wind Mills. — The length of an arm (whip) is divided into seven 
parts, the sails extending over six parts. The force of wind at 10 miles 
an hour, is half a pound per square foot ; at 14 miles is a pound ; at 
20 miles 2 lbs. ; at 25 miles 3 lbs. ; at 35 miles 6 lbs. ; at 45 miles 10 
lbs. ; at 60 miles 17| lbs. ; and at 100 miles is nearly 50 lbs. The driv- 
ing shaft of a wind mill should be set at an elevated angle Avith the 
horizon when set in low localities, and at a depressed angle when set 
on elevations. These angles may range from 3° to 85o. To give the 
fullest effect to the force of the wind, the sails are inclined to the axis 
from 72° to 75°. The tips of the sails often move £0 miles per hour, 
or 44 feet per second. From tip to tip is about 70 feet, and the 
breadth from 5 to 6 feet The jierformance of such a mill is equiva- 
lent to the power of 34 men. 

Experiments prove, 1st, That in a vertical wind mill employed to 
grind corn, the mill stone usually makes 5 revolutions to 1 of the sail. 
2nd, When the wind is 19 feet per second, the sails will make from 11 
to 12 revolutions per minute, and the mill will grind 880 to 990 lbs. in 
an hour, or about 22,000 lbs. in 24 houis. 3d, With the Avind at 30 
feet per second, a mill will carry all sail, and make 22 revolutions per 
minute, grinding 1984 lbs. of flour in an hour, or 47,690 lbs. in 24 hours. 

Froni the experiments of Smeaton, it appeals that the following 
positions are the best. Suppose the radius to be divided into 6 equal 
parts, and call the first part, beginning with the centre, 1, the second 
2, and so on, the extreme part being 6 : — 

NO. AN 

1 

2 
8 
4 
5 
G 

French Flour Mill. — Diameter of millstones, 70 inches; num- 
ber of revolutions per minute, 70 ; quantity of com ground and sifted 
per hour, 260.7 lbs.; power consumed, 3.34 horses, as tested by the 
djaiamometer. 

English Flour Mill. — Diameter of millstones51.18 inches; rev- 
olutions per minute, 110 ; corn ground per hour by each revolving 
millstone, 220 lbs. ; power required for two revolving stones, 5.64 
horses. Power consumed by one winnowing machine and two bolt- 
hig machines, with brushes sifting 1,650 lbs. of flour per hour was 6J 
horses. In another mill the number of turns of the millstone was 486 
per minute, the quantity of corn ground by each horse power was 120 
lbs., of which 72.7 per cent, was flour, 7.8 per cent, was meal, and 
19.5 per cent, was bran. In a portable flour mill, with machinery for 
cleaning and sifting, the total weight was 1000 lbs. — Bourne. 

English Flour Mill near'Metz. — Diameter of stones, 51.18 
inches ; number of revolutions per minute, 110 ; weight of millstone, 
1 ton ; corn ground per hour by each pair, 220 lbs. with two pairs of 
millstones acting, 1 bolting and 1 winnowing machine; the power con- 
sumed was 8i horse power. — Bourne. 5 bushels of Northern, and 4J 
buvshels of Southern wheat, are required to make 1 barrel of flour; 2 
lbs. of Avheat make about 3 lbs of bread. 







ANGLE WITH THE 


; with 


AXIS 


PLANE OF MOTION. 


72 deg. 




18 deg. 


71 " 




19 " 


72 '' 




18 '' 


74 " 




^ 16 " 


77^ '' 




12h " 


83 '' 




7 - 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 443 




The Lsffel Improved Double Tukbine Water Wheel.— 
This celebrated wheel (see cut), manufactured by Jas. Leffel & Co., 
of Springfield, Ohio, and ISTew Haven, Conn., of which there are now 
about 8,000 in use, combines two independent sets and kinds of buck- 
ets, one a vertical, and the other a central discharge, differing entirely 
from each other in the principle of action upon the water. The two 
sets of buckets are so combined as to make really but one wheel, and 
by their arrangement admit the greatest possible quantity of water 
consistent with economical use to any given wheel of whatever size, 
and at the same time the greatest area for the escape of the water is 
.Tccuredo Thus, the surface of the wheel is reduced to a minimum, 
as compared with the quantity of water used, and a very great loss 
of power by friction is avoided. In connection with these wheels the 
Globe cast-iron casing is coming to be almost universally used, espe- 
cially for the smaller wheels. Many of them^ are placed under heads 
of water, varying from 80 to 240 feet, and the tremendous pressure 
is withstood in the most admirable manner. The severest test, that 
of taking the place of an over-shot wheel under a very high fall, and 
with an extremely limited supply of water, is repeatedly applied, and 
in every instance with the most complete success. For over 12 years 



444 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS^ DEPART3IENT. 



this wheel has stood the severest practical tests, developiDg the ut- 
most power from a given quantity of water, in aU places and under 
all circumstances, from the magnificent cotton mill down to the 
humble frontier saw and grist mill. 

Table of Spouti^^g Velocity akd Discharge of Water for 

Gate Orifices. 



B 


E 


1 F 


1 B 


E 


I F 


1 B 1 


E 


F 1 


B I 


E 


F 


1 


17.61 


0.62 


11 


58.51 


2.03 


21 


80.84 


2.81 


31 


.98.22 


3.41 


2 


24.95 


0.86 


12 


61.11 


2.12 


22 


82.75 


2.87 


32 


99.80 


3.46 


3 


30.55 


1.16 


13 


63.61 


2.21 


23 


84.61 


2.93 


33 


101.34 


3.52 


4 


35.28 


1,22 


14 


66.01 


2.29 


24 


86.43 


3.00 


34 


102.87 


3.57 


5 


39.45 


1.37 


15 


68.33 


2.37 


25 


88.21 


3.06 


35 


104.37 


3.63 


6 


43.21 


1.50 


16 


70.57 


2.45 


26 


89.96 


3.12 


! 36 


105.85 


3.67 


7 


46.68 


1.62 


17 


72.74 


2.53 


27 


91.67 


3.18 


37 


107.31 


3.72 


8 


49.90 


1.73 


18 


74.85 


2.60 


28 


93.35 


3.24 


38 


108.75 


3.77 


9 


52.92 


1.84 


19 


76.90 


2.67 


29 


95.00 


3.30 


39 


110.17 


3.82 


10 


55.79 


1.94 


20 


78.90 


2.75 1 


30 


96.63 


3.55 


40 


111.58 


3.87 



The above table gives depth in inches from 1 to 40, as noted under 
columns B. Columns E represent the velocity per second, in inches 
and decimals of an inch. Columns F represent the number of cubic 
feet per minute for each square inch of orifice. 

Illustration. — Suppose the opening under a forebay gate, re- 
quired to pass the water of a stream, is 48 inches wide and 3 inches 
deep, with a head of water (B) in forebay of 28 ins. ; to find the water 
discharged, run down the columns marked B until you come to 28 ins. 
(head given in this example); then run across to column F, and you 
will find 3.24, the number of cubic feet of water discharged by an 
orifice 1 in. square, under 28 ins. head. The area of the opening 
given, 48 ins. by 3 ins. is 144 square inches; this multiplied by 3.24 
gives 466.56 cubic feet that the above opening will discharge per min- 
ute. This table gives the actual and not the theoretical discharge. 

In the measurement of large open streams, first asceitain the mean 
velocity in feet per minute, and also the area of cross section of the 
stream in square feet, when the product of these two quantities will 
give the required quantity of water afforded by the stream. The 
velocity of such stream can be estimated by throwing floating bodies 
on the surface of near the specific gravity of the water, and rating the 
time accurately required in passing a given distance. It is generally 
best to ascertain the velocity at the centre, and from this ascertain 
the mean velocity, which has been found by accurate and reliable ex- 
periments to be 83 per cent., or about four-fifths of the velocity of the 
surface of the stream. The cross section may be estimated by measur- 
ing the depth of the stream at a number of points, at equal distances 
apart (these points beuig in a line across the stream), adding the 
depths together, and multiplying their sum by the distance apart in 
feet of any two points. This will give the result required in square 
feet of cross section, when the product of mean velocity in feet per 
minute and cross section in square feet, obtains the quantity of water 
that the stream affords in cubic feet per miiuite. LeffelVs Wheel 
Book, 

Saw and Grist Mill. — A Waterous* 40-horse-power engine will 
drive a 60 inch circular saw, capable of cutting 20,000 feet of ship 
plank in 12 hours, edger, trimmer, shingle machines, lath machine, 
and bolter, and 2 run of stones in grist mill. 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 445 

Pitch of Wheels, beixg a Table of Radii of Wheels in 
Inches, hayixg fuo:m 7 to 22G teeth, the Pitch being 2 inches, 
SHOWING hot;^ to compute the Pitch for a designated Diam- 
eter, OR THE Diameter for a Designated Pitch. 



Teeth. 


Radius. 


Teeth. 


Radius. 


Teeth. 


Radius. 


Teeth. 


Radius. 


Teeth. 1 


'7 


2.29 


51 


16.24 


95 


30.24 


139 


44.25 


183 


8 


2.61 


52 


16.56 


96 


30.56 


140 


44.57 


184 


9 


2.93 


53 


16.88 


97 


30.88 


141 


44.88 


185 


10 


3.24 


54 


17.20 


98 


31.20 


142 


45.20 


186 


11 


3.55 


55 


17.52 


99 


31.52 


143 


45.52 


187 


12 


3.86 


56 


17.83 


100 


31.84 


144 


45.84 


188 


13 


4.18 


57 


18.15 


101 


32.15 


145 


46.16 


189 


14 


4.49 


58 


18.47 


102 


32.47 


146 


46.48 


190 


15 


4.81 


59 


18.79 


103 


32.79 


147 


46.79 


191 


16 


5.12 


60 


19.11 


104 


33.11 


148 


47.11 


192 


17 


5.44 


61 


19.42 


105 


33.43 


149 


47.43 


193 


18 


5.76 


62 


19.74 


1C6 


33.74 


150 


47.75 


194 


19 


6.39 


63 


20.06 


107 


34.06 


151 


48.07 


195 


20 


6.71 


64 


20.38 


108 


34.38 


152 


48.39 


186 


21 


7.71 


65 


20.70 


109 


34.70 


153 


48.70 


197 


22 


7.03 


66 


21.02 


110 


35.02 


154 


49.02 


198 


23 


7.34 


67 


21.33 


111 


35.34 


155 


49.34 


199 


24 


7.66 


68 


21.65 


112 


35.65 


156 


49.66 


200 


25 


7.98 


69 


21.97 


113 


35.97 


157 


49.98 


201 


26 


8.30 


70 


22.29 


114 


36.29 


158 


50.30 


202 


27 


8.61 


71 


22.61 


115 


36.61 


159 


50.61 


203 


28 


8.93 


72 


22.92 


116 


36.93 


160 


50.93 


204 


29 


9.25 


73 


23.24 


117 


37.25 


161 


51.25 


205 


30 


9.57 


74 


23.56 


118 


37.56 


162 


51.57 


206 


31 


9.88 


75 


23.88 


119 


37.88 


163 


51.89 


207 


32 


10.20 


76 


24.20 


120 


38.20 


164 


52.21 


208 


S3 


10.52 


77 


24.52 


121 


38.52 


165 


52.52 


209 


34 


10.84 


78 


24.83 


122 


38.84 


166 


52.84 


210 


35 


11.16 


79 


25.15 


123 


39.16 


167 


53.16 


211 


36 


11.47 


80 


25.47 


124 


39.47 


168 


53.48 


212 


37 


11.79 


81 


25.79 


125 


39.79 


169 


53.80 


213 


38 


12.11 


82 


26.11 


126 


40.11 


170 


54.12 


214 


39 


12.43 


83 


26.43 


127 


40.43 


171- 


-54.43 


215 


40 


12.74 


84 


26.74 


128 


40.75 


172 


54.75 


216 


41 


13.06 


85 


27.06 


129 


41.07 


173 


55.07 


217 


42 


13.38 


86 


27.38 


130 


41.38 


174 


55.39 


218 


43 


13.70 


87 


27.70 


131 


41.70 


175 


55.71 


219 


44 


14.02 


88 


28.02 


132 


42.02 


176 


56.02 


220 


45 


14.33 


89 


28.34 


133 


42.34 


177 


56.34 


221 


46 


14.65 


90 


28.65 


134 


42.66 


178 


56.66 


222 


47 


14.97 


91 


28.97 


135 


42.98 


179 


56.98 


223 


48 


15.29 


92 


29.30 


136 


43.29 


180 


57.23 


224 


49 


15.61 


93 


29.61 


137 


43 61 


181 


57.62 


225 


50 


15.93 


94 


29-93 


138 


43.93 


182 


58.93 


226 



Radius 

58.25 
58.57 
58.89 
59 21 
59.53 
59.84 
60.16 
60.48 
60.80 
61.13 
61.44 
61.76 
62.07 
62.39 
62.71 
63.03 
63.34 
63.66 
63-98 
64.30 
64.62 
64.94 
65.26 
65.57 
65.89 
66.21 
66.53 
66.85 
67.17 
67.48 
67.80 
68.12 
68.44 
68.76 
69.07 
69.39 
69.71 
70.03 
70.35 
70.67 
70.68 
71.30 
71.66 
71.94 



To find the Radius for any given Pitch other than two inches, thfe rule 
is, as two inches is to the given pitch, so is the radius of the Table to 
the radius required, or, to determine the number of Teeth in a -wheel for 
a designated pitch and diameter, divide the diameter by the pitch, and 
opposite to the quotient, in the Table will be found the proper number 
of teeth. 

Wheel Gearing, Constructiok of Teeth. — The cut represents 
a section of a pair of gears whose teeth act on each other on the same 
plane ; they are known as sjmr gear. The largest is a sinir mortice 



446 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS^ DEPARTMENT. 



ivheel, fitted with wooden cogs. A shows the square wooden cogs, 
generally driven into mortice wheels previous to being laid off with 
the dividers and dressed down to the exact pitch and outlme, as shown 




m the shaded part representing the finished tootli. The teeth of the 
small wheel (called the driven, the large one with the cogs being known 
as the driver) are iron, being cast with the wheel, and are sufficiently 
strong if but half the size of cogs. 

The pitch line (see dotted lines extending from B to C, and from D 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 447 

to E) is a circle of sufficient dimensions to permit the requisite num- 
ber of teeth and spaces to be laid out on it. 

The length of a tooth should be .7 of the pitch, A of it being below 
the pitch liiie, and .3 above, as shown in cut. As a general thing, the 
greater the breadth of a tooth across the surface the longer it will wear. 
By the pitch is understood the space between the middle or centres 
of two adjoining teeth, as shown by the arrows at F F, or the breadth 
of a tooth and a space, as shown by the arrows at G G. The semi- 
diameter running to the pitch line is called the pitch radius. 

The true or chordlal pitch is a straight line drawn between the 
centres of two adjoining teeth, and is that by which the dimensions 
of the teeth and speed of wheel are computed. 

The radius is the space between the centre of the wheel and the 
periphery of a tooth, or half the diameter of the wheel. 

The line of centres, shown at H, passes through the centres of two 
wheels, and on this line the pitch circles of the wheels should merge 
into each other (as shown in cut) when they are properly regulated 
for operation. 

Proportion of Teeth of Wheels—. 

From pitch line to top of tooth r= Pitch x 0*3.3 
Total depth of tooth = Pitch x 0*75 

Thickness of tooth on pitch line = Pitch X 0*45 
Space between teeth on pitch line =z Pitch x 0*55 
Thickness of rim of wheel = Pitch, x 0*45 

Thickness of arms in flat =r Pitch x 2*50 

Thickness round centre = Pitch x 1*30 

Mortice wheels to be wider than iron wheels by twice the thickness of 
the rim ; rim to be double the thickness of iron wheels. 

Pitches of Equivalent Strength for the Teeth of Wheels in 
Different Materials — 

Pitch for cast iron = 1*00 

" brass =: 1*00 

" hardwood — 1-20 

*' " according to other authorities = 1-26 

The number of arms in wheels should be as follows :— 

1-5 to 3.26 feet in diameter, 4 ] 8.5 to 16 feet in diameter, 8 

3-25 to 5 " "5 16 to 24 '' '* 10 

5 to 8.5 '* '' 6 I 

Fly AVheels. — Weight of rim should be 85 to 95 lbs. per horse 
power, momentum of wheel being 4J times that of the piston; dia- 
meter 3 to 4 times that of the stroke of the engme. Single-acting 
engines, fly-wheel to be 5 times heavier than in double acting engines. 

To Compute Weight of Rim — Multiply the mean effective pressure 
upon the piston, in pounds, by its stroke, in feet, and divide the jpro- 
duct by the product of the square of the number of revolutions, the 
diameter of the wheel, and '00023. For a light wheel multiply by 
•0003; for a heavy one by '00016. 

To Compute Dimensions of i^mi— Multiply the weight, in pounds, 
by '1, and divide the product by the mean diameter of the rim, in 
feet ; the quotient will give the sectional area of the rim in square 
inches of cast iron. 

Ginning Cotton — 4 horse power will drive a gin of from 40 to 60 
saws, and for every additional 20 saws add 1 horse power. 

Threshing Grain — 4 horse power should thresh 50 bushels per 
hour ; 6 to 8 horse power will drive the ordinary 10 to 12 horse 
thresher rnd reMnrntor. 



448 31ACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 




BORIISTG MACHINE FOR SUBMARINE TUNNELS. 

The above engraving represents a back view of the tunnelling or 
boring machine intende'd to be used in perforating the proposed tunnel 
under the English Channel, between France and England. Opera- 
tions have already been commenced on the French coast, and fer- 
vent hopes are entertained that no insurmountable obstacles will be 
encountered. The chalk formation through which it is proposed to 
drive the tunnel, is 400 feet thick on the English coast and 300 feet 
on the French ; and, as the Straits of Dover are in no part deeper than 
186 feet, it is confidently anticipated that the proposed enterprise Avill 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS* DEPARTMENT. 449 

be successful. It is intended tliat tlie machine will at once bore out 
the tunnel to the proper size, 16 or 18 feet in diameter ; and, as the 
soil to be iDcnetrated consists only of soft chalk beds, it is thought 
that all the operations can be conducted without resorting to the use 
of steel drills or blasting operations, as simple boring tools will be 
all that will be requisite. The power will be transmitted from a 
steam engine placed at the mouth of the shaft or entrance to the tun- 
nel, by means of a wire rope connectmg with the first wheel or 
pulley, as shown in the cut, which then, by means of intermediate 
gearing, &c. , communicates motion to a series of cutters and borers in 
front of the machine. Should this arrangement prove too compli- 
cated, it is most probable that compressed air will be used as a sub- 
stitute for steam power. The machine, as represented above, is im- 
movably braced by means of two uprights, fitted with stout rollers, 
extended against the arch above, and four projecting wheels with 
triple flanges, fitted into temporary rails below, the whole being 
further secured by two heavy jack-screws, one above the machine 
and another below, pressing on proper bearings against the contri- 
vance from the top and bottom of the tunnel. It is estimated that 
the tunnel, if driven through the lower chalk formation, will be about 
23 miles long ; but in the event of serious obstacles arising from over- 
whelming quantities of water breaking in, it is not improbable that 
the advice of Professor Prestwick may be followed : to drive a tun- 
nel through the Paleozoic rocks (the lowest fossiliferous strata), Avhich 
are supposed to be about 600 feet below the surface at Dover, in 
which event the length Avould somewhat exceed the above estimate. 
The only question in connection with the prosecution of this enormous 
enterprise, is merely one of money, as the scientific appliances of 
the present day put the j)racticability of the work beyond a doubt. 
That a vast amount of money will be required, may be manifest from 
the following table, compiled by Major IvicClellan, U. S. A., showing 
the cost of tuimels in various localities prior to 1855 : — 



Location. 



Per Cubic 
Yard. 



Black Rock, U.S., grey 

wacke slate $6 60 

Blaisley, Prance, lined 3 18 
Blisworth, Eng., blue 

clav, lined 1 55 

Blue'^Ridge, U. S..^^^ 4 00 



Location. 



Per Cubic 
Yard. 



England, freestone, mar- 
ble, clay, &c., lined. . 

Lehigh, U.S., hard gran- 
ite ... 

Schuylkill, U. S., slate.. 

Union, U. S. . slate 



^3 46 

4 36 
2 00 
2 08 



Railway Tukn'els iii soft sandstone, in the United States, cost, 
without linins:, per lineal yard, ^88. In loose ground, thick lining, 
per lineal yard, 37.10. Ordinary brick lining, mcluding centering, per 
cubic yard, ^8.50. 

Shafts.— Blaisley Tunnel, clav, chalk, and loose earth, cost, per 
yard in depth, $139.11. Deepest, *646 ft. Black Rock, 7 ft. in diam. 
and 139 in depth, hard slate, cost, per yard in depth, $79.50, or per 
cubic vard, $18. 72. The time required to drive the heading of the 
Black Rock Tunnel for 1782-5 feet, was 23,387 turns of 12 hours each. 

The Ingersoll Rock Drill, represented in the cuts, is a most 
powerful and effective mechanical appliance in the varied require- 

29 



450 MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 



ments of tmnielling, mining, submarine blasting, &c. It works on 

the percussion 
principle, and is 
operated either by 
steam power, as il- 
^\\\ lustrated in the 
"^^ cut, or by com- 
pressed air, acting 
on a piston within 
a cylinder, secured 
by clamps to a ver- 
tical or horizontal 
column or tripod. 
It can be adjusted 
i to perforate the 
rock at any desired 
angle, and, on open 
quarry work, the 
large drill (they 
are made of diiter- 
ent sizes), is an 
equivalent to the 
work of 25 men, 
and has often done 
the work of 40 men 
for successive days. 




USED WITH COIVIPRESSED AIR OK STEAM, 
WHEN PRACTICABLE. 



VIEW OF THE DRILL ATTACHED TO COLUMN, AS fi7 vQ^lw^n^r Vnr^iiolc 

TTST?.T> WTTTT nOMT^TfTTftSF.Tk ATR. OT? STT^AAT ^^ IclllWay lUniieiS 

and other subter- 
ranean places pre- 
s e n t i n g impedi- 
ments to active 
work, of course the 
progress is consid- 
erably less. The 
average boring 
done in "hard rock, 
per day, of ten 
hours, is from 70 
to 80 feet. In un- 
derground Avork, 
where foul air ex- 
ists, the employ- 
ment of compress- 
ed air becomes a 
necessity, as it not 
only dissipates all 
danger from explo- 
sive gases, but 
drives the drill 
equal to steam 
power, cools the 
atmosphere, and 
VIEW OF DRILL ATTACHED TO COLUMN, AS AR- dispenses fresh air 
RANGED FOR USE IN SHAFTS. ^o the workmcn. 

Considered in all 
its bearings, it is a 
most wonderful 
machine. 




ASSAYING AND SMELTING METALS. 451 

Gold Assay by Smelting Pkocess. — Take 600 grains of the 
gold-bearing quartz, finely pulverized, and free from sulphurets; mix 
with 600 grs. litharge and 7 grs. of charcoal; melt all in a crucible of 
ample size, and set off to cool. Break the crucible wlien cold, 
and the gold will be found in a small button under the refuse matter 
at the bottom. To ascertain the amount of gold in a metallic sitb- 
stance, select a small sample, weigh it, and melt in a small cupel, 
composed of calcined bone ashes. This absorbs the common metal, 
leaving the gold and silver exposed to view. The resultant button is 
melted once more in the x)roportion of gold, 1 part, silver, 3 parts, 
and then rolled into a thin band and boiled in nitric acid, which dis- 
solves out the silver, and leaves the gold pure at the bottom. The 
gold can he removed, and the silver subsequently precipitated with 
salt. 

Gold Assay with a Horn Spoon.— Take an ox horn and re- 
move half of it, so as to leave an open part 7 or 8 ins. long and about 
Sins, wide; x)u]verize the rock to be tested very fine, and using it 
instead of a pan, wash out a few oimces, and if some particles of gold 
are detected, or a " color " perceived, as a rule it will pay to work it. 

In the Assay of Rock Co^jtaining Pyrites, it must be 
roasted until it ceases to evolve sulphurous fumes, then mix 600 grs. 
of the powder with 300 grs. carbonate of soda, 300 gTs. charcoal, 300 
grs. litharge, 300 grs. dried borax, and 15 grs. charcoal; melt all in 
a crucible, and treat as directed above. 

Silver Assay by Smelting.— If no lead is present, mix 600 
grs. of the pulverized ore with 300 grs. carbonate of soda, 600 gTs. of 
litharge, and 12 grs. of charcoal in a crucible, add a slight coat of 
borax over all, put on the furnace, melt, take oif , give it a few taps 
to settle the metal, let it cool, and remove the button. 

To Assay Argentiferous Galena, or lead hearing silver ore. — 
Mix 300 grs. of the pulverized ore with 900 grs. carbonate of soda and 
30 grs. char(;;oal ; melt in a crucible on a furnace, and treat as de- 
scribed above, and remelt the button in a porous cupel made of bone 
dust, which absorbs the lead, leaving the silver pure. 

Test for Iron or Copper Pyrites. — Place a sample of the 
mineral rock on an anvil; if it becomes flat under a blow of the 
hammer it is gold, but if it scatters into fragments it is pyrites ; or 
place some of the doubtful material, pulverized, in a cup with nitric 
acid over a flame until it evolves dark red vapors : the acid will be- 
come stained or tinged if pyrites are present. 

Silver Assay with Testing Tube. — Place in the tube enough 
of the powdered mineral to fill one inch of space, and on this pour 
nitric acid in quantity to occupy 2 ins. more, and hold the mixture 
over a flame until the acid boils. The acid will dissolve what- 
ever silver may be present, and must be passed through filter- 
ing paper to remove extraneous matter, and returned to the tube. 
Next add a few drops of water saturated with salt ; any silver or lead 
that may be present will be precipitated in a cloudy form to the bottom. 
Drain ok the acid, place the precipitate in the sunlight, and in a few 
minutes, if it contains silver, it will turn to a purple color, and may 
be again liquified by the addition of spirits of ammonia. The testing 
tube is formed of thin glass, about 5 ins. long, and less than 1 in. 
diam. ; bottom and sides of equal thickness. Where the tube is lack- 
ing, a cup may be used instead. 



452 PROSPECTING FOR GOLD. 

Prospecting for Quartz.— The first step to be taken is to ascer- 
tain the direction of the strata of the bed-rock and quartz vems im- 
bedded therein. Then take a common pick, shovel, and good iron 
pan, and prospect the surface dirt along, and just under the break of 
the veins every few yards, then following the vein as far as it shows 
itself, either by its outcrop or loose fragments ; and if gold is found 
in the surface along the vein, it is a good presumptive evidence that the 
vein is gold bearing. Then ascertain the point on the vein that gives 
the best " prospect," and make a cut across it deep enough to show 
the vein as it is inclosed in the bed or wall rock ; then make a careful 
examination of every part of the vein, so as to determine what part of 
it is gold bearing. The casing of the vem where it joins the wall rock 
should be carefully tested also ; it frequently occurs that the casing 
is richer than the vein itself. The best mode of testing the rock is to 
poand it up finely in a hand mortar, and wash it out in a pan or horn 
spoon. If a satisfactory result is obtained, then sink a shaft so as to 
cut the vein at the point where the prospect is obtained, and follow it 
down, say 40 or 50 feet. . The character of the " wall rock " should be 
closely observed, to ascertain the " line of its texture." The smooth 
• faces that separate the vein from the wall rock should be carefully 
examined ; the smooth faces have numerous small ridges upon them, 
that show "the line of its projection," or the direction from which 
the vein was forced up between the walls enclosing it. The ridges 
and fine grooves on the faces of the veins will, in most cases, be found 
to have the same direction of the texture of the wall rock ; and the 
rich section of the vein will most generally continue rich in the " line 
of its projection." It is frequently the case that a vein will have a 
section of a few feet that will be rich, and all the balance of it be 
poor ; therefore, it is very important to learn the " line of its projec- 
tion," for the rich sections always follow the course indicated by the 
" line of projection," and the "line of texture " of the wall rock. — J. 
JE, Clayton. 

To Prospect a River Bar. — The prospector should, during the 
season of low water, select the bend of a stream below where it 
emerges from a deep gorge, and, noting the spot where the eddy usually 
exists during high water on the inward bend of the stream, he will 
proceed to dig to a depth of 2 or 3 ft, as near the water's edge as pos- 
sible, but distant enough to keep the hole dry on reaching the rock. 
Kow fill the pan nearly full with the bottom dirt from the rock, take 
. it to the stream, immerse it in the water and agitate the mass, break- 
ing up the lamps of clay, &c., if any exist. Keep the pan underwater, 
with the side next the operator slightly elevated; shake from side to 
side; the muddy water will flow out, as the clear water flows in, car- 
rying away the dirt; the pan is now raised from the water, and the 
shaking continued, with the lower side still more depressed in order 
to allow the light sand to pass over the further edge ; the stones are 
removed by hand, and the operation continued until but a few dregs 
are left; the particles of gold, if any existed in the sample, will be 
found in the pan, and a search for them will decide the question of 
value. 

To Prospect in a Gtjlly.— Select a spot soon after a rain, when 
water is abundant, and if possible let it be a level place over a vein of 
slate with vertical, or nearly vertical strata, presenting its ragged 
edges towards the adjacent acclivities in such position as to intercept 



PROSPECTING, PLACER MINING. 453 

the gold iu its downward progress. Fill the pan with dirt from the 
slat}^ bed, make a dam across the stream and pan out in standing 
water. 

In PiiosPECTij^"G Flats, examine the surface for the indications 
of old channels, and the beds of ancient streams or brooks, and ex- 
plore the most promising spots by digging down to the bed rock, and 
test by panning oat a portion of the dirt. In mining districts, the 
high elevations containing gravel and clay should be well tested by 
the panning out of numerous samples, as they frequently contain vast 
stores of golden wealth. 

To Prospect with a Knife. — Select a suitable spot, in a ravine 
in an auriferous district, remove the earth to the vicinity of the roclc, 
making a hole large enough to afford room to admit the prospector to 
overhaul the dirt with the point of a knife. The particles of gold are 
carefully picked as they are discovered, and the rest is rejected; the 
seams and crevices in the rock should be thoroughly scraped out and 
the contents closely examined, as these places often contain the most 
precious deposits. 

Placer Mining, Board Sluice Process. — The board sluice is a 
trough from 50, to 1400 or 1500 ft. long (composed of IJ m. boards, 
length of boards from 12 to 14 feet, ) constructed in sections or boxes 
of the same length as the boards. The sections composing the trough 
are made to fit into each other, and usually rest on trestles elevated 
from the ground, but with an inclination of from 12 to 18 ins. in every 
12 feet of length. The box may be from 12 to 50 ins. wide, and half 
as deep as it is broad, more or less as desired. By placing division 
boards edgeways along the centre it may be divided into two parts, 
thus adopting it for the use of two parties, or for keeping up constant 
work in the washing department on the one side, while cleanino- is go- 
ing on in the other. The bottom of the sluice is fitted with longitudinal 
riffle bars from 3 to 7 ins. high, and from 2 to 4 ins. wide', well se- 
cured from 1 inch to IJ ins. apart, by means of wedges, two sets of riifle 
bars being fitted into each box. 

The labor of from 5 to 18 or 20 men is required to fill the dirt into 
the sluice, and a stream of water, say from 15 to 40 inches or more, is 
admitted at the upper end and emerges at the lower, carrying along 
the mud, gravel, stones, &c., in its course. A vessel containing 
quicksilver IS placed at the head of the sluice, and, about 2 hours af- 
ter the washing commences, the liquid particles are allowed to trickle 
through an aperture in the side of the vessel into the stream, which 
hurries them onwards and downwards through the sluice, where they 
muigle with the gold particles and lodge together against the riffle 
bars. 1 he precious metals being heavy, alway trend towards the 
bottom, and lodge against these interposed obstacles, the riffle bars. 
Ihe same effects may be seen on our streets and roads any day after 
a shower, the dirt is w^ashed away, and the heavy articles, as nails, 
buttons, horseshoes, &c., remain. This furious torrent " or run " of 
Q^^' ^^^^^^' stones, mud, &c., is continued through the sluice for 6 
or 8 days, by which time the riffle bars are usuallv worn out, and the 
cleaning up process is commenced by raising 6 or 7 sets of the riffle 
bars towards the head of the sluice, and the auriferous matter found 
lodged against them is removed with scoop and pan. Another lot of 
riffle bars is then raised and the same operation is repeated until they 
are all cleaned out. An amalgam plate, inserted in the last box of 



454 HYDRAULIC MINING, LONG TOM. 

the sluice, is very effective in arresting the fine gold on its downward 
course. To prepare the plate, place a sheet of copper, say 3 feet or 
more, in length, and the same width as the box, very even and flat on 
the bottom. Make a tight, close fit on the upper edge, and secure 
each side by nailing down narrow strips of board. Next, take nitric 
acid, 1 lb., add to this, water, 1 lb., and apply the mixture to the cop- 
per iDlate with a rag on the end of a stick ; drop on some quicksilver, 
and wipe it all over the plate until it is completely silvered. This is 
the amalgam plate. Now get a sheet of stout plate iron, equal in di- 
mensions to the copper plate, and perforate with numerous slits J 
inch long and 1-16 inch wide, crosswise of the plate, not in regular 
rows, but as it were with broken joints, like bricks in a wall, ranged 
with their ends out of line on every half inch, m order to permit the 
easy entrance of fluid material at all points. The perforated iron 
plate, being now ready, is laid in the box immediately over the amal- 
gamated plate, and resting on the narrow boards, which hold the lat- 
ter in place, and is firmly secured in this position, but so as to be 
easily detached when required. The sluice box is now adjusted or 
placed at the same grade as the others, but so that the iron plate will 
be on a level with the bottom of the box above. It will be found that 
while the gravel, stones, and gToss material will easily pass over the 
iron plate, part of the fluid portion, with the fine atoms of gold, will 
fall through the crevices on the amalgamated plate below, when the 
latter will be arrested at once. Each day, for the first week or less, 
the iron plate should be removed, the copper cleaned from a green 
substance which adheres, and more quicksilver added . A riffle bar 
should be placed below the plate to secure the surplus quicksilver. 
The gold may be removed at proper intervals as it accumulates. The 
value of the catch will be enhanced by admitting a small quantity of 
water into the sluice just above the plate. 

The water used by miners is generally sold by water companies at 
a certain rate per inch ; it is delivered from an orifice in the side of a 
flume, which m many cases conve5^s the water from distant mountains 
over hills, ravines, plains, and along excavations on the sides of pre- 
cipitous mountains, &c. An inch of water is estimated to be the 
quantity emitted through an aperture an inch square under a head of 
6 or 7 inches, and the price per inch varies from 12 cents up to 40 
cents per day, according to the locality, demand, &c. 

Hydraulic Mining. — The operative power in hydraulic mining 
is derived from a reservoir of water placed at a high elevation above 
the point of action, from whence the water is conveyed through a 
hose, and projected with terrific force under a pressure of from 80 to 
200 feet, against the dirt above the bed rock. The effect is equal to 
the combined labor of several hundred men ; the force exerted being 
literally equivalent to the removal of mountains, as the superincum- 
bert masses of earth and rock frequently comes tumbling down in 
quantities of hundreds of tons at a time. The dirt thus loosened is 
conveyed into and washed down the sluice. To fortify the hose to 
withstand the fearful pressure of the water, it should be stoutly band- 
ed with strong galvanized iron rings about 2 ins. broad, secured 
around the hose at intervals of about 2 ins. apart.. The quantity of 
water required by a hydraulic claim varies from 50 to 300 ins. 

The Long Tom, at one time in quite extensive use by miners in 
California, is a trough ranging from 8 to 14 ft. in length, generally 16 



QUARTZ CRUSHING, MINING MACHINERY. 455 

ins. wide at the upper end wliere the dirt is deposited, 30 ins. wide at 
the lower extremity, and about 8 ins. deep. The bottom, at the wide 
end is composed of a sieve or riddle of perforated sheet iron, with a 
small riffle box, or trough with riffle bars placed underneath. The 
water entering in at the upper end, flows through the entire length of 
the torn, washing the dirt in its passage, but is prevented from forcing 
it over the lower end by an upward erection at the lower end of the 
riddle. The gravel, sand, and small stones escape through the perfo- 
rated iron, while the large stones are tossed out with the shovel, and 
the gold is caught in the riffle box below, quicksilver bemg used oc- 
casionally to assist in securiag the finer particles. 

Quartz CRUSHi]srG by Stamps.— The rotary stamp is very highly 
commended as the most efficient stamp in use for the crushing of 
quartz rock. The square stamp is vertical, with the main part or 
shaft about 8 ft. long, and from 5 to 8 ins. square, shod Avith massive 
iron weighing from 100 to 1000 lbs. They are elevated by cams pro- 
jecting from a horizontal shaft, which effect a lift of from 6 to 18 ins. 
at each revolution, when the stamp faUs with all its force into the 
battery or the quartz below. The quartz, previously broken to pieces 
the size of a hen's egg or less, may be crushed ui a dry state, or in a 
wet condition, with a smaU stream of water constantly flowing through 
the battery, which is enclosed by a wire cloth or perforated plate of 
sheet of iron, to permit the egress of the quartz when sufficiently trit- 
urated. The separation of the gold from the quartz is effected by wash- 
ing, etc., as in placer mining; much of it is caught by the. use of 
coarse blankets laid in troughs, through which the quartz is washed 
as in a sluice, and many use the amalgam plate, made as described 
above, to secure the gold . 

In amalgamating in the battery, 2 ozs. of quicksilver to 1 oz. of gold 
is the best proportion for use, and produces the most effective results 
in securing the gold. 

MiXIXG MACnrNERY (Molesworth). 

Speed of crushing rolls at periphery 60 ft. per minute. 

Diameter of " '' '' 24 to 30 ins. 

Breadth of ** ** ** 12 to 15 ii^. 

Roller shaft « 6 ins. square. 

Tumbling shaft 41/2 " 

Sifting screen shaft 1% i^s. diameter. 

Rolls crushed together with a force of ~. 60 tons. 

"Weight of stamper heads, from 1^4 to 5 cwt. 

Lift of ditto 9 to 12 ins. 

Number of lifts per minute 45 to 60. 

Exposed area of cast gratings about 9 X 10 ins. 

Number of holes to the inch for tin 140. 

Area of stamper bottom, generally " . . . 6 x 10 ins. 

Pumps for deep mines, usually 8 to 10 ft. stroke. 

Each lift from 150 to 200 ft. 

Horse power of pumping engines : — 

Q =: quantity of water raised per minute, cubic feet. 

H rr height in feet. 

Actual horse power r= -0021 H Q. 

In Smelting Silver, fifty per cent, of lead is added to silver ore, 
or lead ore containing that proportion of lead, will do as well. Add 
10 per cent, of iron, and melt all together ; the silver is then permit- 
ted to escape through an orifice in the lower part of the furnace. The 



456 



SILVER SMELTING, STUBS' GAUGE, &C. 



silver is once more put in a furnace and "boiled until all impurities are 
driven off. 

In the Salt Solution Process, five per cent, of salt is added to 
the silver ore, and the mixture is roasted until the salt is converted 
into a chloride. When in this state, and still red hot, it is thrown into 
a very strong solution of boiling brine, to dissolve the chloride of 
silver. The brine is filtered at a temperature of 212^ and the silver 
is precipitated by adding small pieces of copper, together with a smaU 
quantity of muriatic acid. 




v,yr: G. ^ inn. 


B. W. 0. » Ins. 
No. 10 =.137 


B. >V. «: Ine. 
No. 10 =.042 


No. 28 -= .oif 


^a -.28 


It .1.25 


20 .035 


•29 *ots 


4 '24 

6 »3 


IZ *l69 


21 .032 


30 .oiz 


X3 .095 


3Z .02S 


31 -oi 


T4 .083 

15 .072 


?3 •oas 
34 .022 


32 .009 

33 .008 


7 »»?7 

8 .166 

9 '^58 


16 .065 


25 ,02 


34 •«>7 


17 .056 

t8 .049 


26 .018 

27 •016 


35 '005 

36 «oo» 


^7 '* 




N0.IIW.C 

16 *' 


J.=.- iia 


,. f^in 


22 " 


-. -/i-m- 



Artificial Meerschatjim is made with very fine sifted plaster of 
Paris, baked for a few hours and thrown while warm into melted wax 
or linseed oil ; the resemblance may be increased by a coloring solu- 
tion of gamboge and dragon's blood. 



MACHINISTS, ElSfaiKlSERS^ &C,y RECEIPTS. 457 

N.B. — ^In addition to the following inestimable Receipts and pro- 
cesses, the blacksmith will find Iron Tables, and Tables of Circum- 
ferences, Areas and Diameters of Circles, for measurement of hoops, 
rings, &C.J at the end of the mechanical department. 




Tempering Liquids.— 1. Water, 3 gals; soda, 2 ozs. ; saltpetre, 2 
ozs. ; prussic acid, 1 oz., or oil of vitrol, 2 ozs. 2. Water, 6 gals.; 
saltpetre, sal-ammoniac and alum, of each 4 ozs., and draw no tem- 
per. ^ 3. Water, 4 gals. ; saltpetre and alum, of each, 4 ozs. ; sal-am- 
moniac, iDulverized, 1 oz. ; salt, 3 lbs. Heat to a cherry red and 
plunge in, drawing no temper. 4. Water, 4 gals. ; saltpetre, 1 oz. ; 
pulverized borax, 1 oz. ; pulverized sal-ammoniac, 1 oz. ; white vitriol, 
2 ozs. ; salt, 3 pts. Do not hammer too cold, nor heat too high. 5. 
Water, 4 gals. ; salt, 2 teacupf uls ; saltpetre, 2 ozs. ; pulverized alum, 
4 teaspoonf uls ; never heat over a cherry red, nor draw any temper. 

6. Water, 2 gals. ; add corrosive sublimate, IJ oz. ; common salt, 2 
handfuls; when dissolved it is ready for use. "The first gives tough- 
ness to the steel, while the latter gives the hardness, causing the water 
to adhere to the steel, which otherwise would be repelled by the heat. 

7. Tempering Liquid for Mill Picks, — Water, 3 gals. ; spts. of nitre, 3 
ozs. ; hartshorn, 3 ozs ; white vitriol, 3 ozs. ; alum, 3 ozs. ; sal-ammo- 
niac, 3 ozs. ; salt, 6 ozs., with 2 handfuls of the pariugs of horses' 
hoof. The steel is to be heated to a cherry red. A large jug of this 
preparation should be kept corked tight, in order to retain its strength. 
Use soft water in all these tempering liquids. 

Teivipeeing Mili. Picks. — Get double refined cast steel made ex- 
pressly for mill picks. In drawing out the pick, use an anvil and 
hammer with smooth faces, and be careful not to heat the steel higher 
than a dark cherry red. Do not strike the pick on the edge when 
finishing it, but hammer it on the flat side, striking light and often, 
until the steel is quite dark, \ letting the blows fall so as to close the 
pores of the steel. , When a dozen picks are ready to temper, get 2 
gals, of rain water from which the chill should be taken, if in winter, 
by dipping a hot iron iuto it; add 2 lbs. salt, and it is .ready for use. 
Heat your pick gradually from the centre ; let the heat run to the 
point, and when it is a dark cherry red,' dip the point vertically into 
the bath and hold it still. When the heat has left the part immersed^ 
take it out, and cool the balance of the pick.ui ordinary water. ^ Be 
sure to heat and hammer weU. 

,v To Teiniper a Drili. very Hard. — ^Heat your" drill to a cherry 
red and quench it in mercury.^JIhis wlU drill hardened^steel. 



458 MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 

Composition for Tempering.— Rosiii, 7J parts; whale oil, IJ 
parts; pulverized charcoal, J part; tallow, J part. Directions. — Very 
small tools should be dipped in this mixture the same as in water, 
then polish and draw the temper as usual. Large tools should be 
dipped, then heated up again and temper as usual. This composition 
will also restore burnt steel as good as new. If small tools, dip once. 
If large, dip two or three times ; no hammering is required. 

To Make Iron take a Bright Polish like Steel. — Pulverize 
and dissolve the following articles in 1 qt. hot water ; blue vitriol, 1 oz. ; 
borax, 1 oz. ; prussiate of potash, 1 oz. ; charcoal, 1 oz. ; salt, J pt. ; then 
add 1 gal. linseed oil, mix well, bring your iron or steel to the proper 
heat and cool in the solution. It is said the manufacturers of the Judson 
governor paid $100 for this receipt, the object being to case harden 
iron so that it Avould take a bright polish like steel. 

Dipping Tools when Hardening. — To harden a pen-knife blade, 
lancet, razor, chisel, gouge-bit, plane, spoke-shave, iron shaving 
knife, three or four square files, and round and flat files, dip 
them endwise or perpendicularly. This keeps them straight, 
which would not be the case were they dipped in the water ob- 
liquely. 

Substitute for Borax. — Alum, 2 ozs. ; dilute with water and mix 
with 2 ozs. potash, boil in a pot half an hour over a gentle fire, take it 
out of the water, add 2 ozs. gem salt in powder, as much of alka- 
line salt, 3 lbs. honey, and one of cow's milk, mix aU together, set it 
in the sun for 3 days and the borax is ready for use. This wiU go 
twice as far in a blacksmith's shop as common borax. 

Welding Cast Steel.— Silver sand 2 lbs., plaster of Paris, 1 lb. ; 
mix thoroughly. Heat your article and dust it with the above, place 
it in the fire agaui until you get a red heat and it will weld. 

Respirator. — An excellent respirator may be made of a thick 
sheet of carded cotton wool placed between two pieces of muslin. 
Unequalled for arrestmg dust, steel particles, &c. 

Annealing Steel. — For small pieces of steel, take a piece of gas 
pipe 2 or 3 inches in diameter, and put the pieces in it, first heat- 
ing one end of the pipe, and drawing it together, leaving the other 
end open to look into. When the pieces are of a cherry red, cover 
the fire with saw dust, use a charcoal fire, and leave the steel in over 
night. 

To drill Hardened Steel. — Cover your steel with melted beeswax, 
when coated and cold, make a hole in the wax with a fine pointed nee- 
dle or other article the size of hole you require, put a drop of strong 
nitric acid upon it, after an hour rinse o:ff, and apply again, it will 
gradually eat through. ^ 

To Harden Metals. — ^Iron, 60 parts; chrome, 40 parts; form a 
composition as hard as the diamond. A high degree of hardness 
may also be imparted to iron or steel by adding J part of silver. 
Copper may be externally hardened by the fumes of zinc and tin. 
The specula of Lord Ross's telescope is 1 part tin and 1 part 
copper, this is as hard as steel, and takes a very high polish ; if 
more than this be added it will scarcely cohere. 

Welding Cast Steel. — Rock saltpetre, J lb. ; dissolve in J lb. oil 
vitriol ; and add it to 1 gal. water. After scarfing the steel, get it 
liot; and quench in the preparation. Then weld the same as a 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 459 

piece of iron, hammer it very quick -with light blows. It answers the 
purpose much better than borax; cork it in a bottle, and it will keep 
for years. Another. — Borax, 15 parts; sal-ammoniac, 2 parts; cyan- 
ide of potassium, 2 parts ; dissolve all in water, and evaporate the 
water at a low temperature. 

GEii]iiAK AYelding Powdek. — ^Iron tamings, 4 parts; borax, 3 
parts, borate of iron, 2 parts ; w^ater, 1 joart. 

Tempering Swokds axd Cutlasses. — N. B. Ames, late of Clii- 
copce, Mass., after many costly experiments, found that the best 
means of tempering swords and cutlasses that would stand the U. 
S. Government test, was by heating in a charcoal fire, hardening 
in pure spring water, and drawing the temper in charcoal flame. 

Belgiak Welding Powder.— Iron filings, 1000 parts; borax, 500 
parts ; balsam of copaiba, or other resinous oil, 50 parts ; sal-ammo- 
niac, 75 parts. Mix all well together, heat, and pulverize completely. 
The surfaces to be welded are powdered with the composition, and 
then brought to a cherry red heat, at which the powder melts, when 
the portions to be united are taken from the fire and joined. If the 
pieces to be welded are too large to be both introduced into the forge, 
one can be first heated with the welding powder to a cherry red heat, 
and the other afterwards to a white heat, after which the welding 
may be e:ffected. 

Co]MPOsiTiON Used in Welding Cast Steel. — Borax, 10 parts ; 
sal-ammoniac, Ipart; grind or pound them roughly together; then 
fuse them in a metal pot over a clear fire, takmg care to continue the 
heat until all spume has disappeared from the surface. When the 
liquid appears clear, the comi)osition is ready to be poured out to 
cool and concrete ; afterwards being ground to a fine powder, it is 
ready for use. To use this composition, the steel to be welded is 
raised to a heat which may be expressed by "bright yeUow;" it is 
then dipped among the welding powder, and again placed in the fire 
until it attains the same degree of heat as before : it is then ready to 
be placed under the hammer. 

To Restore Burnt Steel and Lmprove Poor Steel. — ^Borax, 

3 ozs. ; sal-ammoniac, 8 ozs. ; prussiate of potash, 3 ozs. ; blue clay, 2 
ozs. ; resin, J lb. ; water, 1 gill ; alcohol, 1 gill. Put all on the fire, 
and simmer till it dries to a powder. The steel is to be heated, dip- 
ped in this j)Owder, and afterwards hammered. 

To Restore Burnt Cast Steel. — ^Borax IJ lbs. ; sal-ammoniac 

4 lb. ; prussiate of potash J lb. ; rosin, 1 oz. Pound the above fine, 
add a gill each of water and alcohol, and boil aU to a stiff paste in an 
iron kettle. Do not boil too long, or it wiU become hard when cool. 
The burnt steel is dipped while quite liot in the composition and 
slightly hammered. 

Restoring Burnt Steel. — It is not generally known that burnt 
steel maybe almost instantaneously restored by plunging it while hot 
in cold water, and hammering it with light strokes on the anvil, turn^ 
ing it so as to hammer aU over it, again dipping in the cold water, and 
repeating the hammering process as before Try it ; if you don' t suc- 
ceed the first time, you will soon do so. 

CozvEPOSiTioN TO RESTORE BuRNT Steel. — ^Two parts horn fil- 
ings; 10 parts tallow; Ipart sal-ammoniac, 1 part pulverized charcoal; 
1 part soda; pulverize the hard ingredients separately, mix all 



460 MACHINISTS, engineers', «fcC., RECEIPTS. 

tlioronglily with the tallow. Bring your burnt steel to a cherry reel 
imd dip it in the mixture; when it gets cold it may "be hardened in 
the usual maimer. 

Composition to Toughen STEEL.—Resin, 2 lbs. ; tallow, 2 lbs. ; 
black pitch, 1 lb. ; melt together, and dip in the steel when hot. 

BuKGLAK AND DniLi.-PjROOF DIAMOND Chill.. — Take 1 gal. urine, 
and add to it 1 oz. borax and 1 oz. salt. 

To Re-sharpen Old Files.— Remove the grease and dirt from your 
files by washing them in warm ])otash water, then wash them in 
warm water, and dry with artificial heat; next, place 1 i)t. warm 
water in a wooden vessel, and put in your files, add 2 ozs. of blue 
vitriol, finely pulverized, 2 ozs. borax, well mixed, taking care to turn 
the files over, so that each one may come in contact with the mixture. 
Now add 7 ozs. suli^huric acid and J oz. cider vinegar to the above 
mixture. Remove the files after a short time, dry, sponge them with 
olive oil, wrap them up in porous paper, and put aside for use Coarse 
files require to be immersed longer, than fine. 

Substitute for Borax. — Copperas, 2 ozs. ; saltpetre, 1 oz. ; com- 
mon salt, 6 ozs. ; black oxide of manganese, 1 oz ; prussiate of pot- 
ash, 1 oz. ; all pulverized and mixed with 3 lbs. nice welding sand, 
and use the same as you would sand. Iligh-tempered steel can be 
welded with this at a lower heat than is required for borax. 

To Soften Iron or Steel. — Either of the following methods 
will make iron or steel very soft: — 1. Anomt it all over with tallow, 
temper it in a gentle charcoal fire, and let it cool of itself. -^ 2. Take a 
little clay, cover your iron with it, temper in a charcoal fire. '5. 
When the iron or steel is red hot, strew hellebore on it.> 4. Quench 
the iron or steel in the juice or water of common beans. < 

Tempering Steel Springs. — The steel used should be that called 
"spring" for the large work; for small work, "double shear" 
After hardening in the usual way, in water, or, as some prefer, in oil, 
dry the spring over the firo to get rid of its moisture, then smear it 
over with tallow or oil, hold it over the flame of the smith's forge, 
passing it to and fro, so that the whole of it will be equally heated, 
holding it there until the oil or tallow takes fire. Take the article 
out of the fire and let it bum a short time, then blow it out. The 
process may be repeated two or three times if the operator fancies 
that any portion of the spring has not been reduced to the proper 
temperature, or rather raised to it. 

Teiupering Saws. — A late improvement consists in temperin^^ 
and straightening the saws at one operation. This is done by heat- 
ing the saws to the proper degree, and then pressing them with a 
sudden and powerful stroke between two surfaces of cold iron. A 
drop press is employed for the purpose. The mechanism is quite 
simple and inexpensive. Its use effects an important economy in the 
manufacture of nearly all kinds of saws, and also improves their 
quality. 

Tempering Spiral Springs. — ^Place a piece of round iron inside 
the spring, large enough to fill it; then make the spring and iron red 
hot, and, when hot place them quickly into cold water, and stir them • 
about tiM cold; afterwards rub them with oil or grease, and move 
them about in a flame till the grease takes fire; the spring wiU thea 
be reduced to its proper temper. 



MACHINISTS, .ENGINEERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 461 

To Temper Small Springs, — In Large Quantities.— ¥hs,t, harden 
them in the usual manner of hardening steel ; then place as many as 
convenient in a vessel containing oil. Heat the oil containing the 
springs until it takes fire from the top, then set off the vessel and let 
it cool. The springs will then he found to possess tlie required 
temper. 

Tempering. — The article after being completed, is hardened "by 
being heated gradually to a bright red, and then plunged into cold 
water: it is then tempered by being warmed gradually and equably, 
either over a fire, or on a piece of heated metal, till of the color cor- 
responding to the purpose for which it is required, as per table be- 
low, when it is again plunged into water. 

Corresponding Temperature, 

A very pale straw . 430 Lancets ) 

Straw 450 Razors ) 

Darker Straw . . . 470 Penknives } AH kinds of wood tools« 

YeUow 490 Scissors \ Screw taps. 

Brown yellow . . . 500 ) Hatchets, Chipping Chisels, 
Slightly tinged purple 520 > Saws. 

Purple 530 \ All kinds of percussive tools. 

Dark purple. . . . 550 i c ..:„„„ 

Blue . .... .570r^^^^-^- 

Dark blue .... 600 Soft for saws. 

Teiupering Razors, Cutlery, Saws, &c.— -Razors and pen- 
knives are too frequently hardened without the removal of the scale 
arising from the foregoing : this practice^ which is never done with 
the best works, cannot be too mtich deprecated. The blades are heated 
in a coke or charcoal fire, and dipped in the water obliquely. In 
tempering razors, they are laid on their backs upon a clean fire, about 
half-a-dozen together, and they are removed one at a time, when the 
edges, which are as yet thick, come down to a pale straw color. 
Should the backs accidentally get heated beyond the straw-color, the 
blades are cooled in water, but not otherwise. Pen-blades are tem- 
pered a dozen or two at a time, on a plate of iron or copper, about 12 
inches long, 3 or 4 inches wide, and about J of an inch thick. The 
blades are arranged close together on their back and lean at an 
angle against each other. As they come down to the temper, they 
are picked out with small pliers and thrown into water if necessary ; 
other blades are then thrust forward from the cooler parts of the 
plate to take their place. Axes, adzes, cold chisels, and other edge 
tools, in which the total bulk is considerable compared with the part 
to be hardened, are only partially dipped ; they are afterwards let 
down by the heat of the remainder of the tool ; and, when the color 
indicative of the temper is attained, they are entirely quenched. 
With the view of removing the loose scales, or the oxidation acquired 
in the fire, some workmen rub the objects hastily in dry salt before 
plunging them in the water, in order to give them a cleaner and 
brighter face. ^ ^- * > 

Oil, or resinous mixtures of oil, tallow, wax, and resin, are used for 
many thin and elastic articles, such as needles, fish hooks, steel pens 
and springs, which require a milder degree of hardness than is given 



462 MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS, AC, RECEIPTS. 

by water. Gun lock-springs are sometimes /nerZ in oilior a con- 
siderable time over a fire, in an iron tray; the tliick parts are then 
sure to be sufficiently reduced, and the thin parts do not become the 
more softened from the contiuuance of the blazing heat. Saws and 
springs are generally hardened in various compositions of oil, suet, 
wax, &c. The saws are heated in long furnaces, and then immersed 
horizontally and edgeways into a long trough contaming the com- 
position. Part of the composition is wiped off the saws with a piece 
of leather, when they are removed from the trough, and heated one 
by one, until the grease inflames. This is called " blazing off." The 
composition used by a large saw manufacturer is 2 lbs. suet.' and J lb. 
of beeswax, to every gallon of whale oil; the seare boiled together, 
and will serve for tliin works and most kinds of steel. The addition 
of black resin, about 1 lb. to each gallon, makes it serve for thicker 
pieces, and for those it refused to harden before; but resin should 
be added with judgment, or the works will become too hard and 
brittle. 

To Improve Poor Iron. — ^Black oxide of manganese, 1 part; cop- 
peras and common salt, 4 parts each; dissolve in soft water, and boil 
till dry ; when cool, pulverize, and mix quite freely with nice welding 
sand. When you have poor iron which you cannot afford to throw 
away, heat it, and roll it in this mixture; working for a time, reheat- 
ing, &c., will soon free it from all impurities, which is the cause of its 
rottenness. By this proc-ess you can make good horse .nails out of 
common iron. 

Case-Hardening fob Iron.— Cast iron may be case-hardened by 
heating to a red heat, and then rolling it in a composition composed 
of equal i^arts of prussiate of potash, sal-ammoniac, and saltpetre, aU 
pulverized and thoroughly mixed. This must be got to every part of 
the surface ; then plunged, while yet hot, into a bath containing 2 ozs. 
prussiate of potash, and 4 ozs. sal-ammoniac to each gallon of cold 
water. 

MoxoN*s Case-Hardening Process.^^Cow's horns or hoofs are 
to be baked, dried and pulverized in order that more may be got into 
the box with the articles, or bone dust answers very well. To thia 
add an equal quantity of bay salt; mix them with stale chamber 
ley, or white wine vinegar; cover the iron with this mixture, and bed 
it in the same in loam, or enclose it in' an iron box, lay it on the 
hearth of the forge to dry and harden; then put it into the fire, and 
blow tiU the lump has a blood red heat, and no higher, lest the iron 
niLxture be burnt too much. - Take the iron out and throw it into cold 
water. 

For Malleable Iron". — ^Put the articles in an iron box, and strat- 
ify them among animal carbon, that is, pieces of horns, hoofs, skins, 
or leather, just sufficiently burned to bo reduced to powder. Luto 
the box with equal parts of sand and clay; then place it in the fire, 
and keep at a light red heat for a length of time proportioned to the 
depth of steel required, , when the contents of the box are emptied 
into water. 

Another for Wrought Iron. — ^Take prussiate of potash, finely 
pulverized, and roll the article in it, if its shape admits of it; if not, 
sprinkle the powder upon it freely, while the iron is hot. 

To Temper Springs.— For tempering cast-steel trap springs, aU 



MACniXISTS, engineers', AC, RECEIPTS. 4QS 

that ia necessary is to Iieat them in the darJc, just so that you can see 
tliat they are red; then cool them in luke-warm water. You can ob- 
serve a much lower degree of heat in the dark than by daylight, and 
the low heat and warm water give the desired temper. 

Case-Hardening Compound. — Prussiate of potash, 3 lbs. ; sal-am- 
moniac, 2 lbs. ; bone dust, 2 lbs. 

Composition for Welding Cast Steel. — Pulverized borax any 
quantity, and slightly color it with dragon's blood. Heat the steel red 
not, shake the borax over it; place it again in the fire tiU the borax 
smokes on the steel, which will be much below the ordinary welding 
heat, and then hammer it. 

To Weld Cast Iron.— The best way of welding cast iron is to 
talve it at a very intense heat, closely approaching the melting pomt. 
In tills state it Avill be found sufficiently malleable to stand welding by 
the hammer. There are other methods, but most of them are attend- 
ed by almost insurmountable difficulties. 

To TE31PER Taps or Reamers without springing, select your 
steel for the job, and forge the tap with a little more than the usual 
allowance, being careful not to heat too liot nor hammer too cold ; 
after the taj) or reamer is forged, heat it and hold it on one end on 
the anvil. If a largo one, hit it with the sledge; if a small one, the 
hammer wiU do. This will cause the tap to bend slightly. Do not 
straighten it with the hammer, but on finishing and hardening the 
tap, it wiU become straight of its own accord. 

To Harden and Temper Cast Steel. — For saws and springs 
in general the following is an excellent liquid ; Spermaceti oil, 20 
gals. ; beef suet rendered^ 20 lbs. ; neat's-foot oil, 1 gal. ; pitch, 1 lb. ; 
black resin, 3 lbs. The last two articles must be x>reviously melted 
together, and then added to the other ingredients, when tlie whole 
must be heated in a proper iron vessel, mth a close cover fitted to it, 
until all moisture is evaporated, and the composition will take fire on 
a flaming body being presented to its surface. 

Water Annealing. — ^Heat the steel to a red heat, and let it lie a 
few minutes, until nearly black hot; then throw it into soap-suds; 
steel in this way may be annealed softer than by putting it into tho 
ashes of the forge. 

To Soften IiIalleable Iron.— When your furnace is charged 
with fuel and metal, get the fire up to a dull red heat, then 
pour fluoric acid all over the coke; use J pt. to 1 pt or even 1 
qt. adding a handful of fluor spar; it wiU make the metal much 
softer. 

Working Steel for Tools. — ^In worldng steel for tools, great 
care should be taken to hammer all sides alike, for if one side is 
hanunered more than another it wUl cause it to spring in harden- 
ing. Again, steel, when being hammered, should be heated as hot 
as it will stand, until finishing, and should tiien be hammered mitil 
almost black hot, for the reason that it sets the grain finer, and 
gives the tool a better edge. The reason for heating the steel so 
hot while hammering is simply because it makes the steel tougher 
when hardened, and softer when annealed, while if it were 
worked at a low red heat, the continued percussive shocks of the 
hammer would so harden it as to make it almost Impossible to 
anneal it, and at the same time render it brittle when hardened. 



464 MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 

To Make, Harden, and Temper Tools.— Experience has proved 
that all steel cutting tools should he hardened at a low red heat, or 
the lowest degree of heat compatible to yield efficient results, not 
forgetting that large tools require more heat than small ones, for the 
reason that they retain the heat much longer in the cooling process. 
Very small tools such as some surgical, and dental instruments, all 
springs, centre drills, needles, etc., should he hardened in oil, as cold 
water is apt, by cooling them too rapidly, to render them brittle and 
worthless. Too much heat imparts a coarse grain like cast iron, to 
the steel, and makes it liable to break when in use. A heat sufficient 
to raise scales should never be taken unless with an implement too 
large to temper without it, for it is sure to result in injury to the steel, 
even though the temper is drawn to a straw color. Tools such as 
mitters and reamers which require to be hardened without springing, 
should be accurately turned to within J inch of their finished size, and 
then annealed previous to finishing. In annealing steel, it should be 
heated very slowly to a red heat, being careful to keep it under the 
scaling degree, then allow it two days or more to cool in. In making 
taps, you should have immediately under the square head, a place 
accurate size of the outside of the thread, so that you will have no 
trouble in getting dimensions of the thread wherever an odd number 
of flutes exist. Every tap should be the accurate size of the bottom of 
the thread to withm about J an inch of the square head, shaping it 
this way, when a strain comes in the work it will twist instead of 
breaking. The threads on V taps ought to be cut with a tool exactly 
three square, (unless the thread is rounded on the top), and then 
finished with a sharp tool without polishing, as this produces a glaze 
on the metal while being tapped. In making a tap for common ma- 
chine screws or for bolts, measure with callipers, the lower part of 
the thread of one of the screws, and proceed to cut your tap at the 
bottom of the thread the exact size of the measurement. Strong taps 
for square thread Screws ought to be cut J the depth of their i)itch, 
so if the thread is five to the inch, cut one-tenth of an inch deep. 
The threads being 5 to the inch, leaves a space between the threads of 
one tenth of an inch, and the thread being one tenth in depth and 
one-tenth wide, would make the thread square. In square threads 
required for wear, the cut should be | the depth of their pitch. 

In hardening a tap, use a clear, bright fire ; a fire of charcoal is the 
best; heat to a cherry red, and holding it by the upper end immerse 
the entire thread-part first, keeping it stationary until the smooth 
part attains a dark red color; then gradually dip the whole tool, hold- 
ing it stationary until cold. Brighten the fluted parts and proceed to 
temper the tool by heating a piece of an iron pipe to a bright red ; re- 
move it from the fire, place it in a vertical position, and insert the 
tap in the centre of the tube (but not touching any part of it) with 
the threaded part outside. The interior of the tube should be twice the 
diameter of the tool, and the length but half. Revolve the tap in 
the hot pipe until the smooth part is warm enough to slightly pain 
the hand, keeping it m motion endways, back aud forth through the 
pipe and turning it until the thread is tinted to a deep brown, and the 
rest of the tool to a brown purple, modify any irregularity in the color 
by holding the light colored parts longer in the tube, or if any parts 
color too deep, cool off with a little oil. The squares of taps should be 
tempered to a deep blue color. 



MACHINISTS TOOLS. 



465 




Fig. 1. Tool for cutting square thread screws, &c. 
Fig. 2. Lathe tool for boring. 
Fig. 3. Tool for cutting interior screws. 
Fig. 4. Left hand side tool, top view. 
Fig. 5. Tool for cutting V thread screws. 
Fig. 6. Diamond-point tool, to turn small shafting, &c. 
Fig. 7. Round-ended tool, to turn heavy shafting, &c. 
30 



466 MACHINISTS, engineers' ifeC, RECEIPTS. 

To Dip or Temper Half-round Files or Reamers.— On 
account of the unequal surface presented to the water by half round 
tools, it is necessary, in order to keep them straight, or nearly so. 
while tempering, that they should be inserted with the semi-circidar 
side 20? leaning toioards the water. To dip a fluted reamer, insert it J 
an inch beyond the fluting, dipping and withdrawing it several times 
in succession. This ensures a reliable temper in the tool and will 
assist greatly in preventing fracture, and breakage. 

To Set a Lathe to Turn Tapering. — Calculate a certain 
amount of taper to the foot or the extension of the piece to be turned, 
for instance with a shaft one foot long with a thickness of 1 inch at 
one end larger than the other, set the puppet-head over J inch, and 
you will obtain the desired taper of 1 inch per foot. With a shaft 20 
ins. long, you will obtain a taper of 2 ins. over its whole length, by 
setting your lathe over 1 inch. 

To Set a Lathe to Turn Shafting. —Find out if your centres 
are true, and adjust them correctly if they arc not, using a square 
end tool, keeping them true to a three-square gauge, otherwise you 
will be apt to ruin your work. Now set your puppet-head so that it 
will turn the shaft true and straight, and if without a straight mark 
upon it, turn one end of the shaft for about an inch, next, without 
stirring your tools, take the shaft from the lathe, run the carriage 
down to the main head, and if the tool comes in contact with the spot 
you have turned, the machine is straight, if not, screw over the 
puppet head, and keep adjusting it until the tool touches the place 
turned at both ends of the lathe. 

On Keys, Planing Key Ways, &c.— To ensure an easy entrance, 
apply oil to the key way and enter the key, marking where it binds, 
avoiding extreme tightness at the sides, and securing the lock by a 
proper taper at the rate of about J of an inch to the foot of length. 
To ease hardened key ways and slots, use a strip of copper as a file on 
the surface of the metal, together with emery and oil. To plane a hey 
way in a shaft, drill a hole the size of the way the depth you wish to 
plane; then plane the key way slightly narrower than the intended 
size ; this is done with a square point tool, afterwards finish with a 
tool of the desired size; this method ensures a much neater finish, 
than the use of one tool only. To ensure true cutting in adjustins: a 
tool for cutting a key way, test each side of it by a square set on the 
planer bed, to see that it is perpendicular. To x>lane a T shaped slot 
or loay, plane to the desired depth with a square point tool, then plane 
the upper part of the way to the proper width. Now plane the bottom 
part of the way with two tools, each being bent to a different angle, 
one to the right and the other to the left. Shallow loays may be'cut 
out, the upper width and proper depth, then finished with one tool 
shaped the desired form of the way. Powerful tools should be used hi 
planing large ways in order to avoid breaking, and should cut easily 
on each of the three sides. Use a sheet iron gauge and plane the way 
to conform to it. To plane a gibe rest or slide, plane it all over, 
omitting the slide, on both sides;' then set the planer head at an angle 
of 30°, and finish the slide with a taper point tool. In planing thin 
cast iron surfaces, the outside being harder than the inside, it is 
necessary in order to prevent springing owing to the expansion of the 
scale, to plane over a cut on each side previous to finishing either. 



MACHINISTS TOOLS. 



467 




Fig. 8. , Side view of riglit-hand side tool. 

Fig. 9. Tool for cutting V tlireads, side view. 

Fig. 10. Tool for planing a key-way. 

Fig. 11. End view of a fluted tap or reamer. 

Fig. 12. Side tool for squaring tlie ends of wrought iron work. 

Fig. 13. Tool for parting or cutting brass apart. 

Fig. 14. Side tool for cast iron, wrought iron or steel, left hand form. 

Fig. 15. Parting tool for iron or steel work. 



468 MACHINISTS, engineers' &C.5 RECEIPTS. 

Care of Lathes, Planers, DRrLLS, &c.— In order to utilize your 
lathes, &c., for nice fine Avork, and keep your ways, arbors, and 
centres in order, it is necessary to keep them clean by brushing away 
the rubbish from the ways, feed gears, and other working parts; 
clean well by frequent rubbing with cotton waste, and keep them in 
easy working order by regular oiling. 

Tools for Turning. — 1. For turning balance ivheels, or squaring 
lip large surfaces^ use a round end tool constructed well tapering to 
cut from the side. 2. The best tool for turning small shafting is a 
diamond point tool ; for heavy shafting use a round end tool, shaped 
to stand high like a diamond point and to cut full and free from 
the side. 3. For cutting off a shafts use a tool shaped thin and 
having the tapering down the reverse of turning tools. 4. For 
cutting a V thread screw use a Y thread tool, with the points 
ground to lean down when finished, so as to jprevent running and de- 
stroying both the tool and the work. 5. For cutting a square thread 
screw J the best way is to use a square point tool about j of the thick- 
ness of the thread you intend to cut, and finish Avith another the exact 
size of the thread. In cutting a thread within a hole apply the same 
method. 6. For boring out a hole use a lathe boring tool with the end 
turned on a right angle to the left, and the point turned up hooking. 

The side tool shown in Fig. 12, should, for light work, be hardened 
right out; temper to a straw color for heavy work. For heavy work 
on a slotting machine, temper to a brownish purple, and grind so that 
the cutting edge first strikes the cut near the body of the tool, and 
not at the point ends ; use at a speed of about 10 feet per minute. 

The parting tool for brass, Fig. 13, should be made to conform to 
the shape as represented and hardened right out. 

The side tool for iron, Fig. 14, cannot be made too hard; and should 
be used at a speed ranging from 20 to 30 feet per minute, with feed 
from 20 to 30 revolutions for each inch cut, varying as the dnnensions 
of the work ranges from 1 inch up to 12 inches in diameter, the speed 
decreasms: as the size of the work increases. 

Thepartinr/ tool for iron, Fig. 15, should be tempered m accordance 
with the size" of the tool and the nature of the work to be done; it 
may be hardened right out, or hardened to a dark straw, or, for a 
weak tool, to a purple color. 

The roughing tool for icrought iron, Fig. 16, when used on large 
work, should be tempered to a light straw, but for work of 5 inch 
diameter or less, it should be made as hard as possible ana not tem- 
pered at all. The cutting speed varies from 15 to 35 feet per minute 
as the size of the work varies from 1 inch to 20 inches or more m 
diameter ; feed &c. , ranging about as f oIIoavs : — 

Diameter of Work Cutting Speed Feet Feed per Inch 

in Inches. per Minute; ^ut. 

1 or less. 35 ^^ 

lto2 24 19 

2-5 20 19 

5 - 10 17 1| 

10-20 16 1^ 

20 and upwards 15 ^ t-. ^rr 

In hardening and tempermg the boring tools represented by l^igs. 17, 
19, 20, 21, 22 and 26 proceed, accordmg to the directions given else- 
where; making them very hard. , , -. 1 ^ r. 
The side tool for brasSy Fig. 18, should be hardened as much as faro 



MACHINISTS TOOLS. 



469 




Mg. 16. Tool for rougMng out wrouglit iron work. 

Fig. 17. Boring tool for heavy work on wrought iron. 

Fig. 18. Side tool for brass work. 

Fig. 19. Boring tool for heavy cutting on wrought iron. 

Fig. 20- For boring on cast iron where tool is liable to vibrate or tremble. 

Fig. 21. Stout finishing tool on cast iron. The back part of the tool is 

formed for scraping only, the front corner doing the cutting. 
Fig- 22. Tool to cut out a straight comer at the bottom of a hole in 

wrought iron. Fig. 23. Boring tool for wrought iron or steel. 



470 MACHINISTS, engineers' &C., RECEIPTS. 

and water will permit, and maybe used at a cutting speed of from 150 
to 350 feet per minute on work ranging from 1 inch up to 20 inches in 
diameter, with a feed of 30 and 25 revolutions to each inch turned. 

The boring tool for wrought iron, etc., Fig. 23, should, if slight, be 
tempered to a light straw color; otherwise, harden it right out, and 
when in use lubricate well with a mixture of soft soap 1 lb; boiling 
Avater, 1 gal. 

The finishing tool for cast iron, Fig. 24, should be hardened 
right out ; the cutting speed on the lathe is about 25 to 30 feet per 
minute on small work, and 18 feet on large work, with a coarse feed 
of say, 8 revolutions of the lathe per inch of travel. 

To make a counter horing tool, (Fig. 25), adjust the handle to a 
proper collet and turn the governor, which ought not to be over a J of 
inch in length; next turn a spot for the lips about g of an inch, on 
small tools and about J inch on large ones. Above this spot, turn it 
about J larger than the governor and straight up to the handle, by 
leaving the place for the lips short, thus saving filing. Next file 4 
spiral lips in them, resembling a drill; afterwards dress off the back 
back side of the lips on the end to an edge with a file, and harden. 

Milling tools or cutters, (Fig. 27.) ought to be chucked to fit loosely 
on the arbor, so that they may not prove to be too small after harden- 
ing. Now turn them to within a 32nd. of an inch of the required 
thickness, and again heat previous to finishmg. This second heatmg 
renders them less apt to spring when heated for the final hardening. 
The front tool for brass, Fig. 29, should be hardened right out, 
and the speed and feed should be about the following : — 

Diameter of Work Cutting Speed ft. Amount of Feed 

in Inches. per minute. 

1 or less, 345 25 

2 to 5, 245 25 
5 to 10, 195 25 
10 to 20, 150 30 

The tool for cutting square threads, Fig. 30, should be made quite 
hard, and formed as shown in cut. The same remark applies to the 
tool for hard metal, shown at Fig. 31. 

the boring tool for bi-ass, Fig. 32, should be made as hard as fire 
aud water will make it, and used with a quick speed and lightfeed. 

The finishing tool for wrought iron, &c.. Fig. 33, should be hard- 
ened right out, and used at a cutting speed of "from 18 to 38 revolu- 
tions per minute, as the size of the work varies from IS inches, or 
more, down to 1 inch in diameter, with a feed from 14 to 30 revolu- 
tions for each inch cut, as follows : — 

Diameter of Work Cutting Speed ft. Amount of Feed, 

m Inches. per minute. 

1 or less, 38 30 

1 to 2, 29 24 

2 to 4, 24 19 
4 to 10, 22 19 
10 to 18, 19 16 
18 and upwards, 18 14 

In addition to these instructions, each tool requires to be ground 
in such a way as will best adapt it for the performance of the various 
kinds of work that may be in hand. 

Spiral, Drili^s, Fig. 35, should be annealed and turned to l-50th 
of an inch larger than the finished size ; then heated again, and an- 



MACHINISTS TOOLS. 



471 




Fig. 24. FiiiisMng tool for cast iron. 

Fig. 25. Counter boring tool, end view. 

Figi 26. To be used on wrought iron when the tool is liable to spring on 

account of distance from the tool post. 
Fig. 27, Fluted milling tool or cutter. 



472 MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS^ &C., RECEIPTS. 

nealed iii a vertical position, among lime, ashes, or soap-suds ; the 
shank is then turned to fit a proper collet socket, and afterwards the 
point may be turned to the desired dimensiohs and shaped. Next 
measure from the point and finish the turnmg, by making it tapering 
to the extent of 100th of an inch smaller for every 2 inches of the 
length of the drill. The spiral grooves are cut on a machine con- 
structed for the purpose, containing a spindle, ^vhich imparts the 
double movement of sliding and revolving slowly while the spirals 
are being cut. The spindle contains a screw, on which a chuck to 
hold the drill is adjusted. The drill being inserted in the chuck, pro- 
ceed to elevate the sliding block beneath the drill, so that it will 
touch it, adjusting it so as not to raise it too high ; then insert a cut- 
ter, which should be one-half the diameter of drill, and groove your 
drills, which should, for a drill 1 inch in diameter, be cut 1 to the 
inch, and down to within a 32nd cf the centre ; for J-inch drills, cut 
the grooves IJ to the inch, down to within a 64th of the centre ; for 
J-inch drills, cut the grooves 2 to the inch, down to within 100th of 
the centre, computing as you would in cutting a screw in a lathe, the 
index plate giving you the two startmg points at which to commence 
the work. 

Fluted Reamers, Fig. 36, should be carefully turned to a 32nd 
of an inch of the finished size, then heated and allowed to cool in a 
perpendicular position, previous to finishing. The treatment re- 
moves the strains and the occasional hardness made by the hammer- 
ing, so that they will not spring in the operation of heating for tem- 
pering. The lips of a reamer should be made uneven ; otherwise, 
when it chatters, it leaps from one lip to the other. In reamers from 
1 inch to IJ inches in diameter, the flutes or channels should be 9 in 
number, and 11 in reamers of from IJ to IJ inches in diameter. 
Reamers from J to § of an inch in diameter, should have 5 flutes, and 
reamers from § to 1 inch should have 7. After cooling, as above 
noted,turn the part intended for the lips 100th of an inch larger than 
the finished size ; afterwards 'turn a spot in the middle of it | long, 
and l-12th of the size of the reamer smaller than the reamer. After 
hardening, this is the place to pene it straight. When the turning of 
all but the upper part is finished, put it on the centres, and prepare 
to flute it, deferring the turning of the upper part until after harden- 
ing and straightening. Place it on the centres ; if on a planer, flute 
with a round end tool, 1-lOth of an inch thick, and plane down to 
the face of each lip, to the bottom of the spot intended for the pen- 
ing, and plane them so that the space between every other of the two 
lips will be shorter than that of the two just before them. The 
next step is to plane off the back side of the lips with a square end 
tool to within a 32nd of an inch from the face. The faces of the lips 
should be planed even with the centre, the lips dressed smooth with 
the file, hardened again, and then pened straight. Finish by turning 
the upper part to the desired size, and polish it off ; grind the lips to 
a sharp edge and to the i)roper size, and it is all right. 

To flute taps, Fig. 38, adjust the work on the centres, and plane 
the faces of all the teeth with a cutter or planing tool, made circular 
at the end, the thickness at the end being ^ the diameter of the tap. 
Taps should be fluted with the teeth slightly hooking on the face. 
Dress the faces of all the teeth with the planer one-half the depth of 
he thread deeper than the bottom of the thread ; this done, plan^ 



MACHINISTS TOOLS. 



473 




Fig. 29. Front tool for brass work. 

Fig. 30. Tool for cutting square threads. 

Fig. 31. Tool for cutting hard metal. 

Fig. 32. Boring tool for brass. 

Fig. 33. Tool for finishing cast iron, wrought iron and steel. 

Fig. 34. Die for screw-cutting, face view. 

Fig. 35. Spiral drill. 



474 MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 

off the back parts of the teeth, giving them IJ the breadth of theii 
pitch, leaving them, if the pitch is 10, a 10th and a 20th, which leaves 
them quite strong enough tor efficient service and easy work. Trim 
the back parts of the teeth with a planing tool '=^';^ual in thicknes to 
the size of the tap. Two taps should be used for each thread; with 
hte first, remove two-thirds of the thread, and finish off with the 
other. No taer is prequired on taps for 5 threads ; if they are fabri- 
cated by this plan, they are not liable to break, and work easy. 
Extra large mongrel-thread taps should invariably be of two or more 
sizes, owing to the coarse thread and the mass of metal to be re- 
moved by them, which otherwise would be crushed and torn. 

Cold Chisels should be shaped thin at the cutting end, and with 
the edge slightly rounded outwards, instead of being square across 
or hollowed inwards, as is frequently the case. This shape imparts 
more endurance to the tool, and makes it cut easier than when it is 
eveu across or rounded inwards, as we see it in many cases. In hard- 
ening, heat the tool to a dark red heat to a depth equivalent to its 
width, and dip it half that length into the tempering liquid, holding 
it stationary about 4 seconds ; then plunge it a little deeper and with- 
draw ; brighten one side by rubbing on an emery or sand board, re- 
move the bad color with a piece of waste or rag, and bring out a 
clear blue color by immersion in the water. In many cases it is 
rather difficult to temper a piece of steel uniformly, and molten 
metallic mixtures are used, being chiefly made up of tin and lead ; 
the bright hardened steel is kept in these molten mixtures until it has 
assumed the temperature of the bath. The following tabulated form 
exhibits the composition of the metallic baths which experience has 
pfoved to be the best for the manufacturing of cutlery : — 

Composition of Melting Temperature. 

Metallic Mixture. Point. 
Lead. Tin. 

Lancets 7 4 220° Hardly pale yellow. 

Eazors 8 4 228° p*l« y^J'fi^^" "*"*'' 

Pen-knives 8l^ 4 232° Straw yellow. 

Pairs of Scissors 14 4 254° Brown. 

Clasp-knives, Join-) 

ers' and Carpen-J 19 4 265° Purplish Colored. 

ters' Tools ) 

Swords, Cutlasses, ) 

and WatchS 48 4 288° Bright blue. 

Springs ) 

S t i 1 ettos, Boring ) 

Tools, and EineJ 50 2 292° Beep blue. 

Saws ) 

Ordinary saws | ^^ S ofl!'''" I ^^^^ blackish olue. 

Such tools as are required to work iron and other metals, and 
hard stones, are heated to a bright yellow ; razors, coining dies, en- 
gravers* tools, and wire-drawing plates follow next to straw yellow ; 
carpenters' tools to purplish red, while such tools and objects as are 
required to be elastic are heated to the violet or deep blue tint. The 
less steel is heated the harder it remains, but also the more brittle. 



MACHINISTS TOOLS. 



475 



fcM J''i-'f- ^'f^^- A}.39. r.}.H 




Fig. 36. Fluted reamer, side view. 

Fig. 37. Single lipped drill, to drill very tnie. 

Fig. 38. Square thread tap, side view. 

Fig. 39. Single lipped reamer. 

Fig. 40. Counter boring tool, side view. 



476 MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 

Single-lipped Reamers^ Fig. 39, should be fabricated from a 
piece of steel, with the head forged square to adept it to a proper 
wrench ; turn it tapering and exactly round, and, after i)lacing it on 
the centres, plane a groove through its entire length, one side of 
which groove will form the lips of the reamer. From this groove 
dress off the 64th of an inch half the distance round. Finish by- 
filing up the face of the lips on a line through the middle on the end : 
next harden and temper. Rose reamers should be made with square 
ends, with the corners removed, lips cut about 9 to the inch on the 
end, and a little hooking, with a temper hke other roamers. 

To Chuck Pulleys. — This means to adjust or secure the work 
in such iDOsition as to ensure truthful drilling or planing ; the term 
chuck is also used to denote the instrument employed to secure the 
work, being merely a circular .niece of iron with an ai)erture on one 
side of it, fitted with a screw arrangement used to secure it to the 
snindle of a lathe. The other side contains a number of jaws, gener- 
ally three or lour, wUicn screw together for the purpose of securing 
the work while it is being drilled or otherwise operated upon. To 
chuck a pulley, first secure it by screwing it in the jaws of the chuck 
as near the right position as possible, next screw a tool into the post, 
with one end of it near the face of the pulley ; then turn and true the 
pulley by means of the screws, so that the tool touches it all around, 
and true the edges the same way ; repeat, trying the face again to 
see if it has moved. Pulleys should be chucked either on a mandril 
or else chucked by the arms, since chucking them by the rims springs 
them out of true. 

To Set the Chuck Rest. — To set the rest, place it into the tool 
post with the centres of the slats through which the drills passes 
just as high, and no more, as the centres of the lathe, (otherwise it 
will fail to bore true) and drill your wheel, using two drills, to ensure 
true work, or three, if the holes are cored badly to one side ; the last 

tool should remove no more than the -^q of an inch, which will leave 
the hole exactly right. 

To Scrape Cast-Iron Smooth.— Place a rest close to the sur- 
face to be operated on, and, using a thin wide scraper, rest it on one 
edge and scrape, twisting it, and upholding it while cutting, in ^^-our 
hand. Don't bear on very hard, but remove as thin a chip as pos- 
sible, and you will easily succeed. 

Work should be fitted as exact and true as possible before being 
scraped with the flat scraper, which should be used on flat surfaces 
onlj^ The half round scraper is the best form for curves, hollow 
work, etc., the three-cornered scraper being the least useful. Old 
files which have never been re-cut make very good scrapers. 

To Make Drill Sockets or Collets. — The best collets for 
correct work on drill lathes are those formed to screw on to the spin- 
dle, and constructed with a tapering hole for the retention of the 
drill, and a key- way to secure the end of the drill from turning. 
Sockets for ordinary job form, should be shaped with a set-screw to 
retain the drills, and the aperture for the drills should be drilled 

circular, adapted for the reception of round drill steel about yg of an 
in. in diameter. For collets to screw on the drill lathe, bore out the 
end and shape the screw to conform well to the spindle, and attach it 
by screwing it on to the lathe where it is required for use. Next, 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 477 

bore a hole for the drill shank IJ ins. deep, exactly straight and 
true, ream it tapering, and cut a key- way through the metal, below 
the lower part of, and running into the aperture bored for the shank. 
This key-way is intended to secure the drill and ought to be J an 
inch long and ^ wide. A collet for upright drills should be made by 
drilling the centres and turning up the ends to be drilled for the 
shank so as to adapt it for running in a back rest; then insert the end 
to be drilled into the back rest and the other end on the lathe centre 
and proceed to drill out the hole for the shank; then remove it from 

f the back rest, and, making use of the hole for a centre, turn it to fit 

' the drill, insert a set screw in it, and all is finished. 

Screw Threads. — The English Proportions, the 
Whitworth Thread. 

Dlam. in inches j\ i A I iV i I f I ^ ^i H If H 

Threadsperinch....212Q18161412ni09 8 7 7 6 6 

Diam. in inches. . . . .1| If 1| 2 2^ 2| 2| 3 31 3i 3f 4 4^ 4^ 
Threads per inch. ... 5 5 4^ 4^ 4 4 3^ 31 3^ 3^ 3 3 2| 2| 

Diam. in inches 4f 5 5 J^ 5^ 5f 6 

Threads per inch 2f 2f 2| 2f 2^ 2^ 

. Angle of threads = 55°. Depth of threads = pitch of screws. 
One-6th of the depth is rounded off at top and bottom. Number of 
threads to the uich in square threads = J number of those in angular 
threads. 

Screw Threads. — Standard American Proportions. 

Diam. in inches....! ^5^ | _7_ ^ | | r i i^ i^ i| 

No. of threads 20 18 16 14 33 11 10 9 8 7 7 6 

Diam. in inches.... U If If 1| 2 2\ 2\ 2| 3 ^ ^ 

No. of threads 6 6 5 5 41 4^ 4 4 31 31 3^ 

Diam. in inches.... 3| 4 41 41 4| 5 51 51 5| 6 
m. of threads 3 3 2\ 2f 2# 21 2\ 2| 3| 21 

Angle of threads = 60°. Flat surface at top and bottom = | of 
the pitch. For rough bolts, the distance between the parallel sides of 
bolt-head and nut = IJ diameters of bolt -j- 4 of an inch. Thickness 
of head = J distance of between parallel sides. Thickness of nut = 
diam . of bolt. In finished bolts, thickness of head equals thickness 
of nut. Distance between parallel sides of a bolt-head and nut and 

thickness of nut is ^e of an inch less for finished work than for rough. 

Speed of Emery Wheels.— A 12-inch wheel should make 1,200 
revolutions per minute; an 8-inch, 18,00; and a 0-inch, 2,400. 

To True Corundum Wheei^s. — Adjust the wheel in the lathe 
and start it at a high speed, holding a piece of corundum stone against 
the uneven surface. The stone will soon melt and unite itself to the 
defective places in the wheel. 

To Clean Greasy Cotton Waste. — Boil it in a strong solution 
of common soda in water, and use the resultant emulsion as a lubri- 
cant for drills, reamers, &c. 



478 MACHINISTS, engineers/ &C., RECEIPTS. 

Tesipering Tools. — ^DraTving the temper of tools is usually done 
in a charcoal flame, and to draw the temper of a tool properly it 
should be held in the thickest part, or the part not requiring any 
temper, towards the fire, and in the meantime, should be often 
wiped with a piece of waste or rag, dipped in oil. The oil keeps 
the temper even, and prevents it drawing more to one place than 
another. And in drawing the temper of any tool it should be 
drawn very slowly, otherwise it will run too far ere you are aware 
of it. Lancet blades and razors should be drawn to a stra^v 
color. Knife blades and chisels should be drawn to a copper or 
almost red color. Plane irons, shaving knives and shoemakers 
knives the same temper ; cold chisels and stone drills, should bo 
drawn to a dark blue. Fluted reamers should only be drawn to a 
straw color, on the end, as they never break elsewhere, and keep 
their size longer by leaving the lips hard. Half round or tapering 
reamers, also taps, dies, and drills, should be drawn to a strav/ 
color. Jijucs and gauges, also common lathe tools, need no drawing, 
being tempered enough when merely hardened. 

Hardening and Filling for Fire-proof Safes.— Experience has 
shown that the fire and burglar-proof diamond chill for iron or steel, 
described in another part of this work, has no superior as a harden- 
ing for security in the construction of safes ; and, as a non-conductor 
of heat, we would recommend a filling of plaster of Paris or alum. It is 
claimed by some that a mixture of both of these articles forms the best 
known filling for safes, as an external application of intense heat is 
certain to liberate a large quantity of water, which is transformed into 
steam, thus ensuring entire safety to the contents of the safe. Other 
manufacturers employa concrete filling for safes, and ex tol it very liigh- 
ly. Mr. Moffat, gas and steamfitter, Boston, has informed me that ho 
has applied for protection in the matter of a discovery by which he claims 
that he can fully protect a safe against a double blast furnace heat, by 
means of an outside lining of bricks composed of asbestos and kaolm, 
a very small portion of the latter material being used. From the wel2 
known incombustible nature of these materials, there can bo np 
reasonable doubt but that the claim in question is a just one. 

Metallic Bath for Teaipering. — Use a black lead or cast iron 
crucible (of the requisite depth), and place the same, filled with lead, 
on a fire made of coal or charcoal, and surrounded on aU sides by a 
metallic or brick wall, level, or nearly so, with the top of the crucible; 
but at a sufficient distance (say 5 or 6 inches) from it, to receive tho 
fuel necessary to maintain the fire, in order to keep the lead in a 
melted state. Let the crucible rest on iron bars, and leave apertures to . 
admit air to the fire. The articles, slightly greased to prevent tho 
adherence of oxide, are immersed in the melted lead (wliich is kept 
at a red heat) by means of tongs, two or three pairs being generally 
used, in order that one or two pieces may be heated while the other 
is undergoing manipulation by the hardening process. Keep the lead 
covered with charcoal dust or cinders. This plan is used by many 
cutlers and file manufacturers for giving the proper degree of heat in 
the tempering of their wares. The process is highly valued by those 
who use it. See file manufacture. 

Concerning Saws, Railway Springs, &c.— Wheii the saws are 
wanted to be rather hard, but little of the oil tempering composition 



MACniNISTS, ENGINEEIIS', &C., RECEIPTS. 479 

Is burned off; when milder, a large portion; and for a spring temper 
the whole is allowed to bum away. Saws as weU as springs appear to 
lose their elasticity, after hardening and tempering, from the reduction 
they undergo in grinding and polishing. Towards the conclusion of 
the manufacture, the elasticity of the saw is restored principally by 
hammering, and partly over a clear coke fire to a straw color; the 
tint is removed by very diluted muriatic acid, after which the saws 
are well washed in plain water and dried. Spring manufacture in- 
cludes the heaviest specunens of hardened steel works uncombined 
with iron; for example, bow-springs for all kinds of vehicles, some 
intended for railway use, measure 3| feet long, and weigh 50 lbs. each 
piece; two of these are used in combination; other single springs aro 
6 feet long, and weigh 70 lbs. The principle of these bow-springs will 
be immediately seen by conceiving the common archery bow fixed 
horizontally with its cord upwards ; the body of the carriage being 
attached to the cord sways both perpendicularly and sideways with 
perfect freedom. In hardening them they are heated by being drawn 
backwards and forwards through an ordinary fii-o built hollow, and 
they are immersed in a trough of plain water. In tempering them 
they are heated until the black red is just visible at night ; by 
daylight the heat is denoted by its making a piece of wood sparkle 
when rubbed on the spring, which is then allowed to cool in the air. 
The metal is nine-sixteenths of an inch tliick, and some consider five- 
eighths the hmits to which steel wUlhard enproperly, that is sufficiently 
ahke to serve as a spring. Their elasticity is tested far beyond their 
intended range. 

Tempering Locomotive Tires.— This is quite ponderous work, as 
the tires of the eight foot wheels weigh about 10 cwt. and consist of 
about one-third steel. The materials for the tires are first swaged se- 
parately, and then welded together under the heavy hammer at the 
steel works, after which they are bent to the circle, welded, and 
turned to certain gauges. The tire is now heated to redness in a cir- 
cular furnace ; during the time it is getting hot, tlie iron wheel, pre- 
viously turned to the right diameter, is bolted down upon a face- 
plate, the tire expands with the heat, and when at a cherry red, it is 
dropped over the wheel, for which it was previously too small, and is 
also hastily bolted down to the surface plate. The whole load is 
quickly immersed by a swmg crane into a tank of water about five 
feet deep, and hauled up and down until nearly cold ; the steel tires 
are not aftenvards tempered. The spokes are forged out of flat-bars 
with T formed heads, these are arranged radially in the founder's 
mould whilst the cast-iron centre is poured around them, the ends of 
tlie T heads are then welded together to constitute the perii)hery of 
the wheel or mner tire, and little wedge-form pieces are inserted 
where there is any deficiency of iron. The wheel is then chucked on 
a lathe, bored and turned on the edge, not cylindrically, but like 
the meeting of two cones, and about one quarter of an inch higher in 
the middle than the two edges. The compound tire is turned to the 
corresponding form, and consequently, larger within 6r under cut so 
that the shrinking secures the tire without the possibility of obliquity 
or derangement, and no rivets are required. It sometimes happens, 
that the tire breaks in shrinking, when by mismanagement the diam- 
eter of the wheel is in excess. 



480 MACHINISTS, engineers', &c., keceipts. 

Making Anchors. — Tlie anchor smith's forge consists of a hearth 
of brickwork, raised about 9 inches above the ground, and generally 
about 7 feet square. In the centre of this is a cavity containing the 
fire. A vertical brick wall is built on one side of the hearth, which 
supports the dome, and a low chimney to carry off the smoke. 
Behind this wall are placed the bellows, with which the fire is urged ; 
the beUows being so placed that they blow to the centre of the fire. 
The anvil and the crane by which the heavy masses of metal are 
moved from and to the fire are adjusted near the hearth. The 
Hercules, a kind of stamping machiue, or the steam hammer, need 
not be described in this place. To make the anchor, bars of good 
iron are brought together to be fagoted ; the number varying with the 
size of the anchor. The fagot is kept together by hoops of iron, 
and the whole is placed upon the properly arranged hearth, and 
covered up by small coals, which are thrown upon a kind of oven 
made of cinders. Great care and good management are required to 
keep this temporary oven sound during the combustion ; a smith 
strictly attends to this. When all is arranged, the bellows are set to 
work, and a blast urged on the fire ; this is continued for about an 
hour, when a good welding heat is obtained. The mass is now 
brought from the fire to the anvil, and the iron welded by the 
hammers. One portion having been welded, the iron is returned to 
to the fire, and the operation is repeated until the whole is welded in 
one mass. The different parts of the anchor being made, the arms are 
united to the end of the shank. This must be done with great c^re, 
as the goodness of the anchor depends entirely upon this process 
being effectively performed. The arms being welded on, the ring has 
to be formed and welded. The ring consists of several bars welded 
together, drawn out into a round rod passed through a hole in the 
shank, bent into a circle, and the ends welded together. When all 
the parts are adjusted, the whole anchor is brought to a red heat, 
and hammered with lighter hammers than those used for welding, 
the object being to give a finish and evenness to the surface. The 
toughest iron that can be procured should be used in anchors. Good 
"Welsh mine iron" is suitable; also "scrap iron.'* An anchor of 
the ordinary or Admiralty pattern, the Trotman, or Porter's im- 
proved (pivot fluke), theHoniball, Porter's, Aylin's, Rodger's, Mitche- 
son's and Lennox's, each weighing, inclusive of stock, 27000 lbs., 
withstood without injury a proof strain of 45000 lbs. In dry ground^ 
Rodger's dragged the Admiralty anchor at both long and short stay ; 
at short stay, Rodger's and Aylin's gave equal resistance; Mitchc- 
son's dragged Aylin's at both long and short stay ; and Aylin's 
dragged the Admiralty at short stay, they giving equal resistance at 
long stay. In ground under ivater, Trotman' s dragged Aylin's, 
HonibaU's, Mitcheson's, and Lennox's : Aylin's dragged Rodger's ; 
Mitcheson's dragged Rodger's, and Lennox's dragged the Admiralty's. 
The breaking weights between a Porter and Admiralty anchor, as 
tested at the Wx)olwich Dockyard, were as 43 to 15. 

Manufactu]^"g and Repaibing Anvils. — The common anvil is 
usually made of seven pieces : 1, the core, or body ; 2, 3, 4, 6, the 
four comer pieces, which serve to enlarge its base ; 6, the projecting 
end, which has a square hole for the reception of the tail or shank of 
a chisel on which iron bars may be cut through, and 7, the beak, or 



MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS &C., RECEIPTS 481 

horizontal cone round "which rods or slips of metal may be turned m 
a circular form, as in making rings. These six pieces are welded 
separately to the first or core, and then hammered into a uniform body. 
In manufacturing large amoLs two hearths are needed, in order to 
bring each of the two pieces to be welded to a proper heat by itself, 
and several men are employed in working them together briskly in 
^he welding state, by heavy swing hammers. The steel facing is ap- 
1)1 led by welding in the same manner, powdered borax with sa-l-am- 
moniac (1 part to 10 parts of borax) being used as a flux. The anvil 
is then heated to a cherry red, and plunged into cold water, a run- 
ning stream being better than a pool or cistern, the rapid formation 
of steam at the sides of the metal preventing the free access of the 
water for the removal of the heat with the required expedition. In 
some cases a stream of water is contrived to descend from a cistern 
above on the part to be chilled, which is sure to render it very hard. 
The facing Should not be too thick a plate, for when such, it is apt to 
crack in the hardening. It is somewhat dangerous to stand near 
such works at the time, as when the anvil face is not jperfectly weld- 
ed, it sometimes, in part, flies off with great violence and a loud re- 
port. In the case of broken anvils the repairs Avill have to be made 
in accordance with the above description. . In finishing off the face, it 
is smoothed upon a grindstone, and, for fine work, polished with em- 
ery and crocus. 

Manufactukixg Chains. — ^For this purpose the iron is cut off 
with a plain chamfer, as from the annular form of the links their ex- 
tremities cannot shde asmider when struck. Every succeeding link 
is bent, mtroduced, and finally welded. In some of these welded 
ciiains the Unks are not more than J an inch long, and the iron wire 
J inch diameter. These are made with great dexterity by a man and 
a boy, at a small fire. The curbed chains are welded in the ordinary 
way and twisted afterwards, a few links being made red-hot at p. 
tim^e for the purpose. The massive cable chains are made much in 
the same manner, although partly by aid of machinery. The bar of 
iron, now one, one and a half, or even two inches in diameter, is heated 
and the scarf is made as a plam chamfer, by a cutting machme ; thG 
link is then formed by inserting the edge of the heated bar within a 
looj) in the edge of an oval disc, which may be compared to a chuck 
fixed on the end of a lathe mandril. The disc is put in gear by tliQ 
steam engine ; it makes exactly one revolutian and throws itself ou^ 
of motion. This bends the heated extremity of the iron into an oval 
figure. Afterwards it is detached from the rod with a chamfered cut 
by the cutting machme, which, at one stroke, makes the second scarf 
of the detached link, and the first of that next to be curled up. Thp 
link is now threaded to the extremity of the chaiUf closed together 
and transferred to the fire, the loose end being carried by a travera^^ 
crane. When the link is at the proi^er heat, it is returned to the anvfi 
welded, and dressed off between the top and bottom tools, after whicli 
the cast iron transverse stay is inserted, and the Imk having been 
closed upon the stay, the routine is recommenced. The work com- 
moifiy requires three men, and the scarf is placed at the side of the 
oval link, and flat way through the same. In similar chains made 
by hand, it is, perhaps, more customary to weld the link at the crown, 
or small end. 

31 



482 MACiiiNisTft, engineers', «&c., receipts. 

VxTLCAinTE Emery Wheels. — ^Use a compound of India rubber, 
and Wellington mills emery, as little of the former as Avill suffice 
to hold the particles of emery together. The materials must be thor- 
oughly incorporated together, then rolled into sheets, cut into wheels 
of the desired size and pattern, pressed into the iron moulds, and vul- 
canized or cured by being subjected to a high degree of steam heat 
for several hours, making it almost as hard as cast iron. 

To Braze a Band Saw. — Whitney's method.— The tools required 
are a small portable forge, brazing clamps, &c. and a straight edge, 
3 or 4 feet long, also some brass wire and powdered borax. Take tlio 
saw and cut it to the proper length, scarf the ends from one-half to 
three-fourths of an inch, then put the saw in the clamps. I would 
gay that I use a very small and simple clamp in the shape of a double 
vise. Keep the back of the saw out of the jaws of the vise, or clamps, 
and apply the straight edge to the back, as it is very necessary to 
braze it straight ; make the fire in as small a compass as possible ; 
place the clamps directly over the centre of the fire, and then put on 
three pieces of brass wire, bent in the form of the letter U, so tlmt 
they will pinch the laps together ; put as much borax as will lie on tlie 
Faw, cover the whole with a piece of charcoal : melt the brass so 
that it wiU flow over the saw before taking it off the fire, and cool 
very slow so as not to make the braze brittle. File off what remains 
on the saw and it is ready for use. 

To Remove Rust.— If you immerse the articles in kerosene oil and 
let them remain for some time, the rust will become so much loos- 
ened as to come off very easy. 

Damascus Steel.— It is said that this steel consists of a highly 
carburetted metal which, by undergoing careful cooling and annealing, 
separates into two compounds of iron and carbon, giving it the peculiar 
appearance known as Damasceening." The wonderful strength of 
this steel is no doubt owing to careful manipulation. 

Gearing a Lathe for Screw Cutting.— Every screw-cutting 
lathe contains a long screw called the lead screw, which feeds the 
carriage of the lathe, while cutting screws ; upon the end of this screw 
is placed a gear to which is transmitted motion from another gear 
placed on the end of the spindle, these gears each contain a different 
number of teeth, for the jpurpose of cutting different threads, and the 
threads are cut a certain number to the inch varying from 1 to 50. 
Therefore to find the proper gears to cut a certam number of threads 
to the inch, you will first: — multiply the number of threads you de- 
sire to cut to the inch, by any small number, four for instance, and 
this will give you the proper gear to put on the lead screw. Then 
with the same number, four, multiply the number of threads to the 
inch in the lead screw, and this will give you the proper gear to put 
on the spindle. 'For example, if you want to cut 12 to the inch, mul- 
tiply 12 by 4, and it wUl give you 48. Put this gear on the lead 
screw, then with the same number, 4, multiply the number of threads 
to the inch in the lead screw. If it is five, for instance, it will give you 
twenty, put this on the spindle and your lathe is geared. If the lead 
screw is 4, 5, 6, 7, or 8, the same rule holds good. Always multiply 
the number of threads to be cut, first. Some, indeed most small 
lathes, are now made with a stud geared into the spindle, which stud 
only runs half as fast as the spindle, and in finding the gears for these 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 483 

s. 

lathes, you will first multiply the number of threads to be cut, as be- 
fore, and then multiply the number of threads on the lead screw, as 
double the number it is. For instance, if you want to cut 10 to the 
inch, multiply by 4, and you get 40, put this on the lead screw, then 
if your lead screw is five to the mch, you call it 10; and multiply by 
4 and it will give you 40. Agaui put tiiis on your stud and your lathe 
is geared ready to commence cutting. 

Cutting a Screw in an Engine Lathe. — ^In cutting V thread- 
screws, it is only necessary for you to practice operating the shipper 
and slide-screw handle of your lathe, before cutting. After having 
done this, until you get the motions, you may set the point of the tool 
as high as the centre, and if you keep the tool sharp, you will find no 
difficulty in cutting screws. You must, however, cut very light 
chips, mere scrapings in finishing and must take it out of the lathe 
often, and look at it from both sides, very carefully, to see that the 
threads, do not lean like fish scales. After cutting, polish with an 
emery stick, and some emery. 

Cutting Square Thread-Screws. — ^In cutting square thread- 
screws, it is always necessary to get the depth required, with a tool 
somewhat thinner than one-half the pitch of the thread. After doing 
this, make another tool exactly one-half the pitch of the thread, and 
use it to finish with, cutting a slight chip on each side of the groove. 
After doing this, polish with a pine stick, and some emery. Square 
threads for strength should be cut one-half the depth of their pitch, 
while square threads, for wear, may, and should be cut three-fourths 
the depth of their pitch. 

MoNGREii Threads. — Mongrel, or half V, half-square threads are 
usually made for great wear, and should be cut the depth of their 
pitch and for extraordinary wear they may even be cut IJ the depth 
of the pitch. The point and the bottom of the grooves should be in 
width J the depth of their pitch. What is meant here by the point of 
the thread, is the outfeide surface. And the bottom of the groove is 
the groove between the threads. In cutting these threads it is neces- 
sary to use a tool about the shape of the thread, and in thickness 
about one-fifth less than the thread is when finished. As it is im- 
I)ossible to cut the whole surface at once, you will cut it in depth 
about one-sixteenth at a time, then a chip off the sides of the thread 
and continue in this way alternately till you have arrived at the 
depth required. Make a gauge of the size required between the 
threads and finish by scraping with water. It is usually best to leave 
such screws as these a little large until after they are cut, and. 
then turn off a light chip, to size them, this leaves them true and 
nice. 

Planing Metals.— The first operation about planing, is to oil 
your planer and fiLnd out if the bed is smooth. If it is not, file off 
the rough places ; then change the dogs to see if they will work 
well, and find out the movements of the planer. After doing this, 
bolt your work on the bed, and if it is a long, thin piece, plane 
off a chip, then turn it over and finish the other side, taking two 
chipSj the last of which should be very light. Great care should 
be taken, in bolting it to the bed, not to spring it. After finish- 
ing this side turn it to the other side, and take off a light cut to 
timsh it. 



484 MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS', &C., RECEIPT!?. 

Planing PerpendicxtijAiily. — ^In planiug^eipendicularly, it is 
necessary to swivel the bottom of tlie small head around, so it will 
stand about three-fourths of an inch inside of square, towards the 
piece you are to plane. This prevents breaking the tool when the 
bed runs back. 

Gear Cutting. — In cutting gears, they are reckoned a certain 
number of teeth to the inch, measuring across the diameter to a cer- 
tain line which is marked on the face or sides of the gear with a tool. 
This line is one-half the depth of the teeth from the outer diameter. 
That is, if the teeth of the gear are two-tenths of an inch deep, this 
line would be one-tenth of an inch from the edge and is called the 
pitch line. 

Depth of Teeth. — ^Every gear cut with a different number of 
teeth to the inch, should be cut of a depth to the pitch line, to corres- 
pond with the number of teeth to the inch. This is called proportion. 
Therefore, if you cut a gear eight to the inch, the depth to the pitch 
luie should be one-eight of an inch, and the whole dei^th of the tooth 
■would be two-eighths. Again, if you cut a gear twelve to the inch, the 
depth to pitch line should be one-twelfth of an inch, and the whole 
depth of tooth two-twelfths. And agaiu, if you cut a gear twenty to 
the inch, the depth to pitch line should be one-twentieth of an inch, 
Avhile the whole depth should be two-twentieths, and so on ad in- 
Jiniium. 

Measuring to find the Number of teeth. — To find the size 
a certain gear should be, for a certain number of teeth, is an easy 
matter, if you study carefully these rules. If you want a gear with 
thirty-two teeth and eight to the inch, it should be four inches measur- 
ing across the diameter to the i^itch line, and the two-eighths outside 
of the iDitch line would make it four inches and two-eighhts. Again, 
if you want a gear with forty teeth, and ten to the inch, it should 
measure across the diameter to pitch line four mches, and the two- 
tenths outside the pitch line would make the whole diameter four 
inches and two-tenths. And again, if you want a gear with eighty 
teeth, aud twenty to the inch, it should measure to the pitch line, 
across the diameter, four inches, and the two-twentieths, outside 
the iDitch line, would make it four inches and two-twentieths, aud 
these examples Avill form a rule for the measurement of all except 
bevel gears. 

Bevel Gears. — Tliese are turned a certain bevel to correspond 
with each other, according to the angle upon which the shafts driven 
by them are set. For instance, if two shafts are set upon an angle of 
ninety degrees, the surfaces of the faces of these gears will stand at 
an angle of forty-five degrees. To get the surface of these gears, in 
turning them, put a straight edge across the face. Then set your 
level on an angle of forty-five degrees, and try the face of the teeth by 
placing the level on the straight edge. After tumiug the face of the 
teeth, square the outer diameter by the face of the teeth; and to get 
the size to which you wish to cut, measure from the centre of the 
face of the teeth. Thus, if a bevel gear is six inches in diameter, and 
the face of the teeth is one inch, you will measure from the centre of 
the face, and find it is five inches. On this line you calculate the 
number of teeth to the inch, and if you want a gear with twenty 
teeth, and ten to tha *nch, it should measure two inches across 1 lie 



MACHINISTS, engineers', itC, RECEIPTS. 485 

face to the centre of the surface of the teeth; and if the face of the 
teeth were one inch in length, the diameter of the gear would ho 
three inches, and the inside of the teeth would measure only one 
inch. Again, if you want to cut a gear with f oily teeth, and ten to 
the inch, it would measure four inches to the centre of the teeth on 
the surface. And if the surface of the teeth were one inch long, tho 
diameter of the gear would be five inches, while it would only 
measure three inches inside the teeth. These examples will form a 
rule for all bevel gears. 

Draw-filing and Finishing. — To draw-file a piece of work 
smoothly and quickly, it is best to first draw-file it with a medium 
fine file, and fijiish with a superfine file. After doing this, polish 
the work with dry emery paper and then with emery paper and oil. 

Lining Boxes with Babbitt Metal. — To line boxes properly, so 
as to insure their filling every time, it is necessary to heat the box 
nearly red hot, or at least hot enough to melt the metal. Then smoke 
the shaft where the metal is to be poured upon it. This insures its 
•soming out of the box easily, after it is cold. After smoking the 
shaft, put it into the box or boxes, and draw some putty around the 
ends of them, for the purpose of stopping them, taking care 
not to press upon it, for if you do it will go into the box and fill a 
place that ought to be filled with metal ; and, in the meantime, your 
metal ought to be heated, and after you have poured it, let 
the box stand till it is nearly cold ; drive out your shaft, and it is 
done. 

TuBNiNG and Boeing.— For turning^ the proper speed for the ch- 
cumf erence is about fifteen feet per minute. The best speed for borj 
ing cast iron is about 7^ feet per minute. For drilling^ about 10 o, 
11 feet per minute is a good speed for the circumference of the tool. 
For a 1 inch drill, 40 revolutions = 11 feet x>er minute, other sizes iT 
proportion. 

How to fit Keys int:o Locks.— When it is not convenient to 
take locks apart in the event of keys being lost, stolen, or missing, 
when you wish to fit a new key, take a lighted match or candle and 
smoke the new key in the flame, introduce it carefully into the key- 
hole, press it firmly against the opposing wards of the lock, withdraw 
it; and the indentations in the smoked part of the key will show you 
exactly where to file. 

Putting Machines Together. — ^In putting machines together no 
part should be finished except where it is necessary to make a fit, as 
it is sometimes the case that machinery is miscalculated, and by 
finisliing it would be spoiled, while if it were not, it might be saved 
by slight alterations in design. And again, in finishing certain parts 
before you get a machine together, you are miknowingly finishing 
parts not necessary to be finished, and making them of a shape any- 
thing but desirable. This rule, however, is not intended to apply ^o 
machinery being made to detail drawings. 

To Drill, a Hole where you have no Reamer.— It is some- 
times necessary to drill a hole of an exact size to fit a certain shaft, 
and at the same time have it smooth without reaming it. ' This may 
be done, by first drilling a hole, one-hundreth of an inch smaller than 
the size desired, and then making a drill the exact size and running it 
tlirough to finish with. This last drill should have the comers ofits 



486 MACHINISTS, engineers', AC, RECEIPTS. 

lips rounded, like a reamer, and the hole should be finished without 
holding the drill with a rest. 

Squaring, or Facing up Cast Iron Surfaces. — A round-end 
tool is best for this. A rough chip should first he taken off, over the 
entire surface to be faced. Then speed your lathe up and taking a 
light chip, merely enough to take out the first tool mark, run over 
the entire surface again. In turning up surfaces it is always best to 
begin at the centre and feed out, as the tool cuts freer and will wear 
twice as long. 

Boring a Hole with a Boring Tool.— In boring a hole with a 
boring tool, it is usually necessary to drill the hole first, and too 
much care cannot be taken in finishing. An iron gauge should bo 
made first; it is usually made of a piece of sheet iron or wire. The 
hole should then be drilled smaller than the size desired, and then 
bored to the required size, and it is impossible to bore a hole perfect 
without taking two or three light chips, mere scrapings with which 
to finish. Holes, in this way, may be bored as nicely as they can be 
reamed. 

Boring Holes with Boring Arbor. — A boring arbor is a shaft 
with a set in it, for the purpose of boring holes of great length, and is 
designed to be used in a lathe. In doing this proi:)erly, you must first 
see if your lathe is set straight; if not, adjust it. Having done this, 
put the piece of work to be bored in the carriage of your lathe, pass 
your arbor through the hole to be bored, and put it on the centres of 
your lathe. Having done this, adjust your work true to the position 
desired by measuring from the point of the tool, continually turning 
round the arbor from side to side of the piece to be bored, while you 
are bolting it to the carriage, and measure until it is perfectly true. 
Having done this, bore the hole, and take for the last chip only a 
hundredth of an inch. This makes a true and smooth hole. It is 
impossible to make a hole true with any kind of a tool when you are 
cutting a large chip, for tlie tool springs so that no dependence can be 
placed upon it. 

To Make a Boring Arbor and Tool that will not Chat- 
ter. — Boring tools, when used in small arbors, are always liable to 
chatter and make a rough hole. To prevent this, the tool should be 
turned in a lathe, while in its position in the arbor, upon the circle of 
the size of the hole to be bored, and the bearing lengthwise of the 
arbor, should be only as wide as the feed of the lathe; for if the bear- 
ing of a tool is on the face, the more it will chatter. 

To Straighten Shafting. — ^This should be done by centreing, 
then put it into a lathe, and square the ends up with what is called 
a side tool. After doing this, take a piece of chalk and try it in 
several places, to find out where the worst crooks are : then, if 
you have not a macliine for springing shafting, spring it with a 
lever where the most crook is, and contuiue this operation till the 
sliaft is straight. 

Turning Shafting.— To do this properly, two chips should 
always be run over the shaft, for the reason that it saves filing, and 
leaves the shaft truer and more round, and on shafts thus turned, 
the time saved in filing more than compensates for the time lost in 
turning. Before you commence you will put your feed belts or 
gear on a coarse feed ; turn off one a sixty-fourth of an inch 



MACHINISTS, engineers' &C.. RECEIPTS. 487 

larger than the size required ; having tumea off this chip," com 
mence tlie finishing chip, and tarn it small enough to have the 
pully wring on about an inch without filing. This wiU leave it 
large enough to file and finish. If there are couplings to go on a 
shaft, with holes smaller than the holes in the pulleys, the ends of 
the shaft, where they fit on, should he turned down to a sixty-fourth 
of an inch of the size required before any part of the shaft is 
finished ; that is, every part of a shaft should be turned to within 
a sixty-fourth of an inch of the size required before any part 
if it has the finish-chip taken off. The reason for that is that it 
leaves every part of the sliaft perfectly true, which would not 
be the case were it done otherwise. Having done this, you will 
file the shaft so that the puUeys will slide on, and the coupling so 
that they will drive on ; polish the shaft with a pair of polishing- 
clamps and some emery and it is done. 

To Forge a Twist Dkill. — ^It is necessary to forge a flat blade 
similar to a flat drill, and then twist this blade into the resem- 
blance required, then, with a light hammer, and careful blows, ham- 
mer the twisted edges so that they will be tliicker than the central 
line of the tool. This will give greater strength and a better drill, 
and, to cut well, the central line or cutting point must be made 
quite thin. Be careful to get the same twist at the point of the drill 
as upon the body of the drill. The inexperienced often leave the 
point straight Uke a flat drill. 

To COMPUTE THE KHMBER OF TEETH REQUIRED IN A TRAIN OF 

WHEELS TO PRODUCE A GIVEN VELOCITY. Eule. — Multiply the 
number of teeth in the driver by its number of revolutions, and divide 
the product by the number of revolutions of each pinion, for each 
driver and pinion. For speed of Wheels Pulleys^ &c., seepage 267. 

Example. — If a driver in a train of three wheels has 90 teeth, and 
makes 2 revolutions, and the velocities required are 2, 10, and 18, 
what are tlie number of teeth in each of the other two. 
10; 90: : 2: lS=teeth in 2nd wheel, 
18: 90: : 2: 10=teeth in 3rd wheel 
To C03IPUTE THE DIA3HETER OF A WHEEL. Bule. — Multiply the 
number of teeth by the pitch, and divide the product by 3, 1416. 

Example. — The number of teeth in the wheel is 75, and tlie pitch 
1, 075 ins : what is the diameter of it? 

75X1.0755 

=10 ins. 

3.1416 
To C03IPUTE THE TRUE OR CHORDiAL PITCH. Jtule. — ^Divide 180 
by the number of teeth, ascertain the sine of the quotient, and multi- 
ply it by the diameter of the wheel. 

'Example.— The number of teeth is 75, and the diameter 40 inches; 
what is the true pitch? 
180 

=2o24, and sin. of 2024,= 04188, which X 40=1.6752 ins. 

75 
Paper Friction Pullets. — Tliese superior mechanical contri- 
vances are made by cutting pieces of pasteboard into a circular form, 
and of the desired diameter of the pulley, and placing them in layers 
one on the top of another, cementing i)roperIy with a good coat of glue 



488 MACHINISTS, engineers', i&C, TvECEIPTS. 

between each layer, pounding or pressing them together as close as 
possible, and leaving a perforation in the centre of each, for the shaft. 
When you have got enough of these layers together to give you tho 
proper breadth of jpulley, allow the glue to harden, then turn it off to 
a smooth finish in a lathe. Secure each side of the pulley with a good 
stout iron flange large enough to cover the entire diameter, or nearly 
so, and with proper usage it wiU last a long time. 

On Belting and Friction. —Leather belts will last double tho 
usual time if treated with castor oil, they will be rat proof, they will 
always remain flexible and will not crack. A belt 4 inches wide will 
be equal to one 6 inches wide without it. It requires about 24 hounj 
to penetrate the leather, if used sooner the greasiness will cause it to 
slip. A leather belt should have a speed of 1300 ft. per minute, and 
not more than 1800 ft. or it will not last long. Leather belts, with 
grain side to pulley will dnve 35 per cent, more than the flesh side, 
because it is less porous, thus admitting less air between the surfaces. 
Pulleys covered with leather with evolve full 50 per cent, more power 
than the naked pulley. To increase the power of rubber belting, 
use red lead, French yellow and litharge, equal parts ; mix with boiled 
linseed oil and japan suflacient to make it dry quick. This will produce 
a highly polished surface. Experiments without lubricants resulted 
in showing the following co-efficients. Oak upon oak, 62 ; wrought 
iron on oak, 49 to 62; cast iron on oak, 65; wrought iron on cast, 19; 
cast iron on cast, 16; cast iron axles on lignum- vitse bearings, 18; 
copper on oak, 62; iron on elm, 25; pear tree on cast iron, 44; iron 
axles on lignumvitse bearings (with oil), 11 ; iron axles with brass 
bearings (with oil), .07. A belt 5 in. wide, velocity 1000 ft. per min- 
ute, on leather covered pulleys, will yield 5-horse power ; double tho 
speed and it will evolve double the power. 

Methylated Spirit. — Methylated spirit, so very useful in tho 
arts, is an inferior kind of alcohol, mixed Y/ith one-ninth of its vol- 
ume of pyroxylic spirit, or wood naphtha. 

Engineers' Bell Signals in Use on Steamers. — Go ahead, 1 
stroke. Bach, 2 strokes. Stop, 1 stroke, Sloicly, 2 short strokes, Full 
speed, 3 short strokes, Go ahead Slowly ^ 1 long and 2 short strokes, 
Bach Slowly, 2 long and 2 short strokes, Go ahead Full Speed, 1 long 
and 3 short strokes. Back Fast, 2 long and 3 short strokes, Hurry, 3 
short strokes repeated. 

To Dye Metals. — Metals can be dyed any color by dissolving any 
of the aniline dyes in methylated spirit and adding shellac. This 
f'Olution must be painted on until the desired shade is obtained. If 
the iron has been previously painted white so much the better. 
r New Self-Lubricating Anti-friction for Bearings. — Tako 
equal parts of asbestos and plumbago, mix them thoroughly and 
carefully together, then add sufficient liquid silicate of soda or potash 
to reduce the whole to a half dry paste. This paste must then be 
submitted to the action of a hydraulic or other press, till it is con- 
verted into a solid mass, which is afterwards dried, either in a fur- 
nace or by exposure to the air, until all moisture has disappeared. 
The bearings may either be turned out of the block or moulded from 
the composition while in the moist state. When the bearing is finish- 
ed it is steeped in hot melted paraffine or other mineral oil, until all 
the pores of the composition are filled up. 



MACHINISTS, engineers', «feC., RECEIPTS. 489 

Burglar Alarm. — During the present time, when tramps, sneak 
thieves, audacious burglars and desperadoes are prowling around 
and infesting society, it may not be amiss to quote the following 
description of a home made burglar alarm by a correspondent of the 
English Mechanic : — " Just inside my shop door, and directly oppo- 
site to it, I have cut a trap in the floor, 3ft. by 2ft., and made it to 
work upon hinges, at the back or door side (same as a box-lid). 
I have placed under the front edge of the trap two common spiral 
bed springs, blocked up from the ground sufficently to throw front 
edge of trap, which rests upon them, about 1 in. above the level 
of the flooring. The springs of course, are placed about 6 in. from 
each front corner, along front edge, so as to equalize the strain as 
much as possible. The following is easy. In the place where " New 
Subscriber" would fix his electric bell, let him fix or have fixed an or- 
dinary bell or gong, with the wire carried from it, in the way best 
suited to the house, under flooring of passage to the trap, beneath the 
front or raised edge of which there must be a crank that the spring- 
ing of the trap shall work and ring the bell, which, if well hung at a 
good ringing pitch, will awaken the soundest sleeper in the event of 
a thief or any intruder entering the house at improper times, or for 
improper purposes. To avoid annoyance in the day time, a button 
at each end of trap would fix it down firmly, and at night, upon 
going to bed or when locking up, it could be released. The door-mat 
would cover the entire thing, and no one but those concerned need 
ever Iniow of its existence. I do not hesitate to say that not one in 
fifty people, or even a hundred, that enter my shop know of any- 
thing or notice anything different to any other place they may go in- 
to, yet it has been in use for seven years. I fitted it myself, though 
not a bell-hanger, and it has never once got out of condition, but the 
bell will often give fifteen and twenty beats with one i^erson treading 
on the mat." 

Black Varistsh for Iron Work. — Asphaltum, 1 lb. ; lampblack, 
J lb. ; resin. Jib. ; spirits turpentine, 1 quart; linseed oil. just sufficient 
to rub up the lampblack with before mixing it with the others. Ap- 
ply with a camel's hair brush. 

To File a Hole Square.— To file a hole square, it is necessary 
to reverse the work very often; a square file should first be used, 
and the holes finished with either a diamond-shaped file or a 
half round. This leaves the comers square, as they properly should 
be. 

To Turn Chilled Iron. — At Lister's Works, Darlington, Eng- 
land, some articles required turning in the lathe, and cast steel could 
not be made hard enough to cut them. One man proposed cast metal 
tools. He was laughed at, of course, but his plan had to be tried. 
Well, cast metal tools were tried, with points chilled, and they cut 
when cast steel tools were of no use. The article was turned up with 
metal tools. 

Drilling Holes in Cast Iron.— By means of carbolic acid a 
hole J of an inch in diameter has been drilled through J inch thickness 
of cast iron, with a common carpenter's brace; judge, then, what can 
Ibe done by using the acid and pressure drill. 

Hardening Wood for Pulleys. — After a wooden pulley is turn- 
ed and rubbed smooth, boil it for about eight minutes in olive oil; 
then allow it to dry, and it will become alnlost as hard as copper. 

To Solder Ferrules for Tool Handles.— Take your ferrule, 
lap round the jointing a small piece of brass wire, then just wet the 



490 MACHINISTS, engineers', «fcC., RECEIPTS. 

ferrule, scatter on the joining ground borax, put it on the end Oi a 
wire, and hold it in the fire till the brass fuses. It wiH fill up the 
joining, and form a perfect solder. It may afterwards bo turned ir 
the lathe. 

Making Dies for Screw-Cutting. — ^In making dies for screw- 
cutting, they should, whenever practicable, be lapped with a taper 
tap, as they cut more easily and wear longer than those which arc 
cut straight, and then tapered off to make the screw " take." 

Very fine threaded screws, however, cut weU with straight dies. . 
Small dies, or dies below one-fourth of an inch m size, should only] 
have three lips m them. Dies from one-fourth to one-half should! 
have four lips in them. Dies from three-fourths to one inch should 
have six lips in them ; and dies from one inch to one-and-a-half 
should have seven lips in them. The cuts through dies should bo 
only twice the depth of the thread, which is sufficient to make them 
free themselves from chips, for when cut too deep they are liable to 
break on the face. Harden and draw to a straw color. 

To Dip a Fluted Reamer Properly.— Dip it perpendicularly 
to a short distance beyond the fluting — that is to say, about half an 
inch and withdraw and return it several times. This hardens all the 
lips, and prevents it cracking off at the water's edge, which is the 
case when a piece of steel is dijoped in to a certain depth, and allowed 
to cool without moving. 

Anti-Friction Metal. — Copper, 4 lbs. ; regulus of antimony, 8 
lbs. ; Banca tin, 96 lbs. 2. Grain zinc, 7i lbs. ; purified zinc, 7J lbs. ; 
antimony, 1 lb. 3. Zmc, 17 parts; copper, 1 part; antimony. Imparts. 
This possesses unsurpassible anti-friction qualities, and does not re- 
quire the protection of outer casings of a harder metal. 4. Block tin, 
8 lbs. ; antimony, 2 lbs. ; copper, 1 lb. If the metal be too hard, it 
may be softened by adding some lead. 5. The best aUoy for journal 
boxes is composed of copper, 24 lbs. ; tin, 24 lbs. ; and antimony, 8 
lbs. Melt the copper first, then add the tin, and lastly the antimony. 
It should be first run into ingots, then melted, and cast in the form 
required for the boxes. 6. Melt in a crucible IJ lbs. of copper, and, 
wliile the copper is melting, melt in a ladle 25 lbs. of tin and 3 of anti- 
mony, nearly red hot, pour the two together, and stir until nearly 
cool. This makes the finest kind of Iming metal. 7. Very cheap. 
Lead, 100 lbs. ; antimony, 15 lbs. This costs about 10 cents per lb. 
8. For Bearings to sustain great iveights. — Copper, 1 lb. ; zinc, J oz. ; 
tin, 2fk oz. 9. Hard BeaHngs for machinei^, — Copper, lib.; tin, 2 
ozs. lO. Very Hard dii^o.— Copper, 1 lb. ; tin, 2§ ozs. 11. Lining 
Metal for Boxes of Railway Cars. — ^IMix tin, 24 lbs. ; copper 4 lbs. ; 
antimony, 8 lbs. ; (for a hardening) then add tin 72 lbs. 12. Lining 
Metal for Locomotives* Axle trees. — Copper, 86.03.; tin, 13.97.13. 
Another, jPrenc/i.— Copper, 82 parts, tin, 10 parts, zinc, 8 parts. 14. 
Another, (Stephenson's). — Copper, 79 parts; tin, 8 parts, zinc, 5,i)arts, 
lead 8 parts. 15. Another (J5eZ/7ian).— Copper, 89.02. parts, tin, 2.44 
parts, zinc, 7.76 parts iron, 0.78. 16. Another (English). — Copper, 73. 
96 paits, tin, 9.49 parts, zinc, 9.03 parts, lead, 7.09 parts, iron, 0.43 
parts. 17. Another.— Copper, 90.06 parts, tin, 3.56 parts, zinc. 6.38. of 
Nickel Anti-friction Metal. — A late improvement in the manufacture 
of anti-friction metal is the introduction of a small percentao^e of 
nickel into either of the above, or any other anti-friction composition. 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 491 

Composition for Crucibles. — 1. Stourbridge crucible clay 4 parts, 
plumbago 3 parts, hard coke 2 parts, cement," consisting of old pots 
ground and sifted, 1 part. If old pots are not to be had, the forego- 
ing must be burnt hard, ground and sifted. The carbon chippings 
from the interior of gas retorts are superior to the best ordinary coke. 
Pulverize the whole and sift through a J inch mesh sieve, temper and 
mix with plenty of clean cold water, tread with the bare foot to the 
consistency of stiff dough, allow it to stand for three or four days 
covered with a damp cloth to i)erinit sweating and thorough maturity, 
then block by a machine or by hand. When completely dry, place in 
the kiln and anneal, but do not bum hard. 2. Another. — The Birm- 
ingham soft, tough pot consists of 2 parts of the best Stourbridge cru- 
cible clay, 3 parts plumbago, and 1 part cement consisting of old cru- 
cibles pulverized and sifted, &c., as above described. 3, Another. — 
Stourbridge crucible clay 2 parts, cement 3 parts, sift through a J inch 
mesh sieve, temper as above, and when dry place in the kiln and 
bum hard. 4. Another. — Stourbridge best crucible clay, 3 parts by 
measure ; cement, composed of old worn out fire brick, 2 parts ; hard 
coke, 1 part; sift, temper and manipulate as above. 

Cast Iron Patterns should be made very smooth, then slightly 
warmed, and waxed all over with the best beeswax. 

Facings, Sands, &c. , for Castings. — As a facing for loam cast- 
ings use fire sand 3 parts, Whitehead sand 1 part; mix. For pipes 
and small cylinders use No. 1, or fine sand, facing with plumbago. 
Albany or Waterford sand is excellent for fine castings, or use 1 part 
of sea coal to 8 or 10 of Albany sand ; 1 part to 5 will do for heavy 
castings. To ensure very smooth castings, mix with the green foun- 
dry sand about 1-20 part of tar. 

To Prevent Holes in Castings.— In casting iron on iron or 
steel spindles, the moulds are cast endwise; let the cast metal spindle 
be an inch longer on the uppermost side than is necessary when the 
job is finished; thus the air holes, if any, will form in the extra inch 
of length, and may be cut off in the lathe. 

To Cast Chilled Iron Tools for Cutting Chilled Iron. — 
After making a tool of the required form out of wrought iron, cast 
the chilled part, using charcoal iron No. 5. 

Dysiot. — The new alloy, called dysiot, brought into the market by 
Rompel & Co. , of Homburgh, has been analyzed by Yon Uhlenhuth, 
and found to consist of copper, 62.30 parts; lead, 17.75; tin, 10.42; 
zinc, 9.20, with traces of iron. It can be prepared by melting together 
62 parts of copper, 18 of lead, 10 of tin, and 10 of zinc. 

Excellent Anti-Friction. — Tin 50 parts, antimony 5, copper 1. 

Cheap Brass.— Copper 1 lb., zinc 12 ozs. 

Brazing Metal.— Copper 1 lb., spelter 8 ozs., with a little lead. 

Tough Type Metal.— Lead 100 lbs., antimony 40, tin 20. 

Platinum Bronze, Rust-Proof.— Wk^^qI 100 parts, tin 10, plati- 
num 1. 

Malleable or Aluiviinum Bronze. — Copper 90, tin 10. 
Aluminum Silver, of Fine Luster and Polish.— Copper 70 
parts, nickel 23, aluminum 7. 

Yellow Brass for Steam Engines.— Add 4^ to 9 ozs. zinc to 
each lb. of copper. 



492 MACHINISTS, engineers', &c., keceipts. 

Good Brass for Machixert.— 1. Copper, 2 lbs., tin 2iozs., zinc 
^ oz. 2. Tough Brass. — Copper, 10 ozs., tin, IJ ozs., zinc IJ ozs. 

3. )[^eels and Valves. — Copper, 90 lbs., tin, 10 lbs. 4. Brass, verij 
tenacious. — Copper, 88.9 parts, tin, 8.3 parts, zinc, 2.8 parts. 6. 
Lathe i?us7i65.-^Copper, 80 parts, tin 20 parts. G. Machinery Bearings, 
— (Jopper, 88 parts, tin, 12 parts. 7. Boxes for Engines Running 
at High Speed. — Copper, 7 lbs., tin, 1 lb. ; add spelter 1 lb. to every 
40 lbs. of the mixture. Use steel piston rods for high, speed and 
lignum vitse or apple-tree wood for shoes or gibhs on the cross-heads. 
Iron for cylinders and guides, if made from ^\g iron should be melted 
at least 8 or 9 times previous to use. 

Bronze.— 1. Copper, 83 parts; zinc, 11 parts; tin, 4 parts: lead, 2 
parts; mix. 2. Copper, 14 parts; melt and add zinc, 6 parts; tin, 4 
imrts; mix. 3. Ancient Bronze. — Copper, 100 parts; lead and tin, of 
each 7 parts; mix. 4. Alloy for Bronze Ornaments. — Copper, 82 
parts; zmc, 18 parts; tin, 3 parts; lead, 3 parts; mix. 5. Statuary 
Bronze. — Copper, 88 parts; tin, 9 parts; zinc, 2 parts* lead, Ipart. 6. 
Another. — Copper, 82^ parts; tiu, 5 parts; zinc, lOJ parts; lead, 2 
parts. 7. Another. — Copper, 90 parts ; tiu, 9 parts ; lead, 1 part. 8. 
Bronze for Medals. — Copper, 89 parts; tin 8 parts; zinc, 3 parts. 9. 
Bronze. — Copper, 71bs. ; zinc. 31bs. ; tin, 2 lbs. 10. Another.^Qo^- 
per, 1 lb. ; zinc, 12 lbs. ; tin, 8 lbs. 

SuTERiOR Bell Metal.— 1. Copper, 100 lbs. ; tin, 23 lbs. 2. Cop- 
per, 25 parts ; tin, 6 parts. 3. Copper, 79 parts ; tin, 2G parts ; mix. 

4. Copper, 78 parts ; tin, 22 parts ; mix. 5. Parisian Bell Metal. — Cop- 
per, 72 parts; tin, 26J parts; iron, IJ parts. Used for the bells of 
small ornamental clocks. 6. Clock Bell Metal. — Copper, 75.19 parts; 
tin, 24.81 parts. 7. Bell Metal for Large Bells. — Copper, 100 lbs. ; tin, 
from 20 to 25 lbs. 8. Bell Metal for Small Bells. — Copper, 3 lbs. ; tin, 
1 lb. 9. White Metal for Tabic ' .Be^Zs.- Copper, 2.06 parts; tin, 97.31 
parts ; bismuth, 0.63 parts. 

Yellow Brass (for casting). — 1. Copper, 6i.6 parts; zmc, 35.3 
parts; lead, 2.9 parts; tin, 0.2 parts. 2. Brass of Jemappes. — Copper, 
64. G parts ; zinc, 33.7 parts ; lead, 1.4 parts, tin, 0.2 parts. 3. Sheet 
of Stolberg, near Aix la Chapelle.—Coi^i>QT, 64.8 parts; ztuc, 32.8 parts; 
lead, 2.0 parts; tin, 0.4 parts. 4. D 'Arcets Brass for Gilding. — Cop- 
per, 63.70 parts; zinc, 33.55 parts; lead, 0.25 parts; tin, 2.50 parte. 
6. Another. — Copper, 64.45 parts; zinc, 32.44 parts; lead, 2.86 parts; 
tin, 0.25 parts. 6. Sheet Bras^ ofRomilly. — Copper, 70.1 parts; zinc, 
29.9 parts. 7. English Brass TF^re.— Copper, 70.29 parts; zinc, 29.26 

garts; lead, 0.28 parts; tin, 0.17 parts. 8. Angshurg Brass Wire. — 
opper, 71.89 parts; zinc, 27.63 parts; tia, 0.85 parts. 
Red Brass, for Gilt Articles.— 1. Copper, 82.0 parts ; zinc, 18.0 
parts; lead, 1.5 parts; tin, 3.0 parts. 2. Another. — Copioer, 82 parts ; 
zinc, 18 parts; lead, 3 parts; tm, 1 part. 3 Another. Copper, 82.3 
parts; zinc, 17.5 parts; tin, 0.2 parts. 4. French Tombac for Sword 
Handles. — Copper, 80 parts ; zinc, 17 parts ; tin, 3 ports. 5 For 
Parisian Ornaments. — Copper, 85 parts ; zinc, 15 parts ; tin, a trace 

6. Used for German Ornaments. — Copper, 85 3 prrts ; zinc, 14.7 parts. 

7. Chrysochalk. — Copper, 90.0 parts; zinc, 7.9 parts; lead, 1.6 parte. 

8. Red Tombac from Paris. — Copper, 92 parts ; zmc, 8 parts. 
Brass. — 1. Yellow Brass for Turning, (common article.) — Copper,' 

20 lbs. zinc, 10 lbs. lead, 4 ozs. 2. Another Brass for 'Turning. ^Coj^ 



MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS , &C., RECEIPTS. 493 

per, 32 lbs. zinc, 10 lbs. lead, 1 lb. 3. Bed Brass free, for Tumincj.^ 
Copper, IGO lbs. zinc, 50 lbs. lead, 10 lbs. antimony, 44 ozs. 4. Best 
lied Brass for fine Castings. — Copper, 24 lbs. zinc, 5 lbs. bismuth, 1 
oz. 5. Red Tornbac. — Copper, 10 lbs. zinc, 1 lb. 6. Tom6ac.— Copper, 
IGlbs. tin, 1 lb. zinc, 1 lb. 7. Brass for Heavy Casim^s.— Copper, 6 
to 7 parts ; tin, 1 part ; zinc, 1 part. 8. Malleable Brass. — Copper, 70.10 
parts; zinc, 29.90 parts. 9. Superior Malleable ^?'a5S.— Copper, 60 
parts; zinc, 40 parts. 10. Brass. — Copper, 73 parts; zinc, 27 parts. 11. 
Copper, 65 parts; zinc, 35 parts. 12. Copper, 70 parts; zinc, 30 
parts. 13. German Brass. — Copper, 1 lb. zinc, 1 lb. 14. Watch- 
makers' Brass. — Copper, 1 part; zinc, 2 parts. 15. Brass for Wire. — 
Copper, 34 parts ; calamine, 66 parts. 16. Brass, for Tubes. — Copper, 
2 parts; zinc, 1 part. 17. Brass for Heavy Work. — Copper, 100 parts: 
tin, 15 parts ; zinc, 15 parts. 18. Another. — Copper, 112 parts ; tin, 13 
parts; zinc, 1 part 19. Tombac or Red Brass. — Copper, 8 parts ; zinc, 
1 part. 20. Brass. — Copper, 3 parts; melt, then add zinc, 1 part. 
21. Buttonmakers* Fine Brass. Brass, 8 parts; zinc, 5 parts. 22. 
Buttonmakers' Common Brass. — Button brass, 6 parts; tin, 1 part; 
lead, Ipart; mix. 23. Mallefs iJrass.— Copper, 25.4; zinc, 74.6; used 
to preserve iron from oxydizing. 24. Best Brass for Clocks. — ^Rose 
copper, 85 parts; zinc, 14 paii--^; lead, 1 part. 

To Cast Brass solid.— j-.o metal should not be run any hotter 
than is necessary to insure sharp castings. The most probable cause 
of the honey combings of castings is that the air cannot get out 
of the way ; and there ought to be proper vents made for it from 
the highest parts of the mould ; the metal should be run in near 
or at the bottom of the mold. If about 1 lb. of lead be added to eve- 
ry 16 lbs. of old brass, when just at the melting point, solid good bras- 
ses will be the result. In melting old brass, the zmc, or lead, con- 
tained in it (when fluid) oxydizes freely, consequently the propor- 
tions of the metal are altered, and require an addition similar to 
the above. If the brass has not been re-cast a little less lead wiU 
do, but if re-cast several times it may take the full quantity. 

Kbvv and Beautiful Alloys. — Copper, 69.8 parts; nickel, 19.8 
parts ; zinc, 5.5 parts ; cadminum, 4.7 parts ; used for spoons, forks, &c. 
Another. — Copper, 89.3 parts; aluminum, 10.5 parts. Oreide resem- 
bling Gold. Copper, 79.7 parts; zinc, 83.05 parts; nickel, 6.09 parts, 
with a trace of iron and tin. 

Good Britannia Metal. — 1. Tin, 150 lbs. ; copper 3 lbs. ; antimony, 
lOlbs. 2. Britannia. 2d Quality.— Tm, 140 lbs. ; Copper, 3 lbs. ; anti^ 
mony 9 lbs. 3. Britannia Metal, for Casting. — Tin, 210 lbs.; copper, 4 
lbs. ; antimony, 12 lbs. 4. Britannia Metal for spinning.— Tm^ 100 
lbs.; Britannia hardening, 4 lbs.; antimony, 4 lbs. 5. Britannia 
Metal for Registers,— Tm,\^0 lbs. ; hardening 8 lbs. ; antimony 8 lbs. ' 
6. Best Britannia for spouts. — ^Tin 140 lbs. ; copper, 3 lbs. ; anti- 
mony, 6 lbs. 7. Best Britannia for spoons. — Tin, 100 lbs. ; hardening 
5 lbs.; antimony, 10 lbs. 8. Best Britannia for Handles.— Tin, 140 lbs.; 
copper 2 lbs. ; antimony 5 lbs. 9. Best Britannia for Lamps, Pillars, 
and Spouts.— Tin, 300 lbs. ; copper, 4 lbs. ; antimony 15 lbs. 10. For 
Casting.— Tin, 100 lbs. ; hardening 5 lbs. ; antimony, 5 ibs. 11. Tin, 
82 parts; lead, 18 parts; brass 5 parts; antimony, 5 parts; mix. 12. 
Another Britannia. — Tin, 20 parts; antimony, 4 parts; brass, 1 part; 
mix. 13 Hardening for 13ritannia, — ^Brass, 4 parts ; tin, 4 parts ; when 



494 MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 

fused, add bismuth, 4, and antiraony, 4 parts. Another Hardening, 
— Antimony, tin, bismuth, and plate brass of each equal parts. Add 
this mixture to melted tin until it acquires the proper color and hard- 
ness. 15. Britannia. — Tin, 89.70 parts, antimony 9.70 parts, copper 0. 
30 parts, zinc, 0.30 parts, 16. Tin, 81.64 parts, antimony, 16.51 parts, 
copper, 1.85 parts. 17. Tin, 89.97 parts, antimony 9. 12 parts, copper, 
0.91 parts. 18. Tin, 90.00 parts, antimony, 10 parts. 19. Tm 89.30 
parts, antimony, 7.14 parts, copper, 1.78 parts, bismuth, 1.78 parts. 

Gerhajj Silyer, Fikst quality for Casting. — 1. Copper 50 lbs. 
zinc, 25 lbs. nickel, 25 lbs. 2. Second Quality^ for Casting.— Co^- 
per, 50 lbs. zinc, 20 lbs. best pulverized nickel, 10 lbs. 3. German 
Silver for Rolling. — Copper, 60 lbs. zinc, 20 lbs. nickel, 25 lbs. 4. 
German Silver for JBells, and other Castings.— CopT^ev 60 Ihs. zinc, 
20 lbs. nickel, 20 lbs. lead, 3 lbs. iron, that of tin plate is the best, 
2 lbs. 5. German Silver for Castings.— Lead^ 3 parts, nickel, 20 
parts, zinc, 20 parts, copper 60 parts, mix. 6. German Silver for 
Rolling. — Nickel, 5 parts, zinc, 4 parts, copper 12 parts, mix. 7. Cop- 
per, 40. 62 parts, zinc, 43. 76 parts, nickel, 15. 62 parts. 8. Copper 41.47 
parts, zinc 26. 08 parts, nickel, 32. 35 parts. 9. Copper 55. 55 parts, 
zinc, 5. 55 parts, nickel 38. 90 parts, 10. Copper, 53. 40 parts, zinc 
29. 10 parts, nickel 17. 50 parts. 11. Alfenide. — Contain a trace of 
iron, copper, 59. 60 parts, zinc, 30. 30pa.ts, nickel, 10. 10 parts. 12. 
Fine Silver Colored Metal.— Tm. 100 lbs. antimony, 8 lbs. copper, 4 
lbs. bismuth, 1 lb. 13. Fine White German Silver. — Iron 1 part : 
nickel, 10 parts, zinc, 10 parts, copper, 20 parts : melt. 14. Genuine 
German Silver. — ^Irou 2 J parts, nickel 31 J parts, zinc 25 J parts, cop- 
per, 40J parts : melt. 15. jBicZe?-?/.— Copper, 48.48 parts ; tin, 6.60 
parts, zinc, 33.80 parts, lead, 12.12 parts. 

Sundry Compositions. — 1. Organ Pipe Metal consists of lead al- 
loyed with about half its quantity of tin to harden it. Lead, 100; tin, 
S3 parts ; and lead, 100 ; tin, 20 parts, answer very well. The mot- 
tled or crystalline appearance so much admired shows an abundance 
of tin. 2. Cannon Metal. — Tin, 10 parts ; copper, 90 parts ; melt. 
3. Alloy for Cymbals. — Copper, 80 parts ; tin, 20 parts. 4. Chinese 
Gong Metal. — Copper, 78 parts ; tin, 22 parts. 5. Cock Metal. — 
Copper, 20 lbs. ; lead, 8 lbs. ; litharge, 1 oz, ; antimony, 3 ozs. 6. 
Metal for taking Impressions. — ^Lead, 3 lbs. ; tin, 2 lbs. ; bismuth, 5 
lbs. 7. Alloy for Gun Mountings.— CoipipeT, 80 parts ; tin, 3 parts, 
zinc, 17 parts. 8. Pinchbeck. — Copper, 5 lbs. ; zinc, 1 lb. 9. Span-^ 
ish Tutania. — ^Iron or steel, 8 ozs. ; antimony, 16 ozs. ; nitre, 8 ozs. 
Jlelt and harden 8 ozs. of tin with 1 oz. of the above compound. 10. 
Rioet Metal. — Copper, 32 ozs. ; tin, 2 ozs. ; zinc. 1 oz. 11. Cliinese 
White Copper.— Copper, 40.4 ; nickel, 31.6 ; zinc, 25.4 ; and iron, 2.6 
l?arts. 12. Bath Metal. — Brass, 32 parts; zinc, 9 parts. 13. Specu- 
lum Metal. — Copper, 6; tin, 2; arsenic, 1 part. Or copper, 7; zinc, 3; 
and tin, 4 parts. 14. Electrum. — Copper, 8, nickel, 4, zinc, 3^ parts. 
This compound is unsurpassed for ease of workmanship and beauty 
of appearance. 15. Common Pewter. — Tin, 4; lead, 1 part. XQ. 
Best Pewter.— Tin, 100, antimony, 17 parts. 17 Queen's 3fetal.— Tin, 
9; antimony, 1; bismuth, 1; lead, 1 part. 18, Chantry's Hard Alloy.— 
Copper, 1 lb. ; zmc, 2J ozs. ; tin, 2J ozs. Razors as hard as tempered 
steel have been made from this alloy. 19. Alloy for Mechanical 
Instruments.— Co]i]^ev, lib. ; tin, 1 oz. 20, Rivet Metal for Hose^^ 



MACHINISTS^ engineers', &C., TwECEIPTS. 495 

Tin, 46 lbs. ; copper, 1 lb. 21. Hard White 3/eia^. —Sheet brass, 32 
32S. ; lead, 2 oz^. ; tin, 2 ozs. ; zinc, 1 oz. 22. Fusible Alloy, melts 
ill Boiling water. — Bismuth, 8 ozs. ; tin 3 ozs. ; lead, 5 ozs. 23. 
Fusible Alloy for Silvering Glass. — Tin, 6 ozs. ; lead, 10 ozs.; bis- 
muth, 21 ozs. ; mercury, a small quantity. 24. Hard White Metal 
for Buttons. — Brass, 1 lb. ; zinc, 2 ozs. ; tin, 1 oz. 25. Button Mdk- 
ir's Metal. — Copper, 43 parts; zinc, 67 parts. 2Q» Another. — Copper, 
o2.22 parts, tin. 2.78 parts, zinc, 35 parte. 27. Another. — Copper, 58. 
D4 parts; tin, 5.28 parts; zinc, 35.78 parts. 28. Metal that expands in 
cooling. — Lead, 9; antimony, 2; bismuth, 1 part .This metal is very 
useful in filling smaU defects in iron castings, &c. 29. Albata Metal. 
— Nickel, 3 to 4 parts; copper, 20 parts; zinc, 16 parts. Used for 
plated goods. 30. Bv^mingham Platin. — Copper, 8 parts, zinc, 5 
parts. 31. Imitation Platinum. — Melt together, 8 parts brass, 5 parts 
of zinc This alloy closely resembles platinum. 32. Chinese Silver. 
', — Silver, 2.5; copper, 65.24; zinc 19. 52; cobalt or iron, 0.12; nickel, 13. 
33. Tutenag. — Copper, 8; zinc, 5; nickel, 8 parts. 34. Princess Metal. 
— Copper, 3 parts ; zinc, 1 part. 35. Another. — Brass, 8 parts, zinc, 1 
part 36. Another. — Zinc and copper equal parts. Mix. 37. Queen's 
Metal. — Lead, 1 part; bismuth 1 part; antimony, 1 part; tin, 9 parts. — 
Mix. 38. Ariother.— Tin, 9 parts; bismuth 1 part; lead, 2 parts; anti- 
mony 1 part; mix. 39. Imitation Gold. — Platina, 8 parts; silver, 4 
parts; copper, 12 parts, melt. 40. Imitation Silver. -Blocktm, 100 -parts ; 
antimony, 8 parts; bismuth, 1 part; copper, 4 parts; melt. 41. Spur- 
ious Silver Leaf. — Tin, 90.09 ; zinc, 9.91 parts ; melt. 42. Mirrors of 
Reflecting Telescope. —Copper 100, tin, 50 parts. 43. White Argentan 
— Copper, 8 parts ; nickel, 3 parts, zinc, 35 parts. This beautiful com- 
position is in imitation of silver. 44. Yellow Dipping Metal. — Cop- 
per, any desired quantity and 6 or 7 ozs. of zinc to every lb. of copper. 
45. Shot Metal. — Lead, 97.06 parts; arsenic, 2.94 parts. Another. — Lead, 
99.60 parts ; arsenic, 0.40 parts. 46. Wliite Metal. — ^Parts by weight ; tm, 
82; lead, 18; antimony, 5; zinc, 1; copper, 5. 47. Hard Pewter.— 
Melt together, 12 lbs of tin; regulus of antimony, 1 lb. ; copper, 4 
ozs. 48. Common Peivter. — Melt in a crucible, tin, 7 lbs. ; when 
fused throw in lead, 1 lb. ; copper, 6 ozs. ; zinc, 2 ozs. 49. British 
Plate.— l^ickel, 5 to 6 parts ; copper, 20 parts ; zinc, 8 to 10 parts. Used 
for plated goods. 50. Composition for Strong Pumps, &c. — Copper,! 
lb. ; zinc, J, and tin, IJ ozs. 61. Composition for Toothed Wheels. — Cop- 
per, 1 lb. ; brass, 2 ozs. ; tin, 2 ozs. 52. Another. — Copper, 1 lb. ; 
brass, 2 ozs. ; tin 1| ozs. 53. For Turning Work. — Copper, 1 lb. ; brass 
2 ozs. ; tin, 2 ozs. 54. For Nuts of coarse Threads and Bearings. — 
Copper, 1 lb. ; brass, IJ ozs. ; tin, 2J ozs. 55. Pewterers Temper.— 
Copper, 1 lb. ; tin, 2 lbs. Used to add in small quantities to tin. 56. 
Alloy for Cylinders of Locomotives. — Copper, 88.63 parts; tin, 2.38 
parts; zinc, 6.99 parts. 57. Metal for Sliding Levers of Locomotives. 
— Copper, 85.25 parts; tin, 12.75 parts; zinc, 2.00 parts. 58. Another 
{Fent07V6).—Coi)i^eT, 5.50 tm, 14.50; zinc, 80 parts. 59. Baron Wet- 
terstedVs Patent Sheathing for Ships. — Consists of lead with from 
2 to 8 per cent, of antimony, about 3 per cent, is the usual quantity. 
The alloy is rolled into sheets. 60. Muntz Metal for Ships. ^-Best 
selected copper, 60 parts; best zinc, 40 parts. Melt together in the 
usaal manner and roll into sheets of suitable thickness. This com- 
position resists oxidation from exposure to sea water, and prevents 



496 



MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS , &C., RECEIPTS. 



the adhesion of barnacles. Gl. Metal for Anatomical Injections. — Tin, 
16.41 parts; lead, 9.27 parts; bismuth, 27.81 parts; mercury, 41.41 
parts. 62. Fusible Metal for caMs. — Bismuth, 8 parts; lead, 5 imrts; 
tin, 3 parts. It will melt at 200° or under boiling water. For male 
casts use tin only. 63. Pot Jfeia^.— Copper, 40 lbs. ; lead, 16 lbs. ; 
tin, IJ lbs. 64. Metal for Models.— TQ2i lead, 6 lbs. ; tin, J lb. ; anti- 
mony, I lb. 65. Imitation of Silver. — Copper, 1 lb. ; tin, 3 ozs. 66. 
Von Bihra's Alloy for Medels.—'BHm\\i\\ 21.21 parts; lead, 59.03 
parts ; tin, 13.46 parts. If the cast objects be bitten with diluted ni- . 
trie acid, washed with water, and rubbed with a woolen rag, the ele- 
vated spots become bright, while the sunken portions are du3. 
and the castings acquire a dark gray appearance with an antique lus- 
tre. Without biting the color is light gray. 67. Neiu Sheathing Metal. 
-This alloy is made by melting 2J parts "of copper in one crucible, 
in another, 9 parts of zinc, 87 of lead, 1 part of mercury, and J part 
of bismuth, then mix the contents of both crucibles, covering the sur- 
face with charcoal dust, and stirring well till all are incorporated. 
The mercury in this alloy protects both the zinc and copper from the 
action of sea water. The contents of the crucible are run into ingots 
and rolled into sheets. 68. Spelter. — Natural impure zinc, which con- 
tains a portion of lead, iron, copper and a little manganese and plum- 
bago. 

Iron Mantjfactube. — Charcoal 138 bushels, limestone 432 lbs., 
and ore 2612 lbs., will produce 1 ton of pig iron. In England temper- 
ature of hot blast is 600°, density of blast and of refining furnace 2 J 
to 3 lbs. per square inch. Revolutions of puddling rolls 60 per 
minute ; rail rolls, 100 ; rail saw, 800. 

Horse power (indicated) required for different processes. 



Blast Furnace 60 

Refinin"- " 26 


Railway roUing train 

Small bar train 

Double rail saw 


... 250 
60 


Puddling Rolls with squeezers 
and shears 80 


... 12 


Straightening 


... 7 



Que pound of Anthracite, coal in a cupola furnace wiU melt from 5 to 
10 lbs of cast iron ; 8 bushels of bituminous coal will melt 1 ton of 
cast iron. Small coal i3roduces about | of the effect of large coal of 
the same kind. 

To Reduce Oxides. — ^The more powerful deoxidizing agent is tm- 
doubtedly coal in its several varieties, and the gases deriving there- 
from during combustion in the furnace. The oxides of lead, bismuth, 
antimony, nickel, cobalt, copi^er, and iron require a strong red heat in 
the furnace, whilst the oxides of manganese, chromium, tin, and zinc, 
do not lose their oxygen until heated to whiteness. On a smaU scale, 
the reduction of oxides is generally effected by mixing charcoal, to- 
gether with the oxide to be reduced, iu a refractory clay crucible, the 
charcoal furnishing the carbon necessary to the proper performance 
of this work. Some use a crucible thickly lined with charcoal, put- 
ting in tlie oxide on the top of the charcoal. It is necessary, however, 
when using the crucible and charcoal, to use a flux, say a little borax 
in powder, strewed on the mixture to accelerate the reduction of the 
oxi4e. The borax is generally the first to fuse, and, as the metal is 



MACHINISTS, engineers', «feC., RECEIPTS. 497 



eliminated, seems to purify and cleanse it, as it gathers into a button 
at the bottom of the crucible. It is all the better if you give the cruci- 
ble a few sharp taps when you take it off the fire. 

Effects of heat on various bodies. 



Tine Gold melts 2590" 

" Silver '• 1250 

Copper melts 2548 

"Wrought Iron melts 3980 

Cast '• *' 3479 

Bright red " in the dark 752 

Red hot " in twihght 884 

Glass melts 2377 

Common lire 790 

Brass melts. .- 1900 

Air furnace 3300 

Antimony melts 951 

Bismuth " 476 

Cadmium 600 

Steel 2500 

Lead 604 

Tin 421 



Heat, cherry red 

'• bright '•' 

^' red visible by day. 
'' white 



Mercury boils 

" volatihzes 

Platinum melts 

Zinc melts 

Highest natural temperature 
(Egypt), 

Greatest natural cold (below 

zero) 

" artificial " *' 

Heat of human blood. 

Snow and Salt, equal parts . . . 

Ice melts 

Water in vacuo boils 

Furnace under steam boiler. . 



1500*^ 
1860 
1077 
2900 
662 
680 
3080 
740 

117 

56 

106 

98 



32 

SB 

1100 



Sheixkage of castings. 



Iron, small cy]ind's=l-16th in. per ft 

" Pipes = J '' '-'ft. 

" Girders, beams, 

ect ~ J in. in 15 ins. 

*' Large cyhnd- 
ers, the con- 
traction of di- 
ameter at top. = l-16th per foot. 
Ditto at bottom. . = l-12th per foot. 



Ditto, in length...^ in 16 ins. 

Brass, thin = § in 9 " 

Brass, thick = J jn 10 " 

Zinc =5-I6ths in a foot 

Lead = 5-16ths " " 

Copper = 3-16ths " '' 

Bismuth = 5-52nds *< " 



Green sand iron castings are 6 per cent, stronger than dry, and 
30 per cent, stronger than chilled, but when the castings are chilled 
and annealed, a gain of 115 per cent, is attained over those made in 
green sand. ChiUing the under side of cast iron very materially in- 
creases its strength. 

To Repair Chacked Bells. — The discordant tones of a cracked 
bell being due to the jarring of the rugged uneven edges of the crack 
against each other, the best remedy that can be applied is to cut a 
thin slit with a toothless saw driven at a very high velocity, say 3 or 
4000 revolutions per miuute, in such a manner as to cut away the 
opposing edges of the fracture whereever they come in contact. This 
will restore the original tone of the bell. 

To Galvanize Gjrey Ikon Castings. — Cleanse the articles in an 
ordinary chaffing mill, which consists of a barrel revolving on its axis, 
containing sand ; when the sand is all removed, take them out and 
heat one by one, plunging, while hot, in a liquid composed as follows : 
10 lbs. hydrochloric acid and sufficient sheet zinc to make a saturated 
solution. In making this solution, when the evolution of gas has 
ceased, add muriate, or preferably sulphate of ammonia lib., and 
let it stand till dissolved. The castings should be so hot that when 
<iippecl Ux this solution, and instantly removed, they will immediately 

32 



498 MACHINISTS, ENaiNEERS^ &C,, RECEIPTS. 

dry, leaving the surface crystallized like frost work on a window 
pane. Next plunge tkem while hot, but perfectly dry, in a bath of 
melted zinc, previously skimming the oxide on the surface away, and 
throwing thereon a smaU amount of powdered sal ammoniac. If the 
articles are very small, inclose them in a wrought iron basket on a 
pole, and lower them into the metal. When this is done, shake off 
the superfluous metal, and cast them into a vessel of water to prevent 
them adhering when the zinc solidifies. 

To FmD THE Speed of a Counter-Shaft. — If the revolutions of 
the main shaft and size of pulleys are given: Multiply the revo- 
lutions of the main shaft by the diameter in inches of the pulley, and 
divide by the diameter in inches of the pulley on the counter-shaft, 
the quotient will be the number of revolutions. 

Example. — ^Wliat will be the speed of a counter-shaft with a 12 in. 
pulley driven by a 30 in. pulley 180 revolutions per minute: 1804- 
30-^-12=450. 

To Find the Size of a Pulley Requibed, if the number of revo- 
lutions and size of pulley on the main shaft are given: Multiply the 
diameter in inches of driving pulley by the revolutions of the main 
shaft, and divide by the speed required ; the quotient will be the di- 
ameter in inches of the pulley. 

Example — ^What will be the diameter of a pulley to make a coun- 
ter-shaft turn 450 revolutions X)er minute driven bv a 30 inch pul- 
ley 180 revolutions per minute : 180-|-S0-^-450=12 in. pulley. 

To Find the Size of a Pulley for a Main Shaft, if the 
speed of shafts and diameter of pulley on the counter-shaft are 
given: Multiply the diameter in inches of pulley by speed of the 
counter-shaft, and divide by the revolutions of the main shaft; the 
quotient will be the diameter of the pulley. 

Example. — Wliat will be the diameter of a pulley on a main shaft, 
making 180 revolutions per mmute, to drive a 12 in. 450 revolutions 
permmute: 450X12-^180=30 inch pulley. 

To Weld Steel Axles.— To insure a good weld, prepare the com- 
position described on page 270 for welding cast steel. Use a strong 
fire, and when the axle is brought to Avhat may be termed a bright 
red heat, apply a sufficiency of the composition and return- it to the 
fire until the heat is regained once more, then place it under the 
hammer. Be careful not to put on too much of the composition, 
otherwise it might waste in the fire, and by its affinity for metal ob- 
struct the tire iron, thereby preventing the fire from receiving the 
full energy of the blast, and thus retarding if not spoiling the job. 

Mildew on Sails can be prevented by soaping the mildewed parts 
and then rubbing in powdered chalk. The growth of the mildew 
funirus can be prevented by steeping the canvas in an aqueous solu- 
tion of corrosive sublimate. Another loaij. Slacked hme 2 bushels, 
draw off the lime water, and mis it with 120 gals, water, and with 
blue vitriol J lb. *- '' . -i^ 

To Make Gun Cotton.— -Take dry saltpetre, J oz. ; strong oil vit- 
riol, i oz. Mix in a tumblar, add 20 grs. of dry cottonwool, stir with 
a glass rod 5 mmutes, remove the cotton and wash from all traces of 
the acid in 4 or 5 waters; then carefully dry under 120^. This is 
gun cotton. 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 499 

To Keep "Wagon Tires on the WheeI/. — A practical mechanic 
suggests a method of so putting tires on wagons that they will not 
get loose and require resetting. He says he ironed a wagon some 
years ago for his own use, and, before putting on the tires, he filled 
the felloes with linseed oil, and the tires have worn out and were 
never loose. This method is as follows : He used a long cast iron 
heater made for the purj^ose ; the oil is brought to a boiling heat, the 
wheel is placed on a stick, so as to hang in the oil, each feUoe an 
hour. The timber should be dry, as green timber will not take oil. 
Care should be taken that the oil is not made hotter than a boiling 
heat, or the timber will be burned. Timber filled with oil is not sus- 
ceptible of injury by water, and is rendered much more durable by 
this process. 

To Chill Cast Iron tery Hard. — Use a liquid made as follows: 
Soft water, 10 gallons; salt, 1 peck ; oil vitriol, | pt. ; saltpetre, J lb. ; 
prussiate of potash, ^ lb. ; cyanide of potash, J* lb. Heat the iron a 
cherry red and dip as usual, and if wanted harder repeat the process. 

Another to Harden Cast Iron. — Salt, 2 lbs. ; saltpetre ^ lb. ; 
Toche alum, J lb. ; ammonia, 4 ozs. ; salts of tartar, 4 ozs. ; pulverize 
all together and mcorporate thoroughly, use by powdering aU over 
the iron while it is hot, then i)lunging it tu cold water. 

Flux for Reducing Lead Ore. — Red argol, 6 parts; nitre, 4 parts; 
fluor spar, 1 part; grmd well and mix thoroughly. 

Varnish for smooth moulding Patterns. — Alcohol, 1 gal. ; 
shellac 1 lb. ; lamp or ivory black, sufficient to color it. 

Iron Lustre is obtained by dissolving a piece of zinc with muriatic 
acid, and mixing the solution with spirit of tar, and applying it to the 
surface of the iron. 

Black having a Polish for Iron. — Pulverized gum asphaltum, 
2 lbs. ; gum benzoin, J lb. ; spirits of turpentine, 1 gal. ; to make quick, 
keep in a warm place, and shake often; shade to suit with finely 
ground ivory black. Apply with a brush. And it ought to be used 
on iron exposed to the weather as well as on inside work desiring a 
nice appearance or i^olish. 

Varnish For Iron. — Asphaltum, 8 lbs. ; melt in an iron kettle, 
slowly adding boiled linseed oil, 5 gals. ; litharge, 1 lb. ; and sulphate 
of zinc, h lb. ; continuing to boil for 3 hours ; then add dark gum 
amber, If lbs. ; and continue to boil 2 hours longer. When cool, re- 
duce to a proper consistence to apply with a brush, with spirits of 
turpentine 

To Soften Cast Iron For Turning. — Steep it in 1 part of aqua- 
fortis to 4 of water, and let it remain in 24 hours. 

Cast Iron Ornaments are rendered susceptible of being finished 
with a scraper, where they cannot be reached with files, after having 
the following liquid applied to them : 

Scaling Cast Iron. — Vitriol, 1 part; water, 2 parts; mix and lay 
on the diluted vitriol with a cloth in the form of a brush, enough to 
wet the surface well; after 8 or 10 hours, wash off with water, when 
the hard, scaly surface will be completely removed. 

To Break Up Old Cannon. — Old cannon and massive castings 
may be cut in two by a continuous stream of hot molten iron, 
which wears away the iron as a stream of hot water would eat 
into a mass of ice, Or the gun may be rolled on a frame to the mouth 



600 MACHINISTS, engineers', &c., receipts. 

of a furnace, and the muzzle end shoved in as far as i)ossihle amonpj 
other iron, the opening filled up and luted around the gun, the end 
of which is melted off. At the next charge shove it in another length, 
and so on until the hreech is disposed of. 

Large masses of cast iron may be broken up by drilling a hole in the 
the most solid part, fiilmg it \\y) Avith water, fitting a steel plug very 
accurately into the hole, and letting the drop of a pile driver descend 
on the plug. 

Amalgam for Mirrors.— 1. Tin, 70 parts; mercury, 30 parts; 2. 
{For curved mirrors) Tin, 80 parts ; mercurj^, 20 parts ; 3. Tin, 8.33 
parts ; lead, 8.34 parts ; bismuth, 8.33 parts ; mercury, 75 parts. 4. 
{For spheHcal Mirrors) Bismuth, 80 parts ; mercury, 26 parts. 

Reflector Metal. — 1. {Dupplefs) Zinc, 20 parts; silver, 80 parts; 
2. Copper, 66.22 parts; tin, 33.11 parts; arsenic, 0.67 parts. 3. {Coop- 
er' s.) Copper, 57.86 [parts ; tin, 27.28 parts ; zinc, 3.30 jmrts ; arsenic, 
1.65, parts ; platmum, 9.91 parts ; 4. Copper, 64 parts ; tin, 32.00 
parts ; arsenic, 4.00 parts. 5. Copper, 82.18 parts ; lead, 9.22i)arts ; 
antimony, 8.60 parts. 6. {Little's) Copper, 69.01 parts; tin, 30.82 
parts ; zinc, 2.44 parts ; arsenic, 1.83 parts. 

Metal for Gilt Wares. — 1. Copper, 78.47 parts; tin, 2.87 parts ; 
zinc, 17.23 parts ; lead, 1.43 parts. 2. Copper, 64.43 parts ; ti]i, 0.25 
parts ; zinc, 32.44 parts ; lead, 2.86 parts. 3. Copper, 72.43 parts ; 
tin, 1.87 parts ; zinc, 22.75 parts ; lead, 2.96 parts. 4. Copper, 70.90 
parts ; tm, 2.00 parts ; zinc, 24.05 jmrts ; lead, 3.05. 

A]\ialga]vi for Electrical Machines.— 1. Tin, 25 parts ; zinc, 
25 parts ; mercury, 50 parts. 2. Tin, 11.11 parts ; zinc, 22.22 parts ; 
mercury, 66.67 parts. 

Type Metal. — 1. For smallest and most brittle types. — Lead, 3 
parts ; antimony, 1 part. 2. For small, hard, brittle types. — Lead, 4 
l)arts ; antimony, 1 part. 3. For types of medium size. — Lead, 5 
l^arts ; antimony, 1 part. 4. For large types. — Lead, 7 parts ; anti- 
mony, 1 part. 5. For largest and softest types. — Lead, 7 parts ; anti- 
mony, 1 i)art. In addition to lead and antimony, type metal also con- 
tains 4 to 8 per cent, of tin, and sometimes 1 to 2 per cent, of copper. 
G. Stereotype plates are made of lead, 20 parts ; antimony, 4 parts ; 
tin, 1 part. 7. Another do. — Lead, 25 parts ; antimony, 4 parts ; tm, 
1 part. 8. Type metal. — Lead, 4 parts ; antimony, 2 parts. 9. Tough 
type m£tal. — Lead, 100 i^arts ; antimony, 32 parts ; tin, 8 parts. 

DowLAis Iron Works, {England.) Furnaces.— Eight, diameter 16 
to 18 feet, 1300 Tons Eorge Iron per week ; discharging 44,000 cubic 
Icet of air permmute. Engine, {noncondensing,) Cylinder, 55 ins. in 
diam. by 13 feet stroke of piston. Pressure of steam, 60 lbs per square 
inch, cut off at J the stroke of the piston. Valves, 120 ins. in area. 
Boilers, Eight, (Cylindrical flue, internal furnace,) 7 feet in diam. 
and 42 feet, in length ; one flue, 4 ft. in diam. Grates, 288 square feet. 
Fly wheel. Diam. 22 feet, weight, 25 tons. Elovnng Cylinder, 144 
ins. diam. by 12 ft. stroke of piston. Revolutions, 20 per minute. 
Blast 3J lbs. per square inch, Discharge pipe, diam. 5 ft. and 420 feet 
in length. Valves, Exhaust, 56 square feet, delivery, 16 square feet. 

To Enamel Cast Iron and Hollow Ware.— 1. Calcined flints, 
6 parts ; Cornish stone or composition, two parts ; litharge, 9 parts ; 
borax, 6 parts ; argillaceous earth, 1 part ; nitre, 1 part ; calx of tin, 
C parts ; purified potash, 1 part. 2. Calcined flmts, 8 parts ; ri3d 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. OOI 

lead, 8 parts ; "borax, G parts ; calx of tin, 5 |)arts ; nitre, 1 part. 3 
rotters' composition, 12 parts ; borax, 8 parts ; wliite lead, 10 
parts; nitre, 2 parts; white marble, calcined 1 part; purified potash, 
2 parts ; calx of tin, 5 parts. 4. Calcined flints, 4 parts ; potters' 
coinposition, 1 part ; nitre, 2 parts ; borax, 8 parts ; white marble, 
calcined, 1 part ; argillaceous earth, ^ part ; calx of tin, 2 part»^. 
Whichever of the above compositions is taken must be finely pow- 
dered, mixed, and fused. The vitreous mass is to be ground when 
cold, sifted, and levigated with water ; it is then made into a pap 
with water, or gum water. The pap is smeared or brushed over the 
interior of the vessel, dried, and fused with a proper heat in a muffle. 
Clean the vessels perfectly before applying. 

Russia Sheet Iron.— Russia sheet iron is, in the first instance, 
a very pure article, rendered exceedingly tough and flexible by 
refining and anneahng. Its bright, glossy surface is partially a 
silicate, and partially an oxide of iron, and is produced by passing, 
the hot sheet, moistened with a solution of wood-ashes, through 
polished steel rollers. 

Liquid Black Lead PoiiiSH. — Black lead pulverized 1 lb. ; tur- 
pentine, 1 gill ; water, 1 gill ; sugar 1 oz. 

Copperas Dip for Cast Iron. — Dissolve 3 lbs. of sulphate of 
copper and add 2 fluid ozs. sulphuric acid. 

Enaimelled Cast Iron. — Clean and brighten the iron before 
applying. The enamel consists of two coats — the body and the glaze. 
The body is made by fusing 100 lbs. ground flints, 75 lbs. of borax, 
and grinding 40 lbs. of this frit with 5 lbs. of potters' clay, in water, 
till it is brought to the consistence of a pap. A coat of this being 
applied and dried, but not hard, the glaze-powder is sifted over it; 
This consists of 100 lbs. Coniish stone in fine powder, 117 lbs. of 
borax, 35 lbs. of soda ash, 35 lbs. of nitre, 35 lbs. of sifted slacked 
lime, 13 lbs. of white sand, and 50 pounds of pounded white glass. 
Tliese are all fused together ; the frit obtained is pulverized. 01 
this powder, 45 lbs. are mixed with 1 lb. soda ash, in hot water, and 
the mixture being dried in a stove, is the glaze powder. After sifting 
this over the body-coat, the cast-iron article is put into a stove, kept 
at a temperature of about 212 o, to dry it hard, after which it is set in 
a muflie-kiln, to fuse it into a glaze. The inside of pipes is enamelled 
(after being cleaned) by pouruig the above body composition through 
them while the pipe is being turned around to insure an equal coat- 
ing ; after the body has become set, the glaze pap is poured in in like 
mamier. The pipe is finally fired in the kiln. 

To Enamel Copper and Other vessels.— Flint glass, 6 parts . 
borax, 3 parts ; red lead, 1 part ; oxide of tin, 1 part. Mix all to- 
gether, frit, grind into powder, make into a thin paste with water, ap- 
ply with a brush to the surface of the vessels, after scaling by heat 
and cleaning them, repeat with a second or even a third coat, after- 
wards dry, and lastly fuse on by heat of an enamelled kiln. 

EinERY Wheels for Polishing. — Coarse emery powder is mixed 
with about half its weight of pulverized Stourbridge loam, and a little 
water or other liquid to make a thick paste ; this is pressed into a 
metallic mould by means of a screw-press, and, after being thoroughly 
dried, is baked or burned in a muffle at a temperature above a red, 
and below a white heat. This forms an artificial emery stone, which 



502 MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 

cuts Yery greedily, witli very little wear to itself. Unequalled lor 
grinding and polisliing glass, metals, enamels, stones, &c. 

Moulding Sand for Casting Brass orIron.— The various kinds 
of good moulding sand employed in foundries for casting iron or brass, 
have been found to be almost uniform chemical composition, varying 
in grain, or the aggregate form only. It contains between 93 and iX) 
parts silex, or grains of sand, and from 4 to 6 parts clay, and a little 
oxide of iron, in each 100 parts. Moulding sand which contains lime, 
magnesia, manganese and other oxides of metal, is not applicable, 
particular for the casting of iron or brass. Such sand is either too 
close, will not stand or retain its form, or it will acuse the metal to 
boil through its closeness. 

Refining Fluxes, for Metals.— Deflagrate, and afterwards pul- 
verize, 2 parts of nitre and 1 part of tartar. The following fluxes 
answer very well, provided the ores be deprived of their sulphur, or 
if they contain much earthy matter, because, in the latter case, they 
unite with them, and convert them into a thin glass, but, if any 
quantity of sulphur remains, their fluxes unite with it, and form a 
liver of sulphur, which has the power of destroying a portion of all 
the metals, consequently the assay must be, under such circumstances, 
very inaccurate. Limestone, fieldspar, fluorspar, quartz, sand-slate, 
and slags, are all used as fluxes. Iron ores, on account of the argilla- 
ceous earth they contain, require calcareous additions ; and the copper 
ores, rather slags, or nitrescent stones, than calcareous earth. 

Burning Iron Castings together. — The usual mode is by imbed- 
ding the castings in the sand, having a little space left vacant round 
about the joint where it is to be burned. Two gates must then bo 
provided, one lying on a level with the lower side of this space, and 
the other raised so that the metal, which must be very hot, is poured 
in at the higher one ; it passes round, fills up the space, and runs off 
at the lower gate. A constant supply of metal is thus kept up, till the 
parts of the casting are supposed to be on the eve of melting. The 
lower gate is then closed, and the supply stopped. When cool, and 
the superfluous metal chipped off, it ^forms as strong a joint as if it 
had been original. 

Cornish Reducing Flux. — Tartar lOozs., nitre 3ozs. and G drs. 
borax, 3 oz. and 1 dr. Mix together. 

h Crucibles. — The best crucibles are made from pure fire-clay, mixed 
with finely-ground cement of old crucibles, and a portion of black-lead 
or graphite ; some pounded coke may be mixed with the plumbago. 
The clay should be prepared in a similar way as for making pottery- 
ware; the vessels, after being formed must be slowly dried, and then 
properly baked in the kiln, mk .-v:;-; 

f: Black-lead crucibles are made of 2 parts graphite, and 1 of fire- 
clay, mixed with water into a paste, pressed in moulds, and weU dried, 
^but not baked hard in the kiln. This compound forms excellent 
small or portable furnaces. 4.- ,^1;^ — ^^l-:""' - ' " 
1^ Malleable Cast Iron.— THe gteat secret of this sort of work is 
the annealing, which if not done properly the castings are of no use 
at all. The best mode is to take an iron pan, say one foot square ; 
put iu a layer of charcoal, then some of the castings, then another 
layer. When the pan is fuU cover it over with some sand, to keep the 
.cha,rcoal from burning away. Put on an old piece of iron for a lid to 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 503 

cover all, put it in the annealing furnace, and get the heat up quite 
elow and gradually, taking care not to get the heat up too quick. 
After you have got it to the proper heat, which is this, the castings 
must be red hot through ; keep it at this heat for 5 or 6 hours, then let 
your fire die gradually out, or, if you want to take some out and put 
more in, take them to a comer and bury them, pan and all, — let them 
lie there till properly cooled. Regarding the melting, procure not 
less than two good sorts of No. 2 pig iron, which you may mix with 
gome good scrap if you choose ; the casting, melting, and moulding are 
conduoted in the same manner as common cast-iron, only the metal 
being hard, when casting, you have to make properly constructed 
runners and risers, or flow gates, if the article is likely to sink, for 
you cannot pump it well. 

Japanning Castings.— Clean them well from the sand, then dip 
them in or paint them over with good boiled linseed oil ; when 
moderately dry, heat them in an oven to such a temperature as will 
turn the oil black, without burnmg. The stove should not be too hot 
at first, and the heat should be gradually raised to avoid blistering ; 
the slower the change in the oil is effected the better will be the 
result. The castings, if smooth at first, will receive a fine black and 
polished surface by this method. 

Hardening Axletrees and Boxes. — ^The method now used in 
the manufacture of Murphy's axletrees is to use wrought iron and 
"Weld two pieces of steel into the lower side, where they rest upon the 
wheels and sustain the load. The work is heated in an open forgo 
fire, in the ordinary way, and when it is removed, a mixture, princi- 
pally prussiate of potash, is laid upon the steel ; the axletree is then 
immediately immersed in water, and additional water is allowed to 
fall upon it from a cistern. The steel is considered to be very ma- 
terially hardened by the treatment, and the iron around the same is 
also partially hardened. One very good way to chill axletree boxes is 
to mould from wooden patterns on sand, and cast them upon an iron 
core which has the effect of making them very hard. To form the 
annular recess for oil, a ring of sand, made in an appropriate core- 
box, is slipped upon the iron mandrill, and is left behind when the 
atter is driven out of the casting. 

CoiMPOSiTE Iron Railings. — The process by which this light, ele- 
gant and cheap fabric is manufactured, is as follows : — ^Rods and bars 
of wrought-iron are cut to the lengths desired for the pattern, and 
gabjected to a process called crimping, by which they are bent to the 
desired shape. These rods are then laid in the form of the design, 
and cast-iron moulds are affixed at those points where a connection is 
desired ; the moulds are then filled with melted metal, and immedi- 
ately you have a complete railing of beautiful design. Casting m 
iron moulds has this great advantage over the old sand moulding, it 
does not require any time for cooling, as the metal is no sooner run 
than the moulds may be removed and used again immediately en 
another section of the work ; and besides, it is so much more easily 
effected. By the combmation of wrought and cast-iron in this pro- 
cess, the most curious and complex designs may be produced with 
great rapidity and cheapness. 

To Galvanize Cast Iron Through.— To 50 lbs. melted iron add 1 
lb. pulverized pure zinc. Scatter the zinc powder well over the ladle, 



604 MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 

then catcli the melted iron, stir it uj) with an iron rod and pour at 
once. 

To OBTAIN CoMMEKCiAii Ais'TiMONY.-— Fiise together 100 parts snl- 
phuret of antimony, 40 parts metallic iron, and 10 parts dry crude 
sulphate of soda. This produces from 00 to 65 parts of antimony, 
besides the scorise or ash which is also valuable. Metallic Antimony, 
Mix 16 parts sulphuret of antimony and 6 parts cream of tartar, "both 
in powder ; put the mixture, in small quantities at a time, into a 
vessel heated to redness ; when reaction ceases, fuse the mass and 
after 15 minutes, pour it out and sex)arate the metal from the slag. 
The product is nearly pure. 

Holes in Mili^stones are filled with melted alum, mixing burr 
sand with it. If the hole is large, put some pieces of burr mill stones 
in it first, and pour in melted alum. These pieces of block should be 
cut exactly to fit. There should be small joints, and fastened with 
plaster of Paris. These holes should be cut at least 4 inches deep ; 
there is then no danger of their getting loose. 

Fitting a New Back on an Old Millstone. — Bloclc your 
stone up with a block of wood, having its face down until it lies even, 
solid, and perfectly level ; then pick and scrape off all the old plaster 
down to the face blocks, so that none remains but what is in the joints 
of the face blocks ; then wash these blocks, and keep them soaked 
with water. Keep a number of i)ieces of burr blocks, at the same 
time, soaked with water. Take a pail half filled with clean water, 
and mixed with 2 tablespoonf uls of glue water, boiled and dissolved ; 
mix in with j^our hand plaster of Paris until it be thick enough that 
it will not run ; and, breaking all the lumps, pour this on the stone, 
rubbing it with your hand ; the stone being at the same time damped ; 
and place small pieces of stone all over the joints of the face blocks ; 
you then, with more plaster, mixed in the same way but more stiff, 
with this and pieces of burr stones, build walls round the eye and 
verge 4 or 5 inches high, leavmg the surface uneven and the eye 
larger, as it will be brought to its proper size by the last operation. 
It is better to build uj) the wall of the runnmg stone romid the verge 
for 3 inches without any spalls, so that the holes may be cut m to 
balance it. If you wish to make j^our stone heavier, you will take 
small pieces of iron, perfectly clean and free from grease, and lay 
them evenly all aroimd the stone in the hollow place between the 
two walls just built ; and, with plaster mixed a little thicker than 
milk, pour in under and through all the crevices in the iron until the 
surface is nearly level with the two waUs. If the stones do not re- 
quire additional weight added, instead of iron, use i^ieces of stone 
the same way, leaving the surface rough and uneven. Again, as 
before, build walls round the verge of the stone, and round the eye of 
the stone, until they are within 2 inches of the thickness you want 
your stones to be, the wall round the eye being 2 inches higher than 
that round the verge, and filling the space between the walls with 
stones ; and pouring in plaster again, make it nearly level with the 
walls, but leaving the surface rough and jagged, to make the next 
plaster adliere well to it. Let it stand until the back is dry and 
I)erfectly set, when you raise the stone upon its edge, and, with a 
trowel, plaster round the edge of the stone neatly, giving it a taper of 
half an inch from the face to the back of the stone. When cased 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 505 

round in this way, lay the stone down on the cock-head ; it being in 
the balance ryn'e, but the driver off, then raise the spindle, and 
balance the stone as already directed before putting on the remainder 
of the back. Then have a tm made the size of the eye, and to reach 
f roDi the balance ryne to the thickness you want the stone to be at the 
eye. This tin should be exactly fitted to its place, and made fast ; then fit 
a'lioop of wood or iron round the verge, having the upper edge of the 
tluclmess from the face you want the stone to be at the verge, and equal 
all round. This hoop should be greased ; and, all the cracks round it, 
and the tin in the eye, being stopped, you pour thin i)laster (with 
more glue watei. than in previous operations, to prevent it from setting 
so quickly, and to give time to finish off the back correctly) until it be 
level with the hoop round the verge, and with a straight edge, one 
end resting on the hoop, and the other end resting on the tin at the 
eye ; then, by movmg it round, and working the plaster with 
a trowel, make the surface of the back even and smooth between 
these two points. The hoop is then taken off, and the back and edges 
planed smooth ; then lower the spindle imtil your runner lies solid, 
and put your band or hoo]:) on, it being first made nearly red hot, and 
tiiking care that it is of sufficient size not to require too much driving ; 
if fitting too tightly, it may loosen the back in driving it to its proper 
place ; it may be cooled gently by i^ouring Avater on it; and, when 
<:ool, it should fit tight. 

BAiiAxcixG A MiLT^sTO^TE. — First, take off the driver, that the 
stone may have full play on the cock-head ; then raise the spindle so 
that there may be room between the stone to see the balance. Find the 
heaviest i3arts, and near the verge lay on sufficient weight to balance 
it Cut a hole in the back of tlie stone, as deep as you can make it 
and as near the verge as i^ossible that the binding iron hoop of the 
stone may keep the lead m its place. This hole should be wider at 
the bottom than the top in order to retain the lead when the stone is 
iu motion, and into this the melted lead should be poured until it 
brings the stone completely into balance. When the lead is cold, 
cover over with mixed plaster, even with the back of the stone. 

Co^iPOsiTiox TO Keep MiiiLSTONES Clean.— Hot water, 1 gal ; 
borax, 2 oz ; washing soda, J lb. and 3 balls of the size of a hazel 
nut each, of sal prunel. Mix and apply it to the burrs with a 
scrubbing* brush. When grinding garlic wheat it is not necessary to 
tiike up the burrs at all. It is sufficient to drop through the eye of 
the burr twice per day one of the above described balls of sal prunel, 
and that will keep the burrs sharp and clean, enabling the miller at 
all seasons to use the No. 13 bolt," to make finer flour and in greater 
quantity than usual. 

Mill Dams. — ^AVhen building a dam, you should select the most 
suitable place. If you can, place it across the stream near a rocky 
blulf so that the end of the dam may run into the bluff. This 
will prevent the water running by at the ends of the dam. Build 
your dam very strong ; if this is not done, they are breaking uj) 
often, causmg ruinous expense in money and loss of time. 

Floub Mill Machinery.— For each pair of 4 feet stones, with all 
the necessary dressing machinery, etc., there is required 15 horses* 
i^owei. Stones, 4 ft. diam., 120 to 140 revolutions per minute. 
Dreimnf/ Machines f 21 ins. diam., 450 to 500 revolutions per minute. 



506 HAciiiNiSTs, engineers', &c., receipts. 

Elevator, 18 ins. diam., 40 revolutions per minute. Creepers, SJ ins. 
pitch, 75 revolutions per miuute. Screen, 16 ins. diam., 300 to 350 
revolutions per minute. 788 cubic feet of water, discharged at a 
velocity of 1 foot per second, are necessary to gruid and dress a bushel 
of wheat per hour=1.40 horses* power per bushel. 2000 feet per 
minute for the velocity of a stone 4 feet in diam. may be considered a 
maximum speed. 

Rock Daivis are incomparably the best in use, if there is plenty of 
material at hand for building, and a rock bottom to the stream; if 
'there is not a rock bottom you should dig a trench in the bottom, deep 
enough, so that the water cannot undermine it. This should bo tho 
same as if you were building the foundation of a large buildmg. Tho 
waU to be built should be of a small circular form, so that the back of 
the circle should be next to the body of water, which may by its 
pressure tighten it. To secure the water from leaking through at tho 
ends of the dam, dig a ditch deeper than the bottom of the river ; tlien 
fill this with small pieces of rock, and pour in cement. This cement 
is made of hydraulic cement, and is made of one part of cement to 
five parts of pure sand. It will e:ffectually stop all crevices. A rock 
dam if well built wUl be perfectly tight. Use as you conveniently can 
move ; building this wall 4 to 6 feet thick, according to the length of 
the dam, with jam or buttressess every place where they are needed 
to strengthen it; make true joints to these rocks, especially on the ends 
so that they may join close together. When you have the outside walls 
laid in cement for every layer fill the middle up with pieces of small 
rock, pouring in your grout, so that there may not be a crevice but 
what is filled. If there is any crevice or hole left open, the water will 
breakthrough, wearing it larger and larger. If the stream is wide and 
large, it is necessary to build the dam in two sections, which should 
be divide(£ by a waste way , necessary forthe waste, or surplus water, 
to rim over, to keep the head in its proper place or height. Let each 
section, next to where the water is to be run over, be abutments, built 
to strengthen the dam. The last layer of rock, on the top where the 
waste wafer runs over, should project 5 or 6 inches over the back of 
the dam so that the water may not undermiue it. This last layer 
should b^ of large rocks and jointed true ; then laid in hydraulic 
cement, in proportion of 1 of cement to 3 of sand. When the dam is 
guilt, the front should be filled up with coarse gravel or clay ; this is 
best dono with teams, for the more it is tramped the more durable it 
becomes. 

Fraivie-Dams. — ^In building a frame dam, commence with a good 
foundation, laying the first sills in the bottom, of sufficient depth. 
They sliould be large square timbers that will last in the water with- 
out rotiiing. Where there is a soft foundation, the bottom should first 
be made level ; then dig trenches for the mudsills, about 7 or 8 feet 
r.part, lengthways of the stream, and 10 or 12 feet long. Into these 
first sills other sUls must be framed, and put crosswise of the stream, 
6 or 8 feet apart, to reach as far across the stream as necessary. Then 
two outside sills should be piled down with 2-iQch plank driven down 
to a depth of 4 or 5 feet. If this can, be done conveniently, they are to 
be jointed as closely as possible. It would be better to line with some 
stuff 1 inch thick ; then with posts their proper length, about 12 or 14 
.inches square, which should be framed into the uppermost sUl, in both 



MACHINISTS, engineers', «fcC., RECEIPTS. 507 

sides, and all the way across the dam, from hank to bank, at a distance 
of 6 feet apart. Then, with braces to each post, to extend two-thirds 
of the length of the post, where they should be joined together with a 
lock, instead of a mortise and tenon, with an iron bolt 1 or IJ inches 
in diameter, going through both, and tightened with a screw and nut. 
When mortises and tenons are used, they often become rotten and 
useless in a few years. These braces should be set at an angle of 50 
or 60° with the other end mortised into the mud sill. These braces re- 
quire to be arbout G to 8 inches, and as long as you find necessary ; be- 
ing covered with dirt it will not decay for a long time, as the air is 
excluded. Tliese posts should be capped from one to the other, plate 
fashion. The posts should be lined with 2 or 2^ inch plank on the in- 
side, pinned to the plank, and should, in the middle, be filled in with 
dirt. 

If the stream is large and wide, the dam should be built in two sec- 
tions, which should be divided by a waste-way for the surplus water, 
which should be in the centre of the dam, and sufficient for all the 
waste-water to run over. Let each section of the dam form an abut- 
ment next to the waste-way, placing cells or sills 4 feet apart the 
length of the waste-way ; in each of these sills, posts should be framed 
with a brace for the sides. These rows of i>osts, standing across the 
dam, will form the sectional abutments ; the middle one may be con- 
structed by being lengthways of the stream, with short braces, so that 
they will not be in the Avay of drift-wood passing down the stream ; 
it being necessary for strong i^ieces for a bridge. Then cover the sills 
with an apron of 2-incli plank joined perfectly straight, to extend 30 
or 40 feet below the dam, to prevent undermining of the dam. The 
plamis wfiich are used for the purpose of lining the posts which 
form the abut-ments of each section of the dam, and the ends of the 
waste-way, should be truly i)ointed, so as to prevent any leakage. 
Tlie dam bekig built, the dirt should be filled in with teams, as the 
more it is tramjped the better. Clay or coarse gravel is the best. 
Then place your gates on the upper side of the waste-way, the size 
that is necessary to a level with low-water mark ; which gates are not 
to be raised except in times of high water, as the proper height of the 
mill-pond should be regulated by boards placed over the gate for the 
desired head, as the water should be allowed pass at all times freely 
over them. To strengthen the dam, if you tliink necessary, 2-inch 
plank may be used in lining the front side of the dam, long enough to 
reach from the bottom of the stream (on an inclined plane, and next 
to the body of water to the top of the dam, and filled up nearly to 
the top of the dam with clay or gravel well trampled down. 

Brush or Log Dams are very often used in small, muddy streams | 
When the bottom of the stream is of a soft nature, take a flat boat 
where you want to fix your dam, and drive piles the whole length of the 
stream, about 3 or 4 feet apart, as deep as you can. Take young oak 
saplings pointed at the end, for the purpose. If you can, construct a 
regular pile-driver, similar to those in use for making trestle-work on 
the railways. This weight may be pulled up by horses instead of an 
engine. >Yhen you have finished driving pUes, make some boxes or 
troughs of 2 or 3 inch plank, about 3 feet wide and as long as the 
plank is. Sink these in the water the length of the dam, close to the 
piles, by loading them with rock, until they are at the bottom of tlio 



. 508 MAcnixisTS, engineers', &c., receipts. 

stream, filling in the front part of the dam with dirt and brush, nearly 
to the height you waut it. This kind of a dam will last a long time. 

Whenever there is a small break in the dam or race, cut up some 
"willows and brush, put them in the break along witli some straw and 
dirt, and ram them down with clay. 

In regard to the flume, the greatest care must be taken to insure 
strength and durability combined with tightness. Every step taken 
in its construction must be of such a nature as to unite these qualities 
in the highest possible degree, otherwise the whole is, in a manner, 
labor lost. 

Bronzing Co^ipositions, 32 Kinds.— 1. Silver white Bronzing Pow- 
der. — ^ISIelt together 1 oz. each, bismuth and tin, then add 1 oz. quick- 
Bilver, cool and powder. 2. Gold colored Bronze Fowder. — Verdigris, 
8 ozs. ; tutty powder, 4 ozs. ; borax and nitre, of each 2 ozs. ; bichloride 
of mercury, ^ oz. ; make into a paste with oil and fuse them together. 
Used in japanning as a gold color. 3. Beautiful Red Bronze Powder, 
— Sulpliate of copper, 100 parts; carbonate of soda, 60 parts; apply 
lieat until they unite into a mass. 4. Acid Bronze. — Cobalt, 4 lbs. ; 
pulverize; silt through a fine sieve; put in a stone pot; add ^ gai. 
nitric acid, a little at a time, stirring frequently for 24 hours; then add 
about, 5 gals, muriatic acid, or until the work comes out a dark brown. 
5. Alkali Bronze. — Dissolve 5 lbs. nitrate of copper in 3 gals, of water; 
and 5 lbs. pearlash; add 1 or 2 pts. potash water; then add from 2 to 3 
lbs. sal ammoniac or until the work comes out the required color. G. 
Coating Dip. — Suli)hate of zinc, 8 lbs. ; oil of vitriol, 5 gals. : aquafor- 
tis, I gal. To use, warm up scalding hot. 7. Quick Bright hipping Acii I, 
for Brass ivhich has been Orrrwlued. — Sulphuric acid, igal. ; nitric acid, 
1 gal. 8. Dipping J.cic?.— Sulphuric acid, 12 lbs. ; nitric acid, 1 pt. ; nitre, 
4 lbs. ; soot, 2 handf uls ; brimstone, 2 ozs. ; pulverize the brimstone 
and soak it in water 1 hour, add the nitric acid last. 9. Good Dip- 
ping Acid for cast Brass. — Sulphuric acid, 1 qt. ; nitre, 1 qt. ; a little 
muriatic acid may be added or omitted. 10. Ormolu Dipping Acid 
for Sheet Bi^ass. — Sulphuric acid, 2 gals. ; nitric acid, 1 pt. ; muriatic 
acid, 1 ])L ; nitre, 12 lbs. ; jput in the muriatic acid last, a little at a time, 
and stirring the mixture with a stick. 11. Dipping Acid. — Suli^huric 
acid, 4 gals. ; nitric acid, 2 gals. ; saturated solution of sulphate of iron 
1 pt. ; solution of sulphate of copper, 1 qt. 12. Ormolu Dipping Acid 
for cast Brass. — Sulphuric acid, Igal.; sal ammoniac, loz. ; sulphur (iu 
flour) 1 oz. ; blue vitriol, 1 oz. ; saturated solution of zinc in nitric 
acid, 1 gal. ; mixed with an equal quantity of sulphuric acid. 13. 
Vinegar Bronze for Brass. — ^Vinegar, 10 gals. ; blue vitriol, 3 lbs. ; 
muriatic acid 3 lbs. ; corrosive sublimate, 4 ozs. ; sal ammoniac, 2 lbs. ; 
alum, 8 ozs. 14. Antique Bronze Paint. — Sal ammoniac, 1 oz. ; cream 
of tartar, 3 ozs. ; common salt, 6 ozs. ; dissolve in 1 pt. hot water; then 
add nitrate of copper, 2 ozs.; dissolve in J pt. water; mix well and 
applyit to the article in a damp place with a brush. 15. Blue Bronze 
on Copper. — Clean and polish well, then cover the surface with a fluid 
obtained by dissolving vermillion in a warm solution of sodium, to 
which some caustic potash has been added. 16. Bronze Dip. — Sal 
ammoniac 1 oz. ; salt of sorrel, (binoxolate of potash) J oz. ; dissolved 
iu vmegar. 17. Parisian Bronze Dip. — Sal ammoniac, ^ oz. ; common 
salt, ^ oz. ; spirits of hartshorn, 1' oz. ; dissolved in an English qt. of 
vmegar, a good result will be obtained by adding J oz. sal ammoniac. 



MACniXISTS, ENGIXEEKS', &C., llECEirTS. 509 

instead of spts. of liartsliorn; the piece of metal being well cleai.ed 
is to "be rubbed with one of these solutions, then dried by friction "with 
a fresh brush. 18. Green Dip. — ^AVtne vinegar, 2 qts. ; verditer green, 
2 ozs. ; sal ammoniac 1 oz. ; salt, 2 ozs. ; alum, J oz. ; Frencli berries, 
8 ozs. ; boil tlie ingredients together. 19. Aquafortis Dip. — Nitric acid, 
8 ozs. ; muriatic acid, 1 qt. ; sal ammoniac, 2 ozs. ; alum, 1 oz. ; salt, 
2 ozs. 20. Olive Bronze Dip for Brass. — Nitric acid, 3 ozs. ; muriatic 
acid, 2 ozs. ; add titanium or palladium, when the metal is dissolved 
add 2 gals, pure soft water to each pt. of the solution. 21. Broicn 
Bronze Paint for Copper Vessels. — Tinct. of steel, 4 ozs. ; spts. of nitre 

4 ozs. ; blue vitriol, 1 oz. ; water, \ pt. ; mix in a bottle, apply it with 
a fine brush, the vessel being full of boiling water. Varnish after the 
application of the bronze. 22. Bronze for all kinds of Metal. — Muriate 
of ammonia, (sal ammoniac) 4 drs. ; oxalic acid, 1 dr.; vinegar, 1 pt; 
dissolve the oxalic acid first; let the work be clean, put on the bronze 
with a brush, repeating the operation as many times as may be 
necessary. 23. Green Bronze. — Dissolve 2 ozs. nitrate of iron, and 2 
ozs. hyposulphate of soda in 1 pt of water; immerse the article until 
the required shade is obtained, as almost any shade from brown to 
red can be obtained according to the time of immersion, then weU 
wash with water, dry and brush. 24. Pale Deep Olive Green 
Bronze. — Perchloride of iron, 1 part ; water, 2 parts. Mix and immerse 
the brass. 25. Dark Green. — Saturate nitric acid with copper and im- 
merse the brass. 2G. Dead Black for Brass Work.—R\xb the surface 
first with tripoli, then wash it with a solution of 1 part, neutral nitrate 
of tin, with 2 parts, chloride of gold, after 10 minutes Avipe it off with 
a wet cloth. 27. Best Bronze for Brass. — Take 1 lb. of nitric acid, and 
J lb. of white arsenic, put them into an earthen vessel and then proceed 
in the usual manner. 28. Another Bronze for Brass. — 1 oz. muriate 
of ammonia, J oz. alum, J oz. arsenic, dissolve together in 1 pt. of 
strong vinegar. 29. Black Dip for Brass. — ^Hydrochloric acid (com- 
monly called smoking salts, ) 12 lbs. ; sulphate of iron, 1 lb. ; and pure 
white arsenic 1 lb. This dip is used m all the large factories in 
Birmingham, but the dip used in the London trade is 2 ozs. corrosive 
sublimate, in 1 pt. of the best vinegar, cork both air tight in a bottle, 
let it stand 24 hours ; then it is fit for use. 30. Quick Bright Dip for 
Brass. — Use strong nitric acid in sufficient quantity, dip your brass in 
the liquid for an instant, withdraw, and immediately immerse it first 
in cold water, then in boOing water, for a short time only in each 
bath, then allow it to dry, repeat the process if necessary. 31. Ap- 
plication of Bronze Poioder. — The proper way is to varnish the article 
and then dust the bronze i^owder over it after the varnish is partly 
dry. 32. Black color for Brass Work. — Make a strong solution of 
nitrate of silver, in one dish and nitrate of copper, in another. Mix 
the two together and plunge in the brass. Now heat the brass evenly 
tin the required degree of blackness is acquired. Unrivalled as a 
beautiful color on optical insruments. 

Graham's Quick Bronzing Liquids. — For immediate action on 
Copper^ Brass, or Zinc. — 1. Brown or Dark Bronze for Copper, 
Brass, or Zinc. — ^Dissolve 5 drachms nitrate of iron inl pt. water; or, 

5 drs. perchloride of iron in 1 pt. water. A black may also be ob- 
tamed from 10 ozs. muriate of arsenic in 2 pts. permuriate of iron, 
and Ipt. water. 2. Brown or Red Bronzing for jBm55.— Dissolve 1(1 



510 MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTo. 

drs. nitrate of iron, and 16 drs. hyposulpliate of soda, in 1 pt. water, 
or, 1 dr. nitric acid may be substituted for the nitrate of iron. 3. 
Bed Brown Bronzing for Brass. — Dissolve 1 oz. nitrate of copper, and 
1 oz. oxalic acid in 1 pt. water, brought to the boil and then cooled. 
4. JDark Brown Bronzing for Brass. — Mix 1 oz. cyanide of potassium, 
and 4 drs. nitric acid, with 1 pt. water. 5. Bed Bronzing for Brass. 
Mix 30grs. tersulphate of arsenic, 6 drs. solution of pearlash, and 1 
pt. water. G. Orange Bronzing on Brass. — Mix 1 dr. potash solu- 
tion of sulphur with 1 pt. water. 7. Olive Green Bronze for Brass. — 
Dissolve 1 pt. permuriate of iron in 2 pts. water. 8. Slate-colored 
Bronzing for Brass. — Dissolve 2 drs. sulphocyanide of potassium, and 
5 drs. perchloride of iron, in 1 pt. water. 9. Steel Grey Bronzing for 
Bj'oss. — Mix 1 oz. muriate of arsenic with 1 pt. water, and use at a 
heat not less than 180° Fahr. 10. Bright Bed Bronzing for Copper. 
Mix 2 drs. sulphide of antimony, and 1 oz. pearlash in 1 pt. water. 
11. Dark Bed Bronze for Copper. — ^Dissolve 1 dr. sulphur and 1 oz. 
pearlash in 1 pt. water. 12. Copper Colored Bronzing for Zinc. Agi" 
tate the articles in a solution of 8 drs. sulphate of copper, and 8 drs. 
hyposulphate of soda in 1 pt. water. 

Copper Plates or Rods may be covered witli a superficial coat- 
ing of brass by exposing to the fmnes given off by melted zinc at a 
111 'it temperature. The coated plates or rods can then bo roUed into 
thin sheets, or drawn into wire. 

Solution of Copper or Zinc. — ^Dissolve 8 ozs. (Troy) cyanide of 
potassium, and 3 ozs. cyanide of copper or zinc, in 1 gal. of rain 
water. To be used at about 160° F., with a compound battery of 3 
to 12 cells. 

Brass Solution. — ^Dissolve 1 lb. (Troy) cyanide of potassium, 2 
ozs. cyauide of copper, and 1 oz. cyanide of zinc, in 1 gal. of rain- 
water ; then add 2 ozs. of muriate of ammonia. To be used at 160° 
F., for smooth work, with a compound battery of from 3 to 12 
cells. 

Brassing Iron. — ^Iron ornaments are covered with copper or brass, 
by properly preparing the surface so as to remove all organic matter 
which would prevent adhesion, and then plunging them into melted 
brass. A thin coating is thus spread over the iron, and it admits of 
bemg polished or burnished. 

Ormolu Coloring, Lacquers, &c. — 18 kinds. — Ormolu Color- 
ing. — 1. Alum, 30 parts ; nitrate of potassa, 30 parts ; red ochre, 30 
parts; sulphate of zinc, 8 parts; common salt, 1 part; sulphate of iron, 
1 part. It is applied with a soft brush. The articles are placed over 
a clear charcoal fire until the salts, melted and dried, assume a 
brown aspect. They are then suddenly cooled in nitric acid water, 
containing 3 per cent, of hydrochloric acid, afterwards, washed in 
abundance of water and dried in sawdust. 2. To Prepare Brass 
Work for Ormolu Dipping. — ^If the work is oily, boil itinley, andif itis 
finished work, filed or turned, dip it in old acid, and it is then ready 
to be ormolued, but if it is unfinished and free from oil, pickle it in 
strong sulphuric acid, dip in pure nitric acid, and then in the old acid, 
after which it wDl be ready for ormoluing. 3. To Bepair Old Nitric 
Acid Ormolu Dips.— It the work after dipping appears coarse and 
spotted, add vitriol till it answers the purpose: if the work after dip- 
ping appears too smooth, add muriatic acid and nitre till it gives the 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 511 

right appearance. The other ormolu dips should be repaired accord- 
ing to the receipts, putting in the proper ingredients to strengthen 
them. They should not be allowed to settle, but should be stirred 
often while using. 4. Directions for making Lacquer. — Mix the in- 
gredients, and let the vessel containing theni stand in the sun, or in 
a place slightly warmed, 3 or 4 days, shaking it frequently till gum is 
dissolved, after which let it settle from 24 to 48 hours, when the clear 
liquor may be poured off for use. Pulverized glass is sometimes used 
in making lacquer to carry down the impurities. 5. Lacquer for Dip- 
ped ^rass.— Alcohol, (95 per cent. ) 2 gals. ; seed lac, 1 lb. ; gum copal, 

1 oz. ; English saffron, 1 oz. ; annatto, 1 oz. 6. Lacquer for Bronzed 
Brass. — To 1 pt. of the above lacquer add gamboge, 1 oz., and, after 
mixing it, add an equal quantity of the first lacquer. 7. Deep Gold 
Colored Lacquer. — Best alcohol, 4 ozs. ; Spanish annatto, 8 ozs. ; tur- 
meric, 2 drs. ; shellac, J oz. ; red sanders, 12 grs. ; when dissolved, add 
spts. of turpentine, 30 drops. 8. Deep Gold Uolored Lacquer for Brass 
not Dipped. — Alcohol, 4 gals. ; turmeric, 3 lbs. ; gamboge, 3 ozs. ; gum 
sandarac, 7 lbs. ; shellac, IJ lbs. ; turpentine vaniish, 1 pt. 9. Gold 
Colored Lacquer, for Dipped Brass. — Alcohol, 2>Q ozs. ; seed lac, 6 ozs. ; 
amber, 2 ozs. ; gum gutta, 2 ozs. ; red sandal wood, 24 grs. ; dragon's 
blood,60 grs. ; oriental saffron, 36 grs. ; pulverized glass, 4 ozs. 10. 
Gold Lacquer, for Brass. — Seed lac, 6 ozs. ; amber or copal, 2 ozs. ; best 
alcohol, 4 gals. ; pulverized glass 4 ozs. ; dragon's blood, 40 grs. ; ex- 
tract of red sandal wood obtained by water, 30 grs. 11. Lacquer, for 
Dipped Brass. — Alcohol, 12 gals. ; seed lac, 8 lbs. ; turmeric, 1 lb. to a 
gal. of the above mixture; Spanish saffron, 4 ozs. The saffron is to 
be added for bronzed work. 12. Good Lacquer. — Alcohol, 8 ozs. ; 
gamboge, 1 oz. ; shellac, 3 ozs. ; annatto, 1 oz. ; solution of 3 ozs. of 
seed lac in 1 pt. alcohol. When dissolved, add J oz. Venice turpen- 
tine, J oz. dragon's blood, will make it dark. Keep it in a warm 
I)lace 4 or 5 days. 13. Pale Lacquer, for Tin Plate. — Best alcohol, 8 
ozs. ; turmeric, 4 drs. ; hay saffron, 2 scrs. ; dragon's blood, 4 scrs. ; red 
sanders, 1 scr. ; shellac, 1 oz. ; gum sandarac, 2 drs. ; gum mastic, 2 
drs. , Canada balsam, 2 drs. ; when dissolved, add spts. turpentine, 
80 drops. 14. Bed Lacquer for Brass. — Alcohol, 8 gals. ; dragon's 
blood, 4 lbs. ; Spanish annatto. 12 lbs. ; gum sandarac, 13 lbs. ; tur- 
pentine, 1 gal. 15. Pale Lacquer, for Brass. — Alcohol, 2 gals. ; cape 
aloes, cut small, 3 ozs. ; pale shellac, 1 lb. ; gamboge, 1 oz. 16. Best 
Lacquer, for Brass. — Alcohol, 4 gals. ; shellac, 2 lbs. ; amber gum, 1 
lb. ; copal, 20 ozs. ; seed lac, 3 lbs. ; saffron to color ; pulverized 
glass, 8 ozs. 17. Color for Lacquer. — ^Alcohol, 1 qt. ; annatto, 4 
ozs. 18. Gilder's Pickle. — Alum and common salt, each, 1 oz. ; nitre 

2 oz. ; dissolved in water, J pt. Used to impart a rich yellow color to 
gold surfaces. It is best largely diluted with water. 

To Reduce Oxide of Zinc. — The oxide may be put in quantities 
of 500 or 600 lbs. weight into a large pot over the fire ; pour a suffi- 
cient quantity of muriatic acid over the top, to act as a flux, and the 
action of the fire will melt the dross, when the pure metal will be 
found at the bottom of the pot. 

To Separate Tin from Lead.— If the lead and tin are in solu- 
tion, precipitate the former by sulphuric acid, and the latter with sul- 
phuretted hydrogen gas. In an alloy the lead will dissolve in nitric 
acid, leaving the tin as an oxide. 



512 MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 

To Frost ain'd Cloud Small Bkass-wokk. — Scour the brass 
thoroughly with strong ley, and hold the work agamst a circular 
scratch-brush of fine brass wire, secured in a lathe and driven at a 
high speed, as in frosting watch iDlates, seepage 326; for clouding 
brass work, see page 515. 

Ceivient for Brass and Wood.— The best cement for this pur- 
pose is a glue composed of best gelatine, 1 part ; glacial acetic acid, 1 
part. Soak the gelatine m cold water until it has swollen up and be- 
come quite soft. Throw away the water and dissolve the gelatine in 
the acetic acid, applying gentle heat if necessary. 

Yellow aio) Light Red Bronze. — 1. Copper bronze powder, 1 
oz. ; mix thoroughly with japanner's gold size, adding turpentine 
during its use sufficient to keep it at the consistency of cream. Mix 
with a pallet knife on glass or porcelain ; if made too thin it is liable 
to be removed by the brush as fast as put on. Apply with a soft 
brush. 2. A gold bronze color is obtained by using -J gold bronze 
and 4 copper bronze powder, or other beautiful colors may be obtained 
by yarying the mixtures. 3. A Dark Brown Bronze i>s produced by 
the addition of burnt umber to the above named ingredients. 4. A 
Dark Green Bronze is obtained by mixing green bronze and terra verte 
with gold size, adding as much ivory black as may be required to im- 
part the depth of tint required. Finish with a coat of fine shellac var- 
nish. 4. For a Verde Antique shade, apply the bronze coat as above, 
varnish with shellac, allow it to get firm and hard ; then coat the 
depressed parts with gold size thinned with turpentine. Previous to 
drying, dust the article with dry paint, of light yellow or blue color, 
and gently remove all that can be easily rubbed off with a rag moist- 
ened with turpentine. 6. Brown Bronze for Hardware. — ^^jMuriatic 
acid, 2 lbs. ; iron scales, 2 lbs. ; arsenic, 2 oz. ; zinc (a solid mass to 
be kept in only when the solution is in use), 1 lb. 4 oz. Previous 
to immersion in the bath, cleanse the articles thoroughly in acid 
pickle. 7. Green Bronze on Hardicare. — Apply a varnish comi^osed 
of ground tin or bronze powder mixed up with honey in gum water, 
then wash with a solution of vinegar, 1 i^t; spts. hartshorn, 1 oz. ; sal 
ammoniac, J oz. ; salt, J oz. Place the articles in the sun for a day or 
two ; then give them another coat, 8. Black Stain on Brass. — ^T^^ater, 
80 parts: hydrochloric acid, 4 parts; sulphuric acid, 1 part. 9. An- 
other. — Hydrochloric acid, 12 parts ; arsenic by weight, 4 parts ; applj^ 
brighten, dry, and lacquer. 

Magic Polish for Brass. — Add to sulphuric acid half its bulk of 
pulverized bichromate of potash; dilute with an equal weight of 
water, and apply well to the brass, s^vill it well immediately in water, 
wipe dry, and polish with pulverized rotten stone. 

To Bronze Polished Steel.— Methylated spirits, 1 pt. ; gum 
shellac, 4 oz. ; gum benzoin, h oz. Set the bottle in a warm place, 
with occasional agitation. When dissolved, decant the clear part for 
fine work, and strain the dregs through muslin. Now take 4 oz. 
powdered bronze green, varying the color with yellow ochre, red 
ochre, and lampblack, as may be desired. Mix the bronze powder 
with the above varnish in quantities to suit, and apply to the work 
after previously cleansing and warming the articles, giving them a 
second coat and touching off with gold powder if required, previous to 
varnishing. 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &c., receipts. 513 

Dead Black for the Bkass Work of Lenses.— The brass 
work must be made quite clean and the foJ lowing preparation applied 
with a camel' s-hair pencil: bichlorid of platinum, 4 drams; nitrate of 
silver, 1 grain; water, 6 oz. When you get the right depth, wash 
with clean water, dry, and finish with plumbago. 

To Solder German Silver.— Dissolve granulated zinc in spirits 
of salts in an earthen vessel. Cleanse the part to be soldered, and 
apply the spirits of salts. Next put a piece of pewter solder on the 
joint and apply the blow-pipe to it. Melt German silver, 1 part, and 
zinc in thin sheets, 4 parts, then powder it for solder. 

Silvery Appearance on Iron Wire.— Suspend a piece of zinc 
in hydrochloric acid, and immerse the wire in it. Next, place it in 
contact with a strip of zinc, in a bath of 2 parts of tartaric acid dis- 
solved in 100 parts of w^ater, to which is added 3 parts of thi salts and 
3 parts of soda. Let it remain two hours in the bath; then brighten 
by polishing or drawing through a drawing iron. 

Permanent Brassing on Iron Wire.— Place the wire, thor- 
oughly cleaned, in a solution of sulphate of copper, when it immedi- 
ately becomes covered with a thin film of copper ; now cover with a 
paste of pure oxide of tin, and heat hot enough to fuse the copper. 

To Clean Smooth Tarnished Brass.— Use a saturated solution 
of oxalic acid in w^ater; apply with a stiff roll of clean flannel briskly 
Tised; then rinse the object in plenty of water to remove the acid. 
After drjmg with a warm cloth, polish up with chamois-skin and 
prepared chalk or the finest whiting. 

To Clean Embossed or Undercut Brass. — Boil the objects in 
a strong solution of caustic soda or ley, and immerse them in a mix- 
ture of hydrochloric acid, G parts ; water, 2 parts ; and nitric acid, 1 
part, until they become coverevl with a dark deposit. Take them 
from the mixture and remove the black matter with a fine scratch- 
brush : when thus cleansed, swill in hot water and dry in hot saw 
dust. A fine orange-yellow tinge may be given to the brass by sub- 
stituting an equivalent weight of powdered alum for the nitric acid 
in the solution. 

Dead Appearance on Brass. — Immerse the objects in a mix- 
ture of nitric acid, 200 paii:s; sulphuric acid, sp. gr. 1.845, 100 parts; 
common salt, 1 part; sulphate of zinc, 2 parts. Rinse thoroughly; 
this imparts the dead appearance styled 7nat, by the French. For 
large work use nitric acid, 3 parts ; sulphuric acid, 1 part ; water, 1 
part; sulphate of zinc, J part. Repeat dipping and rinsing the objects 
tiU the proper color is brought out. 

To Lacquer Brass.— For flat work, cleanse thoroughly by boil- 
ing the articles in strong potash water; if you wish to heighten the 
color of the brass, dip it in hydrochloric acid, rinse well in cold and 
hot water alternately, using a fine brush to remove any blackness, 
and dry in hot sawdust, burnishing afterwards if desired. Place the 
w^ork on an iron plate, kept at a low heat, and pass the lacquer regu- 
larly and rapidly over the surface with a good sized fine camel' s-hair 
brush, keeping the iron plate warm until the work is dry. Small 
circulai work, after being well cleansed, and burnished if need be, 
and slightly heated in a stove or over a charcoal fire, should have the 
lacquer thinly and evenly applied while in motion in the lathe, hold- 
ing a charcoal brazier under the work for a short time, to avoid cool- 



ing too soon. 



33 



514 MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 

Contrast Colors for Painting Machinery. — 1. Deep blue and 
golden brown; 2, Black and wariii brown; 3, Chocolate and light 
blue ; 4, Violet and light rose color ; 5, Violet and pale green ; G, Deep 
red and gray; 7, Claret and buff; 8, Maroon and warm green; 9, 
chocolate and peagreen ; 10, Deep blue and pink; 11, Black and warm 
green ; 13, Maroon and deep blue. 

Varnish for Loom Harness.— Linseed oil, 2 gals. ; gum shellac, 
2h lbs. ; red lead, 1 lb. ; umber, IJ lbs. ; litharge, 2 lbs. ; sugar of lead, 
l| lbs. Mix and thoroughly incorporate together. 

" Water-proofing for Nets and Fishing Lines. — Soak the nets 
or lines in a mixture of 2 parts boiled linseed oil and 1 part gold size ; 
expose to the air, and dry. 

Winter Fishing on the Western Lakes.— A small portable 
house is erected on large runners, like those of a sled, with a hole cut 
in the centre of the floor. This house is moved to any desired spot; a 
hole is cut in the ice, so as to be directly under the aperture in the 
floor; the lines are dropped through the hole, and the fish are drawn 
in while the fishermen are seated by a Avarm stove. 

Paint for Metals, Proof against Hot Water.— Prepare the 
metal by cleaning it with turpentine, ley, or benzine ; then apply two 
thin coats of a mixture of white lead, spts. turpentine and carriage 
varnish, and follow at once with a thick coat of carriage varnish and 
white lead. 

Draughtmen's Colors for Mechanical Drawing.— The fol- 
lowing are the names of different materials, together with the pig- 
ments used to represent them: 1, Bed hricJc, Indian red; 2, Yelloio 
brick, Indian yellow or cadmium, tinged with white; 3, Wrought iron, 
Prussian blue or cobalt; 4, Cast iron, Paine' s gray and a little India 
ink, or Prussian blue and India ink; 5, Steel, a purple color by the ad- 
mixture of crimson lake and Prussian blue ; 6, Gun meted or brass, 
gamboge or yellow cadmium; 7, Copper, Indian red mixed with a little 
lake; 8, Wood,^ burnt umber; 9, Water, broken, irregular straight 
lines, with liquid copperas ; 10, Stone color, Chinese white and India 
ink, tinted with yellow. 

Tracing Paper, to Stand Washing.— Saturate writing paper with 
benzine, and follow at once with a slight coat of the following varnish : 
Boiled bleached linseed oil, 20 oz.; oxide of zinc, 5 ozs.; lead shav- 
ings, 1 oz. ; Venice turpentine, | oz. Boil all for 8 hours, cool, and 
add gum-copal 5 ozs., gum sandarac J part. 

Tracing Paper.— Dissolve castor oil in strong alcohol and apply 
the mixture to the paper with a sponge. The alcohol wah volatilize, 
leaving the paper dry. Proceed to finish your tracing, and then you 
may, if you wish to do so, restore the paper to its original state, by 
immersion in strong alcohol, thereby absorbing the castor oil from 
the paper. 

To Solder without Heat.— Brass filings, 2 oz.; steel filings, 2 
oz. ; fluoric acid, J oz. Put the filings in the acid, and apply the 
solution to the parts to be soldered, after thoroughly cleaning the 
parts in contact; then dress together. Do not keep the fluoric acid in 
glass bottles, but m lead or earthen vessels. 

Easy Soldering of Brass. — Cut a piece of tin foU the size of 
the surface to be soldered; then pass over the surface a solution of 
sal ammoniac for a flux, place the tin foil between the pieces, and ap- 
ply a hot iron until the foil is melted. 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C,, RECEIPTS. 515 

To Tm Copper and Brass. — Boil 6 lbs. cream of tartar und 4 
gals, of water and 8 lbs. of grain tin or tin shavings. Alter the mate- 
rial has boiled a suflScient time, the articles to be tinned are put 
therein and the boiling continued, when the tin is precipitated on the 
goods in metallic form. 

Mixture for Silvering. — Dissolve 2 ozs. of silver with 3 grs. of 
corrosive sublimate ; add tartaric acid, 4 lbs. ; salt, 8 qts. 

To Separate Silver from Copper. — Mix sulphuric acid, 1 
part; nitric acid, 1 part ; water, 1 part; boil the metal in the mix- 
ture tiU it is dissolved, throw in a little salt to cause the silver to sub- 
side. 

To Write in Silver. — ^^lix 1 oz. of the finest pewter or block tin, 
and 2 ozs. of quicksilver together till both become fluid, then grind it 
with gum water, and write with it. The writing will then look as if 
done with silver. 

Tinning Acid, for Brass or Zinc— IMuriatic acid, 1 qt. ; zinc, 
6 ozs. To a solution of this, add water, 1 qt. ; sal-ammoniac, 2 
ozs. 

To Clean and -Polish Brass.— Wash with alum boiled in strong 
lye, in the proportion of an ounce to a pmt; afterwards rub with 
strong tripoli. Not to be used on gUt or lacquered work. 

Bronze Paint, for Iron or Brass. — Chrome green, 2 lbs.; 
ivory black, 1 oz. ; chrome yeUow, 1 oz. ; good japan, 1 gill; grind all 
together, and mix with linseed oil. 

To Bronze Iron Castings. — Cleanse thoroughly, and afterwards 
immerse in a solution of sulphate of copper, when the castmgs will 
acquire a coat of the latter metal. They must be then washed in 
water. 

Removing Zinc and Iron From Plumbers* Solder. — ^Digest 
the metal in grains m diluted sulphuric acid. The acid wiU dissolve 
the zinc first, the iron next, and aU traces of these metals by subse- 
quent washing. 

Tinning Cast Iron.— Pickle your castings in oil of vitriol; then 
cover or immerse them in muriate of zinc (made by putting a suffi- 
cient quantity of zinc in some spirit of salt) : after which dij) it in a 
melted bath of tin or solder. 

Silvering by Heat. — ^Dissolve 1 oz. silver in nitric acid ; add a 
small quantity of salt; then wash it and add sal-ammoniac, or 6 ozs. 
of salt and white vitriol ; also J oz. corrosive sublimate ; rub them 
to^^ether till they form a paste ; rub the piece which is to be silvered 
with the paste; heat it till the silver runs, after which dip it in a 
weak vitriol pickle to clean it. 

Zincing. — Copper and brass vessels may be covered with a firmly 
adherent layer of pure zinc by boiling them in contact with a solution 
of chloride of zinc, pure zinc turnings being at the same time present 
in considerable excess. 

To Cloud Metal Work. — Metal work may be clouded by put-' 
ting a piece of fine emery paper under the thumb or finger and work- 
ing it over a surface of the metal with a spiral motion. 

Silvering Powder. — Nitrite of silver and common salt, of each 
30 grs. ; cream tartar, 3J drs. ; pulverize finely and bottle for use 
Unequalled for polishing copper and plated goods. 

To Clean and Polish Brass.— Oil of vitriol, 1 oz. ; sweet oil, J 



516 MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 

gill ; pulverized rotten stone, 1 gill ; rain -water, IJ pts. ; mix ail 
and shake as used. Apply with a rag and polish with bucliskin or 
all woolen. Rotten stone, followed by Paris white and rouge is very 
good also. 

Paste for Cleantxg Metals. — Take oxalic acid, 1 part; rotten 
stone, 6 parts ; mix with equal parts of train oil and spts. turpentuie 
to a paste. 

To PREVENT Iron or Steel from Rusting.— TVarm your iron 
or steel till you cannot bear your hands on it without burning your- 
self, then rub it with new and clean white wax. Put it again to the 
lire till it has soaked in the wax. When done rub it over with a . 
piece of serge. This prevents the metal from rusting afterwards. 

Bronzing Liquids for Tin Castings. — ^Ya.sh. them over, after 
being well cleansed and wiped, with a solution of 1 part of sulphate 
of iron, and 1 of sulphate of copper, in 20 parts of water; after- 
wards, with a solution of 4 parts verdigris in 11 of distilled vinegar; 
leave for an hour to dry and then polish with a soft brush and 
colcothar. 

Fancy Colors on Metals.—:^. Dissolve 4 ozs. . hypo-sulpliite of 
soda, IJ pts. of water, and then add a solution of 1 oz. acetate of lead 
in 1 oz. water. Articles to be colored are placed in the mixture, 
which is then gradually heated to the boiling point. This will give 
i-ron the color of blue steel, zinc becomes bronze, and copper or brass 
becomes, successively, yellowish, red, scarlet, deep blue, light blue, 
bluish white, and finally white, with a tinge of rose. 2. By replac- 
ing the acetate of lead in the solution by sulphate of copper, brass 
becomes, first, of a fine rosy tint, then green, and lastly, of an irri- 
descent brown color. 

Coating Iron Castings with Gold or Silver.— The articles 
to be gilded are well cleaned and boiled in a porcelain vessel, to- 
gether with 12 parts of mercury, 1 of zmc, 2 of iron vitriol, IJ of mu- 
riatic acid of 1.2 specific gravity, and 12 parts of water ; in a short 
time a layer of mercury will deposit upon the iron, and upon this the 
gold amalgam may be uniformly distributed. Iron to be silvered is 
first provided with a coating of copper, upon which the silver is ap- 
plied either by means of amalgam or silver leaf. 

Brunswick Black for Grates, &c. — Asphaltum, 5 lbs. ; melt, 
and add boiled oil, 2 lbs. ; spirits of turpentine, 1 gal. Mix. 

Bronze Paint for Iron. — ^Ivory black, 1 oz.; chrome yellow, 1 
oz. ; chrome green, 2 lbs. ; mix with raw linseed oil, adding a little 
japan to dry it, and you have a very nice bronze green. If desired, 
gold bronze may be put on the prominent parts, as on the tips or 
edges of an iron railing where the paint is not quite dry, using a piece 
of velvet or plush to rub on the bronze. 

Tinning Iron.— Cleanse the metal to be tinned, and rub with a 
coarse cloth, previously dipped in hydrochloric acid (muriatic acid,) 
and then rub on French putty with the same cloth. French putty is 
made by mixing tin filings vrith mercury. 

Tinning. — 1. Plates or vessels of brass or copper boiled with a 
solution of stannate of potassa, mixed with turnings of tin, become, 
in the course of a few minutes, covered with a firmly attached layer 
of pure tin. 2. A similar effect is produced by boiling the articles 
\eith tin-filings and caustic alkali, or cream of tartar. In the above 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., TwECEIPTS. 517 

way, chemical vessels made of copper or brass may be easily and 
perfectly tinned. 

New Tinning Process. — Articles to be tinned are first covered 
'with diluted sulphuric acid, and, when quite clean, are placed in warm 
water, then dipped in a solution of muriatic acid, copper, and zinc, 
and then plunged into a tin bath to which a small quantity of zinc 
has been added. When the tinning is finished, the articles are taken 
out, andpkmged into boiling water. The operation is completed by 
placing them in a very warm sand-bath. This last process softens the 
iron. 

To Recover the Tin from Old Britannia.— Melt the metal, and 
while hot sprinkle sulphur over it ; and stir it up for a short time, 
this bums the other metals out of the tin, which may then bo used 
for any purpose desired. 

Kustitien's METAii FOR TiNNiNG. — Malleable iron, 1 lb., heat 
to whiteness ; add 5 ozs. regulus of antimony, and Molucca tin, 
24 lbs. 

Galvanizing Iron. — ^The iron plates are first immersed in a 
cleansing bath of equal parts of sulphuric or muriatic acid and water 
used warm ; they are then scrubbed with emery or sand, to clean 
them thoroughly and detach all scales if any are left; after which 
tliey are immersed in a "preparing bath " of equal parts of saturated 
solutions of chloride of zinc and chloride of ammonium, from which 
bath they are directly transferred to the fluid "metallic bath,'* con- 
sisting, by weight of G40 lbs. ziuc to lOG lbs. of mercury, to which aro 
added from 5 to 6 ozs. of sodium. As soon as the iron has attamed 
the temperature of this hot fluid bath, which is 080° Fahr., it may be re- 
moved, and will then be found thoroughly coated with zinc. A little 
tallow on the surface otthe metallic bath will prevent oxidation. 

Preventing of Rust. — Cast iron is best preserved by rubbmg it 
^ith blacklead. For polished work, varnish with wax dissolved in 
Dcnzine, or add a little olive oil to copal varnish and thin with spts. 
turpentine. To remove deep-seated rust, use benzine, and polish off 
with fine emery, or use tripoli, 2 parts ; powdered sulphur, 1 part. 
Apply with soft leather. Emery and oil is also very good. 

To Purify Zinc. — ^Pure zinc may be obtained by precipitating its 
sulphate by an allcali, mixing the oxide thus produced with charcoal 
powdered, and exposing the mixture to a bright red heat m a covered 
crucible in which the pure metal will be found as a button at tlio 
bottom when cold. 

Transparent Blue for Iron or Steel. — ^Demar varnish, J gal. ; 
fine ground Prussian blue, ^ oz. ; mix thoroughly. Makes a splendid 
appearance. Excellent for bluhig watch-hands. 

Lead Shot are cast by letting the metal run through a narrow 
slit into a species of colander at the top of a lofty tower; the metal 
escapes in drops, which, for the most part, assume the spherical form 
before they reach the tank of water into which they fall at the foot 
of the tower, and this prevents their being bruised. They are af- 
terwards riddled or sifted for size, and afterwards churned in a bar- 
rel with black lead. 

Black Bronze on Iron or STEEL.—The following mixtures are 
employed : liquid No. 1. A mixture of bichloride of mercury and sal-am- 
moniac. No. 2. A mixture of i)erchloride of iron, sulphate of copper, 



518 3IACHINISTS, engineers' &C., RECEIPTS. 

nitric acid, alcohol and -water. No. 3. Pcrcliloride and protocliloride 
of mercury mixed with nitric acid, alcohol and water. No. 4. A weak 
solution of sulphide of iwtassium. Clean your metal well and apply 
a slight coat of No. 1 with a sponge ; when quite dry, apply another 
coat. Remove tlie resulting crust of oxide with a wire brush, rub tho 
metal witli a clean rag, and repeat this operation after each applica- 
tion of these liquids. Now apply several coats of No. 2, and also of 
No. 3, with a fiill sponge; then, after drying for ten minutes, throAV tho 
pieces of metal into water heated near the boiling point; let them re- 
main in the water from 5 to 10 minutes, according to their size. After 
being cleaned, cover again with several coatings of No. 3, afterwards 
witha strong coating of No. 4; then again immerse in tho bath of 
hot water. Remove from the bath dry, and wipe the pieces with 
carded cotton dipped in liquid No. 3, diluted each time with an m- 
creased quantity of water; then rub and wipe them with a little olive 
oil ; again immerse in a water bath heated to 140° Fahr. , remove them, 
rub briskly with a woolen rag, and lastly, with oil. Unequalled for 
X)roducing a beautiful glossy black ongun-barrels, steel, iron, &c. 

Paint for Sheet Iron Smoke Fipe.— Good varnish, J gallon; 
boiled linseed oil J gallon; add red lead sufficient to bring to the con- 
sistency of common paint. Apply with a brush. Applicable to any 
kind of iron work exjxjsed to the weather. 

To Copper the Surface of Iron, Steei^, or Iron "Wire. — 
Have the article perfectly clean, then wash with tho following solu- 
tion, and it presents at once a coppered surface. Rain water, 3 lbs. ; 
sulphate of copper, 1 lb. 

To Join Broken Lead Pipes during Pressure of Water. — 
It frequently happens that lead pipes get cut or damaged when the 
water is runnmg at a high pressure, causing much trouble to make 
repairs, especially if the water cannot be easily turned off. In this 
case plug both ends of the pipe at the break, jAsice a small pile of bro- 
ken ice and salt around them. In a few minutes the water in the 
l^ipe will freeze ; next, withdraw the plu<^s and insert a new piece o£ 
pipe; solder perfectly, thaw the ice, and it will be all right. 

To Repair siviall Leaks in Lead Pipes. — Place the point of a 
dull nail over the leak, give it a gentle tap with a hammer and tho 
flow will cease. 

To Prevent Corrosion in Lead Pipes. — ^Pass a strong so- 
lution of sulphide of potassium and sodium through the inside of the 
p?pe at a temperature of 212°, and allow it to remain about 10 or 15 
minutes. It converts the inside of the pipe into an insoluble snlx^hide 
of lead and prevents corrosion. 

To Bend Copper or Brass Tubes. — ^Run melted lead or resm 
into your pipe till full, and you may then bend it gradually into any 
desired shape ; the pipe may then be heated and the lead or resin 
melted and run out. 

To Join Lead Plates.— Tlie joints of lead plates for some pur- 
poses are made as follows : The edges are brought together, ham- 
mered down into a sort of channel cut of wood and secured with a 
few tacks. The hollow is then scraped clean with a scraper, rubbed 
over with candle grease, and a stream of hot lead is poured into it, the 
Burface bemg afterwards smoothed with a red hot plumber's iron. 

To Join Lead Pipes.— Widen out the end of one pipe vrith a ta- 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 1)10 

pCT wood rift, and scrape it clean inside ; scrape tlie end of the other 
jiipe outside a little tapered, and insert it in the former : then solder 
it with common lead solder as before described ; or, if it requires 
10 be stroncc, rub a little taUoAv over, and cover the joint with n, 
ball of melted lead, holding a cloth (2 or 3 plies of greased bedtick) 
on the under side ; and smoothing over with, it and the plumber s 
iron. 

TrNTfixG Interior of Lead Pipes.— -Tliis invention consists in 
applying a flux of grease or muriate of zinc or any other flux that will 
pToiecc the lead from oxidation, and insure a perfect coating of tin, 
when the tin is poured through the pipe or the pipe dipped into the 
bath of tin ; after the lead pipe has been made, place the same in a 
vertical or nearly vertical position, and pass down through the same a 
strong cord, to which a weight is attached to draw the cord through 
the pipe ; and at or near the other end of the cord, a sponge or piece of 
other porous or elastic material, is attached of a size to fiill the pipe, 
and of any desired length, say G inches more or less. The sponge or 
porous wad being saturated with the flux, is drawn through, the pipe, 
and by its length ensures the covering of the entire inside surface of 
the inside of the pipes with the flux, so that the melted tin, sub- 
sequently applied, wiU adhere to all parts with uniformity and firm- 
ness. 

To Prevent Lead Exploding. — ^Many mechanics have had their 
patience sorely tried when pouring melted lead around a damp or wet 
joint to find it explode, blow out, or scatter from the elTects of steam 
generated by the heat of the lead. The whole trouble may be stopped 
by putting a piece of resin the size of the end of a man's thumb into 
tlie ladle and allowing it to melt before pouring. Simple as the secret 
is, many have paid $20 for the privilege of knowhig it. 

Tabular View of the Processes of Soldering. — Hard solder^ 
inr/. The hard solders most commonly used are the spelter solders, 
and silver solders. The general flux is borax, marked A on the 
table, and the modes of heating are the naked fire, the furnace or 
muffle, and the blow pipe, marked a, 6, g, applicable to nearly all 
metals less fusible than the solders ; the modes of treatment are 
nearly similar throughout. I^ote. — The examples commence with 
the solders (the least fusible first) followed by the metals for 
which they are commonly employed. Fme gold,* laminated and 
cut into shreds, is used as the solder for joining chemical vessels 
made of platinum. Silver is by many considered as much the best 
solder for German silver, for silver solders, see Jewellers* alloys 
Copper cut in shreds, is sometimes similarly used for iron. Gold 
solders laminated are used for gold alloys, see 333 and 338. 
Spelter solders, granulated whilst hot, are used for iron, copper, 
brass, gun metals, German silver, &c., see below. Silver solders 
laminated, are employed for all silver works and for common gold 
work, also for German silver, gilding metals, iron, steel, brass, gun 
metal, &c. , when greater neatness is required than is obtained from 
spelter solder. 

White or button solders, granulated, are employed for the white 
alloys called button metals; they were introduced as cheap substi- 
tutes for silver solder. Hard Soldering. — Applicable to nearly all 
the metals J the modes of treatment are very different. The soft sol- 



520 MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 

dcr mostly used is two parts tin and ouo of lead; sometimes, from 
motives of economy, much more lead is employed, and Ih tin to 1 lead 
is the most fusible of the group, unless bismutli is used." The fluxes 
B to G, and the modes of heating, a to z, arc all used with the soft 
solders. 

J\roie. — The examples commence with the metals to he soldered. 
Tlius in the list, ziuc, 8, c, /, imphes, that zinc is soldered witli No. 8 
alloy, by the aid of the muriate or chloride of zinc , and the copper 
bit. Lead, 4 to 8, F, d, e, imphes that load is soldered with alloj-s 
varying from No. 4 to 8, and that it is fluxed with tallow, the heat 
being applied by pouring on melted solder, and the subsequent use 
of the heated iron, not tinned; but in general one only of the modes 
of t.eating is selected, accordmg to circumstances. Iron, cast-iron 
and steel, 8, B, D, if thick, heated by a, b, or c, and also by c/. Timied 
iron. 8, G, D, /. Gold and silver arc soldered with pure tin, or clso 
with 8, E, a, r/, or h. Copper and many of its alloys, namely brass, 
gilding metal, gun metal, &c., 8, B, C, D; when thick, heated by a, 
bf c, e, or g, when thm, by /, or g. Speculum metal, 8, B, C, D, the 
heat should be cautiously applied ; the sand bath is perhaps the best 
mode. Zinc, 8, C,/. Lead and lead pipes, or ordinary plumber's 
worlc, 4 to 8 F, <Z,or e. Lead and tin pipes, 8, D, and G, mixed, g, and 
also/. Britannia metal, C, 'xJ, g. Pewters, the solders must vary in 
fusibility according to the fusibility of the metal, generally G, and ?, 
are used, sometimes, also G, and g or/. Lead is united without sol- 
der by pouring on red hot lead, and employing a red hot iron, d. c. 
Iron and brass are sometimes burned, or united by partial fusion, by 
pourmg very hot metal over or around them. 

Alloys and their Melting Heats. Fluxes. 

A. Borax. 

B. Sal-am. or mur. of amm. 

C. Muriate or chlor. of zinc 

D. Common resin. 

E. Venice turpentine. 

F. Tallow. 

G. Gallipoli oil, or common 
[sweet oil. 

Modes of Applying Heat. 
a. Naked fire. 
l>. Hollow furnace or muffle, 
c. Immersion in melted solder. 
?'ahr. d. Melted solder or metal 
poured on. 
" e. Heated iron, not tin'd. 
" /. Heated copper tool, 

tinned. 
*' //. Blow Pipe flame. 
" h. Flame alone, generally 
alchohol. 

18 3 '' 5 " 2 " 202 " i. Stream of heated air. 
Cheap Mosquito Bar. — ^Drop a small quantity of petroleum or 
kerosene oil on a piece of cotton, squeeze out the excess as much as 
possible, then rub the cotton over the face, hands, &c., and these pes- 
tiferous insects will not alight where the scent has been left. 



No. 1 


1 1 


Tin 25 Lead 258 Fahr. 


2 






10 




541 




3 






5 




611 




4 






3 




482 




5 






2 




441 




G 










370 




7 


^ 








334 




8 


2 








340 




9 


3 








356 




10 


4 








365 




11 


5 








378 




12 


() 








381 




13 


4 Lead 4 Tin 1 Bismuth 320 


14 


3 " 


3 


u 


1 


(( 


310 


15 


2 " 


2 


(< 


1 


it 


292 


16 


1 " 


1 


(( 


1 


(( 


254 


17 


2 " 


1 


ti 


2 


<( 


236 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C,, RECEIPTS. 521 

Solders 32 kixds. — 1. Plwribers* solder. — ^Lead, 2 parts; tin, 1 
part. 2. Tinmen's 5oZcfer.— Lead, 1 part; tin, 1 part. Zinc solder. 
—Tin, 1 part ; lead, 1 to 2 parts. 4. Peicter solder. — Lead, 1 part ; 
bismuth, 1 to 2 parts. 5 Spelter solder. — Equal parts copper and zinc. 
C. Fewterers* soft solder. — Bismuth, 2 ; lead, 4 ; tin, 3 ijarts. 7. An- 
other. — Bismuth, 1 ; lead, 1 ; tin, 2 parts. 8. Another pewter solder. 
— Tin, 2 parts ; lead, 1 part. 9. Glazier's Solder — Tin, 3 pai-ts ; kiid, 
Ipart. 10. Solder for Copper. — Copper, 10 parts ; zinc, 9 parts. 11. 
Yelloio Solder for Brass or Cop;)er.— Copper, 32 Ihs. ; zinc, 29 lbs.; 
tin, 1 lb. 12. Brass Solder. — Copper, G1.2o parts ; zinc 38.75 paits. 
13. Brass Solder Yellow and easily fusible. — Copper, 45; zinc, 55 
parts. 14. Brass solder. White. — Copper, ,57. 41 parts; tin, 14.60 parts; 
zinc, 27.99 parts. 15. Another Solder for Copper. — Tin, 2 parts ; 
lead, 1 part. When the copper is tliick, heat it by a naked fire ; if 
thin, use a tinned copper tool. Use muriate or chloride of zinc, as a 
flux. The same solder ^ill do for iron, cast iron, or steel; if the 
pieces are thick, heat by a naked fire, or immerse in the solder. 16. 
Black Solder. — Copper, 2 ; zinc, 3 ; tin, 2 parts. 17. Another. — Sheet 
brass, 20 lbs. ; tin, G lbs. ; zinc, 1 lb. 18. Cold Brazing without Fire 
or Lamp. — Fluoric acid, 1 oz. ; oxy muriatic acid, 1 oz. ; mix in a lead 
bottle. Put a chalk mark each side where you want to braze. This 
mixture will keep about 6 months in one bottle. 19. Cold Soldering 
loithout Fire or Lamp. — Bismuth, J oz. ; quicksilver, ^ oz. ; block tin 
filuigs, 1 oz. ; spirits salts, 1 oz. ; all mixed together. 20. To Solder 
Iron to Steel or either to Brass. — Tin, 3 parts ; copper, 39^ parts ; 
zinc, 7J parts. When appUed in a molten state it will firmly unite 
metalslirst named to each other. 21. Plumbers' >S'o?cZe?'.— Bismuth, 1 ; 
lead, 5; tin, 3 parts; is a first class composition. 22. White Solder for 
raised Britannia Ware. — Tin, 100 lbs. ; hardening, 8 lbs. ; antimonj^ 
8 lbs. 23. Uardening for Britannia. — (To be mixed separately from the 
other ingredients). Copper, 2 lbs. ; tin, 1 lb. 24. Best soft solder for 
cast Britannia Ware. — Tin, 8 lbs. ; lead, 5 lbs. 25. Bismuth solder. 

Tin, 1 ; lead, 3 ; bismuth, 3 parts. 26. Solder for Brass that loill 
stand Hammering. — Brass, 78.26 parts ; zinc, 17.41 parts ; silver, 4. 
33 parts ; add a little chloride of potassium to your borax for a flux. 
27 Solder for Steel Joints. — Silver, 19 parts ; copper, 1 part ; brass, 
2 parts. Melt all together. 28. Hard Solder. — Copper, 2 parts ; zinc, 1 
part. Melt together. 29. Solder for Brass. — Copper, 3 parts ; zinc, 
1 part ; with borax. 30. Solder for Copper. — Brass, 6 parts ; zinc, 1 
part ; tin, 1 part ; melt all together well, and pour out to cool. 31. 
Solder for Platina. — Gold with borax. 32. Solder for Iron. — ^The 
best solder for iron is good tough brass with a little borax. 

N. B. In soldering, the surfaces to be joined are made perfectly 
clean and smooth, and then covered with sal ammoniac, resin or other 
flux, the solder is then applied, being melted on and smoothed over 
by a tinned soldering iron. 

Soldering Fluid. — ^Take 2 oz. muriatic acid; add zinc till bubbles 
cease to rise ; add J teaspoonf ul of sal-ammoniac. 

Black Varnish For Coal Buckets.— Asphaltum, 1 lb. ; lamp- 
black, ^ lb. ; resin, J lb. ; spirits of turpentine, 1 qt. Dissolve the 
asphaltum and resin in the turpentme, then rub up the lamp-black 
with linseed oil, only sufficient to form a paste, and thix with the 
othser, Api)ly with a brush. 



522 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 



SIZES OF TIN-WARE OF DIFFERENT KINDS. 

{For Diameters. &c. of Circles see Tables.) 



Dippers. ---------- | gal. 

1 pt 

Coffee Pots. -------- l gal. 

3 qts. 

Pans. 20 qts. 

16 qts. 

14 qts. 

10 qts. 

--- 6 qts. 

2 qts. 



Pie Pa:^s ------ 

Large Wash Bowl - - 
Small Wash Bowl - - 
Milk Strainer - - - 
Pails and Dish Kettles 



pts. 

pt. 



Colander. 



Measures for Druggists, Beer, &c. -{ 



Measures of other forms. - 



14 qts. 

10 qts. 

6 qts. 

2 qts. 

2 gal. 
1 gal. 
4 gal. 
1 qt. 
1 pt. 

i pt 
1 gal. 

4 gal. 
1 qt. 
1 pt. 

i pt. 



Diam. 
of bot. 



inches 

4 

3J 

7 

6 
13 
Hi 

li^ 
9 
6 

5S 
4 

5| 

5i 

5h 

9 

7 

5^ 

4 

51 

6 

i 

4 

3f 

2| 



Diam. 
of top. 



inches 
ill 



19 



31 



Heig't 



Tin Cans.— Size of Sheet, for from 1 to 100 Gallons. 



For 1 gallon, 7 by 20 inches. 



For 25 gallons, 30 by 56 inches. 



3i 




10 by 28 " 


40 


u 


36 by 63 


u 


5 




12 by 40 " 


50 


(( 


40 by 70 


(C 


6 




14 by 40 *' 


75 


it 


40 by 84 


(C 


10 




20 by 42 " 


100 


11 


40 by 98 


ii 


15 




30 by 42 " 











This includes all the laps, seams, &c., which will be foimd sufficiently 
correct for all practical purposes. 

Patent Lubricating Oil. — Water, 1 gal. ; clean tallow, 3 lbs. ; 
palm oil, 10 lbs.; common soda, J lb. Heat the mixture to about 
210° Fahr. ; stir well until it cools down to 70° Fahr., when it is fit 
for use. 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. ^23 

Explanation of Diagrams for Sheet Metal Workers, &a 




Eight- Angled Elbow.— i'Xg. 1.— Strike out the length and depth 
of the elbow as shown in the above diagram, drawing semicircles at 
the end as exhibited above. Then draw seven horizontal lines as 
shown extending along the small figures. Divide the circumference or 
length into 16 equal parts by drawing 15 vertical lines as in diagram. 
Now draw a line from htok and d ; directly opposite draw another 
line along the letters v r p ; for the top sweep set the compasses on 
the fourth line from the bottom, and sweep two of the spaces ; and 
do the same at the comer. On space for the two remaining sweeps 
set the compasses so as to intersect in the three corners of the spaces 
designated by the small cross marks. The drawing does not include 
seams or laps, these must be added. -. - 

Elbows for Gutters for Eaves of Roofs. — ^Eave troughs pos- 
sess a form resembling the undivided half of a pipe divided length- 
ways, therefore by describing one half of one end of the elbow of a 
pipe whose size is equal to the size of the gutter at the top, you have 
the requisite i^attern ; extra allowance to be made for bead. 

Broxzing Gas Fittings.— Boil the work in a strong ley, and 
scour it free from all grease or old lacquer. Pickle it in dilute nitric 
acid until quite clean, and then dip it into strong nitric acid to make 
it bright, swilling it in the water immediately after. Sometimes this 
latter dipping in strong acid requires to be repeated two or three times, 
but the work must always be rinsed immediately after dipping. 
Bind it very loosely romid with iron wire, and let it stand for a few 
minutes in the water you have used for swilling. This will de- 
posit a layer of copper on the work. Again wash well, dry in box- 
wood dust, and brush over with equal parts of blacklead and Bag- 
nell's red bronze. 

To Separate Gold From Silver — The alloy is to be melted and 
poured from a height into a vessel of cold water, to which rotary mo- 
tion is communicated. By this means the alloy is reduced to a finely 
granulated condition. The metallic substance is then treated with 
nitric acid and gently heated. Nitrate of silver is produced, which 
can be reduced by any of the ordinary methods ; while metallic gold 
remains as a black mud, which must be washed and melted. — Scien- 
tific Ajnerican. 

To Tix Copper Stew Dishes, &c.--Wash the surface of the arti- 



524 MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 

cle to be tinned with sulphuric acid, and rub the surface well, so as 
to have it smooth and free of blackness caused by the acid; then 
sprinkle calcined and finely pulverized sal-ammoniac upon the sur- 
face, holding it over a fire, when it Avill be sufficiently hot to melt a 
bar of solder which is to be rubbed over the surface. ^ Any copper 
dish or vessel may be tinned in this way. 

ParkeFw's Copper HAKDENmo process consists in introducing an 
admixture of a minute quantity of phosphorus into the met''^ .- 




To Strike otjt Comimon Flaring Vessels, Cones, &c.—Fi(/. 2. — 
Form a right angled paralellogram H K D Y, H K equal to the cir- 
cumference of the wide end of the diagram, and N P equal to its cir- 
cumference at the indicated points, KD being the elevation; draw 
the right lines H IST R and K P R; from R as a basis lay out arcs from 
H to K and IST P, calculating proper allowance for backs. To Strike 
Out a Cone.— Form a paralellogram as in the diagram; the space 
from H to K equivalent to the diameter of the cone; K to D equiva- 
lent to the elevation; next draw lines from H and K to the centre 



MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS*, (fcC, RECEIPTS, 



525 



of the line J) Y, and from this as a base or centre describe a segment 
of a circle from H to K. 

Flux fok Weldlng Copper.— Boracic acid, 2 parts ; phosphate 
of soda, 1 part; mix. This welding powder should be strewn over the 
surface of copper at a red heat; the pieces shonld then be heated np 
to a full cherry red, or yellow heat, and brought immediately under 
the hammer. Heat the copper at a flame, or gas jet, where it will 
not touch charcoal or solid carbon. 




, To Strike out a Circular Elbow.— i^zgs. 3 and 4. — ^Layout two 
curved lines F I and G D to suit the desired length of elbow; the 
space from F to G equivalent to the intended diameter of the pipe ; 
lay off the circles F D, G I into as many divisions as youdesire ; con- 
struct the paralellogram, Fig. 4, the length equivalent to the diame- 
ter Ox the pipe you are making, the width equal to C B in Fig. 3; lay 
off a segment of a circle equivalent in diameter to the pipe, touching 
the point H; divide the segment into any desired number of equal 
divisions; draw lines across'the dots parallel to V V; open the com- 
passes li times the diameter of the pipe, and describe the line from 
V to the intersection of the lines P P and R R, draw curvilinear lines 
to the crossings of the other lines to the point H, this wiU furnish 
one side of a section. , 



526* 3IACHINISTS, engineers', &c., keceipts. 

To Strike out Ovals, Oval Flabikg Vessels, &c.—Fig. 5.— 
Construct the paralellogram H K D V; H K equivalent to the long 
aiid K D to correspond to the short diameter; divide it into four equal 
parts bv drawing the lines P R and N JST; mark the point L one-third 
the distance from N to O ; then describe the arcs I S I, I S I, and from 
the line N N describe the segment INI. To describe an egg-shaped 
oval with ends of unequal magnitude, construct the frustrum of a 
cone that will embrace the oval and proceed as in Fig. 5. To Strike 




out an oval Flaring Vessel in four subdivisions, find the circumference 
of the arcs I S I and INI for the bottom of the pieces ; form a paral- 
ellogram the length of which shall be equal to the circumference of 
the top of either division, and operate as in Fig. 2. The same allow- 
ance must be accorded for flare on the side parts as on the ends, 
allowing for burrs and locks. 

Gold Lacquer for Tin— Transparent, All Colors. — Alcohol 
in a flask, 1 pt. ; add gum-shellac, 2 ozs. ; turmeric, 1 oz. ; red Sand- 
ers, 1\ ozs. Set the flask in a warm place, shake frequently for 12 
hours or more, then strain off the liquor, rinse the bottle, and return 
it, corkmg tightly for use. When this varnish is used, it must be ap- 
plied to the work freely and flowing, and the articles should be hot 
w^hen applied. One or more coats may be laid on, as the color is re- 
quired more or less light or deep. If any of it should become thick 
from evaporation, at any time, thin it with alcohol. And by the fol- 
lowing modifications, all the various colors are obtained : 1. RoseColor. 
Proceed as above, substituting 1 oz. of finely ground best lake in place 
of the turmeric. 2. Blue. The blue is made by substituting pulverized 
Prussian blue, 1 oz., in place of the turmeric. 3. Purple. Add a little 
of the blue to HhQ first. 4. Green. Add a little of the rose to the first. 

Cracked Stoves. — Equal parts of wood ashes and salt ; mix 
to a paste with water : with this fill the cracks. 







4c 



MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS', &C., RECEIPTS. 527 

To Descbibe a Heabt.— -Fi^. 6.— Draw the straight line H D K 

equal to the breadth of the 
heart; layoff the segments 
H D and D K, then with the 
dividers extended from H 
to K, describe the arcs H K 
and K V. 

^ To find the circumference 
of a circle^ the diameter be- 
ing known, multiply the di- 
ameter by 3.1416, and to 
find the diameter of a circle, 
the circumference being 
known, divide the circum- 
ference by 3.1416. 

To Strike out OvAii 
Wash Boiler Covers. — 
Fig. 7.— Describe the line 
V R equal in extension to 
half the length of the boiler ; 
from the central point D lay 
off the circle M R N, equiva- 
lent in diameter to the 
breadth of the boiler outside the wire around the rim; describe the 
line H K so as to cross the line V R in the manner shown in diagram ; 
make V S three-eighths of an inch high more or less as you desire it 
for the pitch of the cover; place the corner of the measuring square 
on the line H K, laying the flat part touching the point S ; then de- 
scribe the Imes H N, H S, S K and K M, which, with the proper al- 
lowance for locks and edges, completes the cover. 

Japanners' Gold Size.— Gum ammoniac, 1 lb.; boiled oil, 8 ozs. ; 
spirits turpentine, 12 ozs. Melt the! gum, then add the oil, and lastly 
spirits turpentine. 

Japanning.— N"early 30 formula for varnishes will be found on 
page 162, among them Japanners Copal Varnish^ and this, together 
with oil, alcohol, shellac, or any other transparent varnish, admits of 
bemg mixed with coloring matter to produce different shades. 1. 
For Scarlet. Ground vermilion may be used, but being so glaring it 
is not beautiful unless covered over with rose-pink, or lake, which 
have a good effect when thus used. 2. Bright Crimson. Use saff- 
flower or Indian lake dissolved in alcohol; in place of this lake car- 
mine may be used, as it is more common. 3. Yellow. Turmeric dis- 
solved in spirits of wine, strained through a cloth, and mixed with 
X)ure seedlac varnish, makes a good yellow japan; saffron will answ- 
er applied in the same way. and chrome yellow is excellent. Dutch 
pink forms a cheap yellow japan ground. If dragon's blood be added 
to thii yellow japan, a most beautiful and rich salmon-colored varnish 
is the result, varied according to the quantity of the ingredient used. 
Orange. Use yellow mixed with vermilion or carmine, just as a 
right or inferior color is desired. 5. Purple. Add to the varnish a 
mixture of lake and Prussian blue, or carmine, or for an inferior 
color, vermilion. 6. Blue. Use bright Prussian blue ; it may be 
mixed with ghellac varnish and brought to a polishing state by 5 or 6 



528 MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 

coats of Tarnish of seedlac; mix with the purest varnish when a lirjht 
hkie is desired. 7. Black. Prussian "blue 1 oz., asphaltum 2 ozs., 
spirits turpentine 1 pint; melt the asphaltum in the turpentine, rub 
lip the bkie with a little of it ; mix and strain, then add the whole 
to 2 pints of the varnish. 8. Green. Wis. equal parts of the blue and 
yellow together, then mix with the varnish until the color suits the 
fancy. 9. Pinlc. Mix a little of the blue to more in quantity of the 
red and then add to the varnish till it suits. 10. White. One white 
ground is made by the following composition: white flake or lead 
washed over and ground up with a sixth of its weight of starch, then 
dried and mixed with the finest gum, ground up in parts of 1 oz. 
gum to 4 oz. of rectified turpentine mixed and ground well together. 
This is to be finely laid on the article to be japanned, dried and then 
Tarnished with 5' or 6 coats of the following: 2 ozs. of the whitest 
sced-lac to 3 ozs. of gum-anime reduced to a fine powder and dis- 
solved in 1 qt. alcohol. For a softer varnish than this, a little turpen- 
tine should be added and less of the gum. 




To Stkike out Can Tops and Betel Covers for Vessels. — 
Fig. 8.— Describe the circle K K K for the size of the can or cover; 
allow the space between K K K and D D D for edges to the same, 
r.ixl the distance between V V V and D D D f or tlie flare; snan tliQ 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 529 

dividers from R to K and divide the ctirvilinear line Y Y V into six 
equal divisions ; cut out the pieces H H H, D D D leaving edges for 
locks parallel to H Y. For the opening in the can head or top, describe 
the curvilinear line H H H equal in magnitude to the circumference 
of the opening. To have your can tops one-third pitch, span the di- 
viders two-thirds of the diameter of the can: lay out a circle and use 




two-thirds of it. For one-quarter pitch, span the dividers three- 
fourths of the diameter of the can, lay out a circle and use three- 
quarters of it. For one-half pitch, lay off the circle twice the diame- 
ter of the can and use half of it. Remember to grant full allowance 
ior locks only. 

Different Styles of Filing.— To file a surface true, it is neces- 
Eary on commencing, to squeeze the file tightly between the third and 
fourth fingers and palm of your hand until you become used to it. 
Your position in filing should be half left face to your work, with 
the middle of your right foot fifteen inches behind your left heel ; 
and to file your work true or square, it is necessary to reverse your 
vork often, as by this meana; you are enabled to see the whole surface 
you are filing, and see while filing whether you are filing true or not. 
When, however, your work is so hotf^y that you cannot reverse it 
you had better file first to the right and then to the left, as by this 
means you can i^lainly see the file marks, and this again assists you 
in filing true. 

To Crystallize Tin. — Sulphuric acid, 4 ozs. ; soft water, 2 to 3 
ozs., according to stren.ijth of the acid; salt IJ ozs, Mix. Heat the 
tin hot over a stove, then with a sponge apply the mixture, then 
"wash off directly with clean water. Dry the tin, and varnish with 
demar varnish 

Compression of an India-Rubber Buffer of Three Inches 
Stroke.— 1 ton, 1.3 inches. 14 tons, IJ inches. 2 tons, 2 inchea. 
3 tons, 2f inches. 5 tons, 2^ inches. 10 tons, 3 inches, 

34 




530 MACHINISTS, engineers', &c., regeipt^^ 

To Strike a Set of Patterns for the Envelope of a Cone. — 
Fig. 9.— Lay off tlie liues H N and K N ; tlie space fromH to K corres- 

l)ondiiig to the circumference 
of tlie cone at the largest end; 
11 N equal to the sloping 
height; from N as a basis de- 
8crihe the segments H K, D D, 
V V, R K, and P P; each of the 
parts between these segments 
will compose a section of the 
covering if allowance be made 
for the laps. To lay off Uio 
frustrum of a cone, see Fig. 2. 
2o find the Area of a Circle, 
multiply the circumference by 
one-fourth the diameter. To 
find the Area of a Section of a 
Circle, multiply the length of 
the arc by half the length of 
the radius. 

To Strike out" Strainer 
Bucket and Coffee Pot 
Lips {Eastern Style).--Fig. 10. —Describe the triangle H K D, H K 
equivalent to the slanting height; from D lay out ithe section H K; 

describe sections of circles 
from K to D and H to D ac- 
cording to the dimensions of 
the vessel. In coffee pots, 
the section extending from 
H to K should be regulated 
according to the style in 
■which it is to be constructed. 
In describing Tea-kettle 
AND Tea-pot Spouts, pro- 
ceed as in Figs. 1 and 4, mak- 
ing the breadth of the paral- 
eliogram commensurate or 
equal to the angle you desire 
to cut, and the length equiv- 
alent to the circumference of 
the spout. 

To Strike out Lips For 
Measures, &c.— Lay out a 
circle the dimensions of the 
top of the vessel; describe a 
line through the centre of the circle and divide it into four equal sec- 
tions; span the compasses on the line one quarter the distance from 
the end, and descri'-oe a semi-circle touching the opposite end of the 
line; pass the compasses the breadth of the lip desired, and lay out 
an arc until it approaches the semi-circle, which will allow the de- 
sired lip. The annexed Sector is appended to enable mechanics to 
obtain angles when required : 




MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. Qol 




Adjusting Locomotive YAiiVES. — A correspondent of the Scieu" 
tific American gives the following method of setting slide valves of 
locomotives : — Make a steel tram, about 5 J in. long, with two points 
at the right angles with the straight bar" one point to be 2J in. in 
length, and the other IJ in. Both points are to be sharp. Take a 
centre punch, and make a centre-mark on the top of the steam-chest 
])acking-box ; then take a strip of tin and put it in the steam-port. 
Draw the valves slowly back until you can just move the tin be- 
tween the edge of the valves and the edge of the steam-port (which 
is now closed except as to the thickness of the strips of tin. ) 
Take the tram, place the short point in the centre-mark on the 
packing-box ; then make a scratch on the valve stem, and go 
through with the same process with the opposite steam-port. Now 
you have marks on the valve-stem just where the valve begins to open. 
The valve-stem must next be got into radius (as we term it), which 
is to show the proper length for the valve-stem. It is done thus ; 
Cover the steam-ports equally with the valve, put the centre of the 
rock shaft and the rocker pin at a ri^ht angle with the bore of the 
cylinder: and when the valve-stem is adjusted to this, it is of the 
proper length and should not be altered. To adjust the valves in for- 
ward motion, hook the reverse lever in the forward notch, take the 
dead points for centres, and alter the eccentric rods until the 
spaces are equal on the valve-stem, which is determined by the use 
of the tram. Take the forward centres and give 1-lOth. lead to the 
valve, for either passenger or freight engines. By adopting this plan 
the engine will reverse her action promptly. Hook the reverse lever 
in the back motion, and repeat as above. If the job is to be done 
quickly and the eccentrics are in the proper position, it can be done 
^by the travel, in this way : Move the engine slowly forward with 
steam, take the tram, and trace the movement of the valve on the 
valve-stem until the stem stops ; then trace the return movement 
until that stops. * Take a pair of dividers aud measure each distance 
from the valve mark on the stem to the extreme of the travel line 
(or where the valve stopped). Alter eccentric rods until the spaces 
are equal. By these means you do not require to take the steam 
chest covers off. 



532 FACTS FOR GAS COMPANIES AND CONSUMERS. 

Facts for Gas Companies and Consumeks.— The following 
different volumes of gas have been obtained from various kinds of 
coal. Cannel coal, 15,000 cubic ft.; Wigan cannel, 15,426; Boghead 
cannel, 13,334; Cape Breton " Cow Bay," etc., 9,500; Pictou and Sid- 
ney, 8000; English, mean, 11,000; Newcastle from 9,500 to 10,000; 
Pittsburg, 9,520, Scotch, from 10,300 to 15,000; Wallsend, 12,000, Vir- 
ghiia, 8,960; Western, 9,500. Pine wood will evolve 11,000 cubic ft. 
per ton. Rosin 15,600. Oil and 'grease 23,000 cubic ft. Each retort 
should produce about 600 cubic ft. of gas in 5 hours, with a charge of 
IJ cwt. of coal, or 2800 cubic feet in 24 hours. One ton of coal should 
produce about 9000 cubic ft. of gas, 1 chaldron of coke and about 11 
gals, of tar, and 9 of ammoniacal liquor. Dry purifiers require 1 
bush, of lime to 10,000 cubic ft. of gas, and wet purifiers an admix- 
ture of water, 48 bushels, and lime, 1 bushel for each 10,000 cubic ft. 
^of gas. One per cent, of carbonic acid in gas diminishes its illumin- 
ating power one-tenth. Defective burners should be changed with- 
out delay, as all smoking, roaring, irregular, ragged, and pronged 
flames caused a great waste of gas with deficient light ; a smoky 
flame indicates loss of gas as well as loss of light. One good gas 
light is better economy than a number of small ones. The standard 
of gas burning is a 15 hole Argand lamp, interior diameter '44 ins., 
chimney 7 ins. high, consuming 5 cubic ft. per hour, evolvmg a light 
from common coal gas of from 10 to 12 sperm candles of 6 to the 
pound, with cannel coal from 20 to 24 candles, and with Pennsyl- 
vania coal from 14 to 16 candles. The advantage gained by employ- 
ing a 30-hole argand instead of the standard is a greater production 
of light, the increase being from 20 to 30 per cent., for if the standard 
consumes 5 ft. per hour, and evolves the light of 12 candles, the 30- 
hole burner, consuming 7 ft. per hour, will give the light of 22 can- 
dles. An Argand burner with two chimneys, one within the other, 
with air space between in which the air becomes heated during its 
downward movement towards the flame, for an equal amount of 
light, causes a saving of gas equal to 33 per cent. , and for an equal 
consumption of gas, the gain in light is equal at 62 per cent. 

Burners are made so as to produce all shapes of flame, and are of 
different materials, lava, iron, steel, porcelain, steatite, brass, i)lati- 
num lined, etc. The bore from which the flame of the gas issues 
should be arranged, as regards its width, for the quality of the gas 
consumed, cannel coal gas for mstance, being provided with narrower 
openings than those for common coal gas. We have single jet burn- 
ers, double jet burners, bat's wing, fishtail, cockspur, and other 
varieties; also Argand burners of various sizes, bored with 6 to 30 or 
48 holes, or as in the Dumas burner, a slit instead of a hole. The 
best gas burners are made of lava, and the kind known as fishtail 
burners consume from 4 to 5 ft. of common coal gas per hour; large 
burners require from 6 to 10 cubic ft. per hour, in proportion to size ; 
sheltered lights consume about 4 cubic ft. per hour, out door lights 
about 5 cubic ft. ; street lamps in cities consume from 3 to 5 cubic ft. 
per hour, according to size of burner used. A 13 candle-gas, con- 
sumed in an Argand burner, evolves an illuminating, power oi 13 can- 
dles ; if burnt in a bat wing or fish-tail burner the same gas will pro- 
duce only the illuminating power of 9 candles. The deficiency of 
light is caused by an admixture of atmospheric air mingling largely 
with the thin jets of gas, increasing the heat, but dissipating the light, 



FACTS FOR GAS COMPANIES AND CONSUMERS. 533 

and imparting a blue tinge to the flame. Bat-wing burners are the 
best adapted for all out-door lights. Whenever economy in gas and 
good light are main objects, tlie larger kind of bat-wing burners are 
preferable ; a bat-wing burner consuming 3^ ft. of gas per hour 
yields only the light of 6 candles, whereas a burner consuming 6 ft. 
per hour evolves a light equal to 15^ candles, the pressure being 4- 
lOths of an inch at the point of ignition. Nearly the same results are 
obtained by the use of the fishtail burner. The car eel burner, with 
a perforated disc at the lower part, and two orifices at the upper, 
where the flames unite and spread into one, each side of this united 
flame being supported by two curved levers or arms, is said to be 
equal if not superior to the Argand or fishtail burners in the power 
of evolving a soft, steady, mellow light. 

Loss TO THE Diffusion of Gas Light by Glass Globes.— 
Clear glass, 12 per cent. ; glass globe engraved with ornaments, 24 per 
cent, ; half ground globe, 35 per cent. ; globe obscured all over, 40 per 
cent. ; opal globe, 60 per cent. ; painted opal globe, 64 per cent. No 
glasses of any kind are ever used with the bat-wing burner owing to 
the widely extended flame, but for fish-tail burners they are in com- 
mon use. Globes as usually made, are of faulty construction and 
cause needless obscurity and a great loss of light. The Trudeau 
globe, invented and patented by Mr. Trudeau, of Ottawa, Canada, is 
constructed on correct scientific principles, with spacious and roomy 
apertures, which tend to i3romote a low temperature in the glass, 
thus preventing fracture from the heat, and the accumulation of 
smoke and dust. The burner being prox^erly adjusted, the height of the 
globe being low, and the openings wide, the gas is easily ignited, and 
bums at an exceedingly low pressure, with a clear, steady flame, with- 
out flickering, and diffuses a flood of soft, brilliant light, which for quan- 
tity and quality is really surprising to one accustomed to the old f ashion- 
ed'^globes. If 1 per cent, of air is mixed with gas, the illuminating power 
is diminished about 6 per cent. ; if one-fifth of air be mixed with four- 
fifths of gas, no sers'icable light can be derived from the mixture. 
The greatest light and least heat is produced when the gas is not ex- 
posed to too great a current of outside air, and the most heat and 
least light is evolved by permeating the gas largely with external air; 
in every case an insufficiency of air supi)ly will cause smoke and ob- 
scurity of light with any kmd of burner. Large burners under a low 
pressure produce a greater amount of light than small burners under 
a high pressure, each kind consuming^ equal quantities of gas in a 
given time, and a greater volume of light is emitted from a largo 
burner than from two small ones consuming the same quantity of gas 
as the one large. All burners, no matter what the size may be, re- 
quire a certain quantity of gas to produce the largest amount of light, 
which is as much lost through the use of too little gas as by the use of 
a surplus. 

Explosion of Gas. — Seven parts of air and one of gas is considered 
to be the most dangerous compound, but much depends on the purity, 
&c.. of the gas. Compounds of less than 3 of air to 1 of gas, or above 
11 of air to 1 of gas, will not explode. Gas unmixed with oxygen or 
atmospheric air, extinguishes flame, and while in this state cannot ex- 
plode. The terrific gas explosion during the summer of 1870 in Cin- 
cinnati, was caused by a lighted pipe belonging to a laborer employed 
on the top of the gas holder; the heat generated by the flash 



534 FACTS FOR GAS COMPANIES AND CONSUMERS. 

was nearly 2,500°, or about the temperature of melted steel; one 
party at the distance of half a mile from the explosion compared 
his experience to the inhalation of a stream of hot air from a furnace ; 
the time occupied by the explosion was about the 3rd part of a second. 
An explosive mixture of gas, while under pressure, will only ignite at 
the exterior orifice of the pipe or holder ; but if the pressure is removed^ 
the flame penetrates to the interior, and explosion ensues. On per- 
ceiving the odor of escaping gas, instant action should be taken to de- 
tect and stop the leak, but there is great temerity in applying a light 
in such cases ; the best way is to turn off the gas for 3 or 4 hours, and 
allow it full time to dissipate into the open air through the doors, win- 
dows, &c, before using flame in any form. If a light is required at 
the open end of a pix^e while making a new connection, gas-fitters 
should in every case turn the outlet tap off, or disconnect the outlet 
union of the meter, in order to avoid the hazard of exploding the me- 
ter. 

Pressure. — According to Mr. Haswell, " The pressure with which 
gas is forced through pipes should seldom exceed 2^ inches at the . 
works, or the leakage, will exceed the advantages to be obtained from 
increased pressure. When pipes are laid at an inclination either 
above or below the horizon, a correction will have to be made in esti- 
mating the supply, by adding or deducting 1-100 of an inch from the 
initial pressure for every foot of rise or fall in the length of the pipe. 
By experiment 30,000 cubic feet of gas, sp. gr. '42 were discharged 
in an hour through 6 inches in diameter, and 22.5 feet in length, 
and 852 cubic feet, specific gravity '398 were discharged under a head 
of 3 ins. of water, through a main 4 ins. in diam. and 6 miles in 
length. Loss of volume of discharge by friction, in a pipe 6 ins. 
diam. and 1 mile in length, is estimated at 95 per cent. In distilling 
56 lbs. of coal the volume of gas produced in cubic feet when the 
distillation was effected in'3 hours Avas 41.3, in 7 hours 37.5, in 20 hours 
33.5, and in 25 hours 31.7." The expiration of the breath from the 
lungs in the gentlest manner, is about equal to the proper pressure for 
the most favorable consumption of gas, while a slight blowing force 
is equal to the highest pressure in the mains of gas companies; the 
first example is about equivalent to two or three-tenths pressure, and 
the second to from 3 to 5 ins, pressure. 

The orifices of gas burners should be well proportioned, not too 
small, to require increased pressure to expel the gas, thus seriously 
curtailing the light, as shown by the following experiments with 4 
Argands, all of one size, each having 15 holes, but the orifice of each 
graduated so that only 5 cubic feet of gas per hour could pass under 
the respective pressures here intimated : — 

Gas issuing ivith Pressure in tenths of inches, 
1-lOth yielded the light of 12 candles. 
5-lOths " " 6 

10-lOths " " 2i *' 

40-lOths *' " 1-6 " 

On the other hand, if the orifice of an Argand burner is too large, 
the flame will smoke offensively and thus entail waste and loss. Grade 
the size of the orifice by the quality of the gas to be consumed ; for 
poor gas the holes may be large; for good gas, smaller holes may be 
used. In every case be careful to effect a correct adjustment in order 
to obtain the best results. 



FACTS FOR GAS COMPANIES AND CONSUMERS. 535 



Volumes of Gas Dischakged per Hour Under a Pressure 
OF Half ax Inch of >Yater— Specific Gravity of Gas -42. 



Diam. of 
opening 



Ins. 



Diam. of 
Volume, op'ning. Volume. 



Cubic ft. 
80 
321 



Ins. 



Cubic ft. 
723 

1287 



Diam . of Diam . of 

op'ning. Volume, op'ning. Volume. 



Cubic ft. 
1625 
2010 



Cubic ft. 
288 "► 
46,150 



Diameter and Length of Gas Pipes to Transmit Given Volume 
OF Gas to Branch Pipes.— Z)r. Ure. 



Volume 


Diam- 




Volume 


Diam- 




Volume 


Diam- 




p. hour. 


eter. 


Length. 


p. hour. 


eter. 


Length. 


p. hour. 


eter. 


Length 


Cub. ft. 


Ins. 


Feet. 


Cub. ft. 


Ins. 


Feet. 


Cub. ft. 


Ins. 


Feet. 


50 


4. 


100 


1,000 


3.16 


1,000 


2,000 


7. 


6,000 


250 


1. 


200 


1,500 


3.87 


1,000 


6,000 


7.75 


1,000 


500 


1.97 


600 


2,000 


5.32 


2,000 


6,000 


9.21 


2,000 


700 


2.65 


1000 


2,000 


6.33 


4,000 


bjOOO 


8.95 


1,000 



To Determine the Size of Gas Pipe Required— London Rule — 
For 200 lights, 2 inch tube; 120 lights, 11/2 inch; 70 lights, IV4 inch; 50 
lights, 1 inch; 25 lights, % inch; 12 lights, 14 inch; 6 lights, % inch; 2 
lights, 1/4 inch. 

Diameter and Extreme Length of Tubing and Number of Burn- 
ers Allowed— American Standard. 



Diam. 


Feet 


No. of 


Capac- 


No. of 


of 


in 


burn- 


ity of 


burn- 


tube. 


length 


ers. 


met'rs. 


ers. 


V4 


6 


1 


Slights. 


6 


\ 


20 


3 


5 '' 


10 


30 


6 


10 " 


20 


% 


40 


12 


20 " 


40 


% 


50 


20 


30 " 


60 



Diam. 

of tub- 
ing. 


L'ngth 

ill 

feet. 


1 


70 
100 
150 
200 







No. of 


Capac- 


No. of 


burn- 


ity of 


burn- 


ers. 


met'rs 


ers. 


35 


45 U'ts. 


90 


60 


60 " 


120 


100 


100 *' 


200 


200 















Diameter and Length of Pipe from the Main, together with 

the Number of Lights allowed in the Gas Service 

FOR Lamps. 





Dis- 




tance 


No. of 


from 


lamps. 


main in 




feet. 


2 


40 


4 


40 


6 


60 



Diam- 
eter of 
pipe. 



No. of 
lamps. 



10 
15 

20 



Dis- 
tance 
from 
main in 
feet. 



100 
130 
150 



Diam- 
eter of 
pipe. 



1 

IV4 



No. of 
lamps. 



25 
30 



Dis- 
tance 
from 

main 
in ft. 



180 
200 



Diam- 
eter of 
pipe. 



iy2 



In experiments conducted by Mr. Pattinson, analytical chemist, 
Newcastle one burner he tested gave light equivalent to 17 J candles; 
while, with the same quantity of gas, some burners gave onlv 3f 
others 5^, 6, 8, and 9J candle light. ^ ^ "=' 

" J^n^ *^ ^^^ f^^'^^m, ofilluminatincf gas, the English law enacts that 

such gas shall, with respect to its purity, be so far free from am- 
monia and sulphuretted hydrogen that it shall not discolor either 
turmeric paper, or paper imbued with acetate or carbonate of lead, 
when these tests are exposed to a current of gas, issuing for one min- 



536 FACTS FOR GAS COMPANIES AND CONSUMERS. 

ute under a pressure of five-tenths of an inch of water, and shall nofe 
contain more than 20 grains of sulphur in any form in 100 cubic ft. of 
gas." The following enumeration shows the illuminating power of 
the common gas used in various cities and towns in Great Britain, as 
determined by Prof. Frankland, in accordance with the Government 
standard: London, 12 candles, Liverpool, 22, Manchester, 22, Car- 
lisle, 16, Birmingham, 15, Edinburgh, 28, Glasgow, 28, Hawick, 30, 
Aberdeen, 35, Inverness, 25, Greenock, 28.5, Paisley, 30.3. In Berlin, 
it is 15.5, Paris, 12.3, Vienna, 9; and in the United States it varies 
from 12 to 18 candles, computing by the English standard. Gas 
manufactured from cannel coal emits a light the standard of which is 
equal to 20 candles. This gas, in London, is usually supplied to the 
public buildings and the residences of the wealthy. "^ London has now 
(1876) 5,000 miles of gas mains, 54,000 street lamps, which burn 
3,000,000 cubic feet of gas each night ; on the lighting of the lamps 
and other lights the deoxydation of the atmosphere caused thereby is 
equivalent to the addition of 500,000 inhabitants to the population. 

The illuminating value of gas is enormously enhanced by causing 
it, after it has passed through the meter, to enter a Carhonizer or 
Cm'hureter, containing gasoline, or other light oil, where it becomes 
saturated and enriched by the absorption of the carbonaceous fumes 
and vapors generated from the oil previous to emission into the ser- 
vice pipes of the building. The fii:)paratus ought to be of sufRcient 
size, and should, in its construction and location, combine every. 
available appliance to ensure safety, strength, simplicity, and ease of 
management, while presenting the largest possible surface for the 
proper evaporation of its contents. The economy of this carbureted 
gas is such that a two-foot burner emits the light of five feet of com- 
mon gas, while the direct saving effected on the consumption of the 
latter, varies, according to the quality of the gas used, from 33 to 43 
per cent. Hydrogen, an essential component of coal gas, is the 
lightest substance in nature, being 15 times lighter than air, and 12,000 
times lighter than water, and requires for perfect combustion, 8 
times its weight, or half its volume of oxygen ; in its passage through 
the carbureter above described, it is simply the medium or vehicle to 
transmit the particles of vaporized carbon from the generator to the 
burner, where on ignition it attracts to itself a sufficient portion of 
the surrounding oxygen, etc., to effect illumination. When 12 lights 
with 5 foot burners are required to furnish the desired light from 
common gas, 6 fights, with 3 foot burners and carbureted gas, is 
found to be all sufficient for the same purpose. 

Gasoline being almost a pure carbon, may be transmitted in the 
vaporized form in combination with the coal gas, direct from the gas 
works to the consumer. The Superintendent of the West Pittsburg, 
Pa., Gas Works, reports a product of 603,600 cubic feet of 20 candle 
gas from TObbls. benzine, 72 gravity, costing $1.75 per bbl., being a 
result of 8,622 feet per bbl., at a cost, including material, labor, fuel, 
etc., of about 32 cents per 1000 cubic feet. Crude petroleum and 
heavy oil from the refineries, including gasohne, benzine, etc., w^ere 
all tested and used with the greatest ease, the vaporizing or carbon- 
izing process being produced by means of superheated or other steam 
passing through a coil of pipe inside a tank or still containing the oil. 
Proportions used were: 14 candle gas, 50 per cent, oil gas, 30 per cent, 
air, 15 per cent. It is worthy of note that the unusually large per- 



FACTS FOR GAS COMPANIES AND CONSUMERS. 537 

centage of air did not perceptibly diminish the illuminating power of 
the compound, used with common coal gas, 15 per cent, of air would 
have produced great obscurity in the resultant light. 

Owing to the cheapness of petroleum and its products, several 
towns have commenced its exclusive use for the production of illu- 
minating gas, and find it much cheaper and better every way than 
the gas produced from coal. In Pittsburg, Pa., and elsewhere, sev- 
eral enterprising firms have taken a notable step m utilizing natural 
gas, which is conveyed in some instances many miles through pipes 
from the wells, and is used in the manufacture of iron, for illumina- 
tion, the generation of steam power, etc. The gas, manufactured in 
nature's alembic, is most probably generated by the action of subter- 
ranean heat operating on an ocean of volatile carbonaceous matter at 
a great depth in the earth, from which it frequently issues with ter- 
rific noise and irresistable force on the penetration of the crust by 
drilling or otherwise. 

Gas machmes for generatmg gas frf)m. gasoline are now in exten- 
sive use for lighting factories, dwellmgs, ofiices, etc. A good illus- 
tration of a most meritorious invention of this class can be seen on the 
next page. The gas made by this machine, known as carburetted air 
gas, is obtained by the impulsion of common air, by means of an air- 
pump, into a carbureter containing gasoline. In this receptacle the 
air becomes saturated and impregnated with the carbonaceous vapors 
from the gasoline, and, impelled by the action of the air-pump, it 
transmits its burden to the burners through the service pipes of the 
building, yielding a beautiful, rich, bright flame, conceded to be fully 
equal to that evolved by the best coal gas, being free from sulphur- 
ous compounds and other impuiities. Nearly one thousand of these 
machines are now in successful operation in the United States, Can- 
ada, etc., and the saving effected by them is almost incredible. The 
proprietors of the National Drover's Hotel, cor. 100th Street and 
3d Avenue, New York, certify that their gas biU for one year, with a 
200 light Gas Machine, was only $550, the light obtained being every 
way more desirable, and far superior to that formerly supplied by 
the " city gas " at an annual cost of nearly $1,400. 

Diameter and Extreme Length of Pipe and Nl^mber of 
Burners allowed for Carburetted Gas, Served by Gas 
Machine. ( Gilbert & Barker). 

Size of pipe. Greatest number of burners 

to be supplied. 

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As to the quality of carburetted air gas it possesses an illuminating 
power of from 16 to 20 candles, being nearly equal to cannel gas, and 
is characterized by perfect combustion, ease of lighting, large volume 
of flame, and perfect combination. 



538 



GAS MACHINE. 




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ON GAS METERS, &C. 



539 



Classification of Hydrocarbons.— The grade usually ac- 
cepted by distillers stands as follows : All above 88° of Baume's 
hydrometer is styled chimogene, from 88° to 70° gasoline, from 70° 
to 60° naphtha, from 60° to 50° benzine, from 50° to 35° kerosene, 
from 35° to 28° lubricating oil. 

On Gas Meters — In distinguishing between dry and wet meters, the 
construction of the former is briefly as follows : In a gas-light me- 
tallic box are placed 2 or 3 bellows like vessels, which instead of being 
inflated by air, are inflated by the gas entering from the service pipes. 
When inflated to some extent an arrangement of springs and levers, 
forces the gas out of the bellows again into the exit-pipe leading to 
the burners. The cubic capacity of the chambers (as the beUows like ar- 
rangements are called), having been accurately adjusted, the move- 
ments of their walls is communicated to wheel-work, which being 
connected with dials, indicate in tens, hundreds and thousands, the 
consumption of gas in cubic feet. 




Fig. 1. Fig. 1. 

Dry meters are preferred on account as well of not being liable to 
be affected by frost as of not causing the sudden extinguishing of the 
gas-light for " want of water as may occur with wet meters. Wet 
meters are constructed upon a plan devised in 1817, by Cle^g. and im- 
proved by Crossley, and others. Figs. 1, 2, 3 and 4, are drawings of 
this kind of meter, which consists in the first place of an outer cylin- 
drical box of cast iron, closed on all sides. In this box is placed a 
drum of pure block-tin, divided into 4 compartments, bearhig upon a 
bell-metal axis, and immersed for rather more than half its circum- 
ference in water. By the pressure of the gas, and the ensuing de- 
pression of the water, the drum revolves, each of its compartments 
becoming alternately filled with and emptied of gas. On the axis of 
the drum is an endless screw, which by mechanical means is connected 
with the wheel-work of the dials. The drum is very accurately adjusted, 
so that at every complete revolution a certain cubic quantity of gas 
passes through and is registered. Fig. 1 exhibits the apparatus with 



540 



ON GAS METERS, &C. 



the front plate removed; Fig. 2 shows the side of the meter; Fig. 3 is 
sectional plan; and Fig. 4 is a section through the box; a is the box 
a the drum, h its axis, c'the endless screw; bearing in the wheel d, and 
carrying by means of c the movement of the drum on to the wheel- work 
of the dials;//-/ is the inlet pipe for the gas, which flows into the valve 
box, h and passing by the valve, i (kept open as long as the meter 



contains sufficient water for action), flows through 



bent tube, 



into the bulged cover of the drum, or technically antechamber 





Fig. 3 

and thence into the several compartments of the drum, Hence the 
gas enters the space n, to which is fitted the outlet pipe, o i is the 
valve ; p the float ; q the funnel tube for filling the meter with water ; 
r the waste water cistern ; s the plug by which the waste water may be 
run off. As long as no gas burners are in use, the meter connected 
with them is inactive ; but when the gas is burnt the drum rotates, and 
by its communication with the wheel- work* registers the quantity of 
gas consumed. Instead of filling wet meters with Avater, they may 
be filled with glycerine, which does not freeze nor evaporate, and 
they should be set perfectly level. 

Water Gas. — The manufacture of water gas essentially consists 
in forcing steam through iron or fire clay retorts filled with red-hot 
charcoal or coke. The steam is decomposed, yielding a mixture of 
hydrogen, carbonic oxide, and carbonic acid gases, with a small quan- 
tity of marsh-gas. The purified gas, consisting essentially of carbonic 
oxide and hydrogen, is, nlthough not luminous when burnt by itself, 
suitable for illuminating purposes under the following conditions: 
1. By placing on the burners small platinum cylinders which, by be- 
coming white-hot, yield a strong light— Gengembre's and Gillard's 
plan. 2. By impregnating the gas with vapors of hydro-carbons, as 
above described, the original idea being due to Jobard (1832), of 
Brussels. 

Gas Wells. — Although these remarkable wells are quite numerous 
in Pennsylvania, they are by no means confined to that locality. In 
the neighborhood of Fredonia, New York, a native permanent source 
of gas exists, which having been accidentally discovered by the 



GAS LIGHTING, GAS ENGINES, &C. 541 

pulling down of a mill situated on the banks of the river Canadaway, 
has been, by boring the bituminous limestone, enlarged, and a gas 
holder constructed. The native gas now serves the purpose of illumi- 
nating the locality. In the Szlatina salt mine, in Hungary, illuminat- 
ing gas is constantly evolved, at a depth of 90 metres, in great quan- 
tities, and subserves the purpose of lighting up the mine. The Rev. 
Mr. Imbert, who, as a missionary, lias travelled through China, states 
that in the province of Szu Tchhouan, where many bore-holes for rock 
salt have been made to the depth of about 1500 to 1600 feet, gas is 
permanently emitted and conveyed in bamboo tubes to places where 
it is used for lighting and heatmg purposes, more especially the heat- 
ing of salt-pans in which the brme is evaporated. In Central Asia, 
and near the Caspian Sea, there are, at several localities, so-called 
infernal fires, which are due to the constant evolution of gas from 
the soil. Similar phenomena exist at Arbela, in Central Asia, at 
Chitta-Gong, m Bengal, and other places. 

About 1786, Earl Dundonald made experiments on gas lighting at 
Culross Abbey; but it should be observed regarding these experiments 
that they were made with the view of obtaining tar, the gas evolved 
by the distillation of the coals being regarded as a curiosity. The 
real inventor of practical gaslighting is William Murdock, who, in 
1792, lit his shops at Redruth, Cornwall, with gas obtained from coals. 
The first more extensive gas- work was established in 1802, by Mur- 
dock, at the Soho Foundry, ner.r Birmingham, the property of the 
celebrated Boulton & Watt. In 1803 he illummated two cotton mills 
in Manchester the same way. 

Gas Engines. — In Lenoir's gas engine, now much employed in 
France, the source of power is the expansion arising from the explo- 
sion of gas. Air and gas are admitted to a cylinder in the proportion 
of 11 to 1; a spark from a galvanic battery is sent through it; the 
spark explodes the mixture, and the expansion consequent on this 
explosion drives a piston to the other end of the cylinder. Mechanism 
does all the rest; opens a slide valve to permit exit to the exploded 
mixture, drives the piston back by the momentum of a fly-wheel, opens 
tubes for the admission of new air and gas, establishes connection 
again with the battery, and prepares for a renewal of the action, and 
so on continuously. These engines are costly in the first instance, 
and many precautions are necessary to prevent them bemg overheated ; 
but they require no fireman, and are rather cheaper to work than 
steam-engines ; consequently they are much employed for 2 to 4 horse- 
power purposes. 

Products of a Cord of Pitch Pine obtained by Distil- 
liATiON. — Charcodly 50 bushels; Illuminating Gas, about 1000 cubic 
feet; Illuminating Oil and Tar, 50 gals.; Bosin IJbbls. ; Pyroligneo'us 
Acid, 100 gals. ; Spirits Twpentine, 20 gals. ; Tar, 1 bbl. ; Wood Spirit j 
5 gals. — HasweU. 

To Mend Iron Retorts. — Fire clay 15 lbs., saleratus, 1 lb., with 
■water sufficient to make a thick paste. Apply to the broken part of 
the retort while at a good working heat, then cover it with fine coal 
dust, and charge the retort for working. 

To Stop Leaks in Clay Retorts When at Working Heat :— 
Five parts fire clay, 2 parts white sand, 1 part of borax pressed and 
ground. Mix tl^e whole tno(ther with np niiirh water a? may be ne- 



542 



MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS 5 &C., RECEIPTS. 



essary to bring it to the consistence of pntty. Roll it in the hands to 
a proper length and apply it over the crack, pressing it with a long 
spatula into the crack. 

To Remove Deposit of Carbon from Clay Retorts.— Leave 
the retort uncharged for 48 hours, or as long as can be spared. Put 
the lid on the mouth-piece so as to be closed at top, and open tvro or 
three inches at the bottom. Take out the stopper from stand pipe, 
so as to allow a current of air to pass through the retort and oxydize 
the carbon ; use no bar. Put m a charge of coal after the retort has 
lain idle the number of hours required, and when it is withdrawn the 
carbon comes Avith it. 

To Prevent Gas Meters From Freezing. — Half a pint of good 
glycerine "is said to prevent the freezing of 1 gal, water, though at 
least double the proportion is preferable in the country, whatever 
the temi^erature in the winter may happen to be. 



^<^^^^^0^ ^^^^^^0. <^^^^^^ 




lO.OOQ 



1.000 



100 each; 



How To Read The Gas Meter. The figures on the index at the 
right hand denote even hundreds. When the hand completes the 
entire circle it denotes ten hundred, and is registered by the hand in 
the centre circle, pointing to one — each figure in the centre circle 
being a thousand, this entire circle being ten thousand ; and is re- 
gistered on the index of the left hand circle by the hand, there de- 
noting by each figure, ten thousand. 

The quantity of gas which passes through the meter, is ascertained 
by reading from the index at the time the amount is required to be 
known, and deducting therefrom the quantity shown by the index at 
a i^revious observation. 

If the whole is registered by the hands on the three circles above, 
it indicates 49.900 

Amount at previous observation, as shown by the dotted 
^mes ' 42.500' 

Shows amount which passed through since last taken off 7.400 

The register at all times shows the quantity that has passed through 
since the meter was first set, by deducting from which the amount 
that has been paid for (without any regard to the time when,) 
shows that the difference remains unpaid. 

To Purify Gas. — The purifier is to be filled with milk of lime, 
made by mixing 1 part of slaked lime with 25 parts of water. A very 
great improvement in the purification of gas has been effected by 
Mr. Statter, of England, by the employment of hydrated clay along 
with the lime employed for this puri)ose. Hydrated clay unites with 

1 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &c., keceipts. 543 

the ammonia of the gas as "with a base, and, at tlie same time with its 
sul^huret of carbon as an acid, and thus removes both of these nox- 
ious impurities from the gas exposed to its influence. It assists also, 
in conjunction with the lime, in removing tarry vapor and other 
iinpurities from the gas. The illuminatmg power of the gas is posi- 
tively increased by the clay purification from 22 to 33g per cent. 
Latterly, use is made of hydrated sesquioxideof iron for purifying gas. 

To Avoid Waste of Gas. — Turn the gas partly off at the meter ; 
much gas is burned to waste by too great pressure in certain locahties. 
In buildings of any size a good regulator will soon pay for itself. To 
stop the leakage of gas. Turn off the gas back of the meter ; then 
take out (a "screw driver is all the tool required) the plug. Next light 
a wax, sperm, or paraffine candle, and drop the melted wax, sperm, 
or paraffine upon the surface of tlie plug, till it is covered with a thin 
layer. Next, screw in the tap, and in nine cases out of ten the leak 
will be stopped, and remain stopped. 

To Remedy Scattering Shot Guns. — ^The only remedy laiown 
to gunsmiths is by choke-boring, that is, boring from the breed i of 
the gun, so as to have a gradual taper towards the muzzle. This 
method of boring greatly improves the shooting qualities of the gun, 
as the charge concentrates at the muzzle. Large shot are more apt to 
scatter than fine, but this depends on the bore of the gun. A largo 
bored gim does not shoot fine shot so well as medium. A small 
bored gun throws fine shot vnth greater force than a large bored 
one. As a general thing, a small bored gun is not adaptedto large 
shot, as it does not chamber them well. The length of gun also de- 
pends on the size of bore— 28 or 30 inches for a gun of from 10 to 14 
gauge; 30 to 34, of guns from 8 to 10 ; 26 to 28, of guns of 15 to 
18 gauge. 

Bronzing Fluid for Guns. — Nitric acid, sp. gr. 1.2 parts ; nitric 
ether, alcohol, muriate of iron, each 1 part ; mix, then add sulphate 
of copper, 2 parts, dissolved in water, 10 parts. 

Bluing on Revolvers and Gun Barrels is performed by 
simply heating the piece to be blued in powdered charcoal over a firo 
untU the desired color is obtained. 

Fine Blue Finish for Gun Barrels. — Apply nitric acid and let 
it eat into the iron a little ; then the latter will be covered with a 
thin film of oxide. Clean the barrel, oil and burnish. A very fine 
appearance is given to gun barrels by treating them with dilute 
nitric acid and vinegar, to which has been added sulphate of 
copper. The metallic copper is deposited irregularly over the iron 
surface ; wash, oil and rub with a hard brush. 

Browning for Gun Barrels. — Spirits of nitre, 1 lb. ; alcohol, 1 
lb. ; corrosive sublimate, 1 oz. ; mix in a bottle, and cork for use. 
Directions: polish the barrel perfect; then rub it with quick lime 
with a cloth, which removes grease and dirt; now apply the brown- 
ing fluid with a clean white cloth, apply one coat, and set it in a warm 
dark place for from 10 to 20 hours, until a red rust forms on it; then 
card it down with a gunmaker's card, and rub off with a clean cloth. 
Repeat the process if you wish a dark shade. 

Browning for Twist Barrels.— Spirits of nitre, | oz. ; tincture 
of steel, J oz. ; or use the unmedicated tincture of iron if the tincture 
of steel cannot be obtained j black brimstone, i oz. ; blue vitriol, J 



544 MACHINISTS, engineers', &c., receipts. 

oz. ; corrosive sublimate, J oz. ; nilric acid, 1 dram; copperas, J oz. ; 
mix with IJ pints rain water, and bottle for use. This is to be ap- 
plied the "same as the first ; it causes the twist of the barrel 
to be visible after ax)plication, a quality which the other liquid does 
not possess. 

Bkownixg CoiMPOSiTioisr for Gun Barrels.-^ Blue yitriol, 4 
oz. ; tincture of muriate of iron, 2 oz. ; water, 1 qC; dissolve, and add 
aquafortis and sweet spirits of nitre, of each, 1 oz. 2. Blue vitriol 
and sweet spirits of nitre, of each 1 oz. ; aquafortis, i oz. ; water, 1 
pint. To be used in the same manner as previously described in this 
work. • 

Varnish axb Polish for Gun Stocks. — Gum shellac, 10 ozs. ; 
gunf sandarac, 1 oz. ; Venice turpentine, 1 dr. ; 98 per cent, alcohol, 
1 gal. ; shake the jug occasionally for a day or two, and it is ready 
for use. Apply a few coats of this to your gun stocks, polish by rub- 
bing smooth, and your work is complete. 

Boring Gun Barrels.— Take a piece of rod, cast steel, i inch 
smaller than the interior of the barrel, and a few inches longer, beat 
one end up something larger than the size of the bore, then turn or 
file it in the shape of an egg, leaving the swell, or centreing part 
l-20th of an inch larger than the bore. With a saw file, cut longi- 
tudinal cuts, i inch apart, laying them the same angle as a rose bit 
countersink, taking care not to injure the i)eriphery of the tool; 
harden and temper to straw color. 

Dajmascus Twist and Stub-Twist Gun-Barrels.— The twisted 
"barrels are made out of long ribbands of iron, wound spirally around 
a mandril, and welded on their edges by jumping them on the ground, 
or rather on an anvil embedded therein. The plain stub barrels are 
made in this manner, from iron manufactured from a bundle of stub- 
nails, welded togethey, and dra^vn out into ribbands, to insure tho 
possession of a material most thoroughly and intimately worked. 
The Damascus barrels are made from a mixture of stub-nails and 
clippings of steel in given proportions, puddled together, made into a 
bloom, and subsequently passed through all the stages of the manu- 
facture of iron, in order to obtain an iron that shall be of an unequal 
qualitj'- and hardness, and therefore display different colors and 
markings wlien oxidized or browned. Other twisted barrels are 
made in the like manner, except that the bars to form the ribbands 
are twisted wliilst red hot, like ropes, some to the right, others to tlio 
left, and which are sometimes laminated together for greater divers- 
ity. They are subsequently again drawn into the ribbands and 
wound upon the mandril, and frequently two or three differently pro- 
I)ared pieces are placed side by side to form the complex and orna- 
mental figures for the barrels of fowling-pieces, described as strib- 
hoist, ivire-twist, Damascus-tivist, &c. Sometimes Damascus gun- 
barrels are formed by arranging twenty-five thin bars of iron and 
mild steel in alternate layers, welding the whole together, drawing 
it down small, twisting it like a rope, and again welding three such 
ropes, for the formation of the ribband, which is then spirally twisted 
to form <a barrel, that exhibits, when finished and acted upon by 
acids, a diversified, laminated appearance, resembling', when prop- 
erly managed, an ostrich feather. 

Damaskeening.— This is the art, now in a great measure lost, of 



MACUINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 545 

producing a watered or wavy appearance on the steel sword-blades, 
armour, &c., or of inlayiug and encrusting steel with gold and silver, 
originally practised at Damascus. Various methods of damaskeen- 
ing were practised, but tlie most common seem to have been those of 
welding two different kinds of steel, or steel and iron, together, or of 
cutting lines on the surface of the steel and filling them with gold or 
silver, which was either forced into the incised lines and brought to a 
level with the surface of the steel, or remained in relief above it. 
When the former method was used, a light pattern, generally in many 
lines, was produced on a dark ground, or vice versa, and the j miction 
of the metals caused the pattern to run through the entire thick- 
ness of the blade, so that it could not be obliterated even by grind- 
ing. 

On Wood Cuts and New Wood Types.— Wood cuts should never 
be washed with lye or water, benzine or campheno only should bo 
used. Lar^e wood letters when new sliould be soaked in a mixture 
of turpenthie and thin boiled linseed oil over night, and taken out of 
the bath in the morniug, and then wiped clean. Let tlieni stand 
awhile to absorb what oil, etc., may not have been removed by 
wiping, then iok them weU. After they stand a few hours wash tiiem 
with benztue. 

Printees' Roleeks. — 2^0. 1. Black Composition, very durable and 
elastic. Genuine Irish or Buffalo glue I04 lbs., black sugar cane, or 
best maple molasses, 1 gal., purified India rubber shavings, 1 lb., 
Carolina tar, 2 ozs., glycerine, 12 ozs., strong vinegar. 4 ozs. Soak 
the glue over night and drain in the morning by means of a covered 
colander. Boil molasses and skim for 20 minutes. Add the rubber 
sha\ing3 and stir until it combines with the molasses, add the glue 
and boil 6 or 7 minutes, and pour. If purified rubber camiot be pro- 
cured add IJ lbs. more glue and 4 ozs. more glycerme. No. 1 glue, 2 
lbs. ; Baeder's glue 2 lbs. ; best sugar house molasses, 1 gal. ; gly- 
cerine, J pt. For Winter use, reduce each glue J to § of a lb. Soak 
the glues wrapped up separately in woolen cloths about three hours. 
Boil the molasses 45 or 50 minutes, skimming thoroughly. Then add 
tlie glues drained of superfluous water. Boil the whole for 15 or 20 
minutes, add the glycerine, boil and stir 3 to 5 minutes then pour off. 
No. 3. Strong Middle Weather Rollers. Temp. 60^ to 70° Fahr. 
Coopers best glue, 8J lbs. ; extra syrup, 2 gals. ; glycerine, 1 pt. ; 
Venice turpentine, 2 ozs. Steep the glue in rain water until pliant, 
and drain it weU. Then melt it over a moderate fire, but do not 
" cook it." This wUl take from 15 to 25 minutes. Next put in the 
syrup, and boil | of an hour, stirring it occasionally and skimming off 
impurities arising to the surface. Add the glycerine and turpentine 
a few minutes before removing from the fire, and pour slowly. 
Slightly reduce or increase the glue as the weather becomes colder or 
warmer. 

Silvering Solution for Electrotype Plates. — ^Nitrate of 
silver 2 drs. ; distilled water, 37 drs. Dissolve, and add sal ammon- 
iac, 1 dr. ; hydrophosphite of soda, 4 drs. ; precipitated chalk. 4 drs. 
Agitate the preparation occasionally for 12 hours, when it will be 
i;eady for use. Apply with a fine sponge. 

Printing on Glass.— A Frenchman, named Wilbaux, has taken out 
a patent to use an elastic type for printing on glass, with fluorspar 

35 



546 



MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS , &C., RECEIPTS, 



ycTidered adliesive by somo siicli material as mucilage or printers' 
ink ; sulpliuric acid of suitable temperature is then allowed to act on 
that portion of the glass. The hydrofluoric acid generated in this 
way would etch the glass on the places printed on. When completed, 
the whole is washed off with warm water and lye. 

Liquid fob Bkighteniis'g Coi^evion Qualities of Black or 
Colored Inks. — Denaar varnish, 1 oz. ; balsam fir, J oz. ; oil ber- 
gamot, 25 drops ; balsam of copaiba, 35 drops ; creosote, 10 drops ; 
copal varnish, 50 drops. Use in small quantities. The whites of 
fresh eggs are also brighteners of colored inks, but they must be ap- 
X)lied a little at a time, as they dry very hard, and are apt to take 
away the suction of rollers if used for any extended period. 

Good Reducing Dryer.— Brown's (genuine) Japan. Use in small 
quantities. Hardening Gloss For Inks. — Gum Arabic dissolved in 
alcohol or a weak dilution of oxalic acid. Use in small quantities, 
and mix with the inli as the latter is consumed. 

To GIVE Dark Inks a Bronze or Changeable Hue.— Dissolve 
IJ lbs. gum .shellac in 1 gal. (jo per cent alcohol or cologne spirits for 
24: hours. Then add 14 ozs. aniline red. Let it stand a few hours 
longer, when it will be ready for use. Add this to good blue, black, 
or other darl?: ink, as needed in quantities to suit, when if carefully 
done they will be found to have a rich bronze or changeable hue. 

Quick Dryer for Inks used on Bookbinders' Cases. — Bees- 
wax, 1 oz., gum arable (dissolved in sufficient acetic acid to make a 
thin mucilage), J oz., Brown Japan, J oz. Incorporate with 1 lb. of 
good Cut ink. To Renew a Hard Roller. — ^Wash the roller carefully- 
with lye cover the surface with a thin layer of molasses and lay it 
aside till the next morning, then wash it with water, and let it hang 
tiU dry enough for using. 

Savage's Printing Ink.— Pure balsam of copaiba, ozs. ; lamp- 
black, 3 ozs. ; indigo and Prussian blue, each 5 drams ; Indian red, | 
oz. ; yellow soap, 3 ozs. Mix, and grind to the utmost smoothness. 

Printing Ink. — Set on a fire in a large iron pot 12 gals, of clear 
linseed oil, boil, and stir until it smokes, then ignite it, remove it from 
the fire and let it bum until a sami)le will draw into strings between 
the fingers. Put the lead on to extinguish the flame, then add 1 lb. 
of resin to each qt. of oil ; dissolve, and add gradually in slices 1| lbs. 
of soai^; heat the pot until the solution is complete, when the varnish 
is ready. Two sorts are kept, one thick, and the other thin, so as to 
mix when required; the difference is caused in the boiling and firing 
being kept up for different periods. For large printing type a thin is 
required, as thick ink would only print in patches ; for small tj^pe very 
stiff ink is used, to prevent it running off. For making black ink, 
mix together mmeral lampblack, 8 lbs. ; vegetable black, 7 lbs. ; in- 
digo and Prussian blue of each 5 ozs. Indian red, 2 ozs. ; grind this 
with sufficient varnish, gradually adding as the grinding goes on. 
For colored ink use colored pigments, according to the required shade. 

Gum for Backing Labels. — Mix pure dextrine with boiling 
water ulutil it assumes the consistency of ordinary mucilage. Apply 
with a full bodied, evenly made camel s hair brush. The paper should 
not be too tlnn or unsized. It will dry quickly and adhere when 
slightly wet. 

Prof. Bottger's Portable Ink.— Make the strongest possible 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 547 

BOlution of aniline black in Trater or alcohol, and soak thick unsized 
paper tlioroiiglily to imbibe mixture, and then dry. Put in a botttlo 
and add water as required. 

Coloring and Sizing of Paper. — ^Paper is adulterated with plas- 
ter of Paris, sometimes to the extent of 30 per cent., to increase the 
weight. Brown pax)er is mixed with ochre Jind clay, the manufac- 
turers say, to give it a nice brown color, but doubtless, the true reason 
is, to make it heavier. White soap, glue, starch, and dissolved resin 
with a few pounds of alum, form a good size for printing paper to mix 
with the pulp. Four or five pounds oxide of cobalt (smalts), give a 
beautiful blue tinge to fine writing paper, when added to 100 lbs. of 
the rags. Writing paper is sized by being dipped 5 or 6 sheets at a 
time into a composition made from skins and other animal substances, 
a large pile of it being afterwards pressed to force out the superfluity, 
although machmes now exist making fine writmg paper, sized with 
gelatine, dried, and cut into sheets, at the rate of GO feet a minute in 
length, and 70 inches wide. Almost any desired shade may be im- 
parted to paper by the use of several of the coloring pigments mention- 
ed on page 132. It requires great skiU and judgment to rightly pro- 
portion the various ingredients for coloring the pulp. 

To Pulp Straw for Paper Making. — The straw is placed in a 
boher, with a large quantity of strong alkali, and with a pressure of 
steam equal to from 120 to 150 pounds per square inch, the extreme 
heat being attained in superheating the steam after it leaves the 
boiler, by passing it through a coiled pipe over a fire, and thus the 
BUica is destroyed, and the straw softened to pulp, which, after bemg 
freed from the alkali by working it in cold water, is subsequently- 
bleached and beaten in the ordinary rag machine. 

To Transfer Pictures frOoNI Paper to Wood for Re-en- 
graving. — Soak the print in a saturated solution of alcohol and white 
caustic potash to soften the ink, then transfer to the block under rol- 
ler pressure. 

To Transfer Prestos, &c. — ^Take of gum sandarac, 4 ozs. ; mastic, 
1 oz. ; Venice turpentine, 1 oz. ; alcohol, 15 ozs. Digest in a bottle, 
frequently shaking, and it is ready for use. Directions : use, if pos- 
sible, good plate glass of the size of the picture to be transferred, go 
over it with the above varnish, beginning at one side, press down the 
picture firmly and evenly as you proceed, so that no air can possibly 
lodge between ; put aside, and let dry perfectly, then moisten the 
paper cautiously with water, and remove it piecemeal by rubbing 
carefully with the fingers; if managed nicely, a comx)lete transfer 
of the picture to the glass will be effected. 

Paper for Draughtsivien, &c. — Powdered tragacanth, 1 part; 
"water, 10 parts; dissolve and strain through clean gauze; then lay it 
smoothly upon the paper previously stretched upon a board. This 
paper wiU take either oil or water colors. 

To Apply DECALCOJinNE Pictures. — ^Yamish the pictures care- 
fully with the prepared varnish (which can be obtained with the pic- 
tures), with an omamentiug pencil, being careful not to get the var- 
nish on the white paper. In a few minutes the picture will be ready 
to lay on the panel, and the paper can be removed by wetting it, and 
when thoroughly dry, it should be varnished like an oil painting. Be 
particular to purchase only these transfer pictures which are covered 



548 MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 

with a gold leaf on the back, for they y^nH show plainly on any 
colored surface, while the jolain i^ictures are used only on white or 
light ground. 

Engkaving on Wood. — In order to make this subject rightly un- 
derstood we wUl state that the log of box is cut into transverse slices, 
linch in depth, in order that the face of the cut may be on a 
level with the surface of the printers' type, and receive the same 
amount of pressure; the block is then allowed to dry, the longer the 
better, as it prevents accidents by warping and splitting, which some- 
times happens after the cut is executed, if too green. The shce is ul- 
timately trimmed into a square block, and if the cut is large, it is made 
in various pieces and strongly clamped and secured together. The 
upper surface of the wood is carefully prepared, so that no inequal- 
ities may appear upon it, and it is then consigned to the draughts- 
man to receive the drawing. He covers the surface with a light coat 
of flake white mixed with weak gum water, and the thinner the coat 
the better for the engraver. The French draughtsmen use an abun- 
dance of flake white, but this is liable to make the drawing rub out un- 
der the engraver's hands, or deceive him as to the depth of line he is 
cutting in the wood. The old drawings of the era of Darer seem to 
have been carefully drawn with pen and ink on the wood; but the 
modern drawing being very finely drawn with the pencil or silver 
point is obliterated easily, and there is no mode of "setting" or 
securing it. To obviate this danger the wood engraver covers the 
block with paper, and tears out a small piece to work through, oc- 
casionally removing the paper to study the general effect. It is now 
his business to produce in relief the whole of the drawing ; with a 
great variety of tools he cuts away the spaces, however minute, be- 
tween each of the pencd lines, and should there be tints wanted on 
the drawing to represent sky and water, he cuts such parts of the 
block into a series of close Hues, which wiU, as near as he can judge, 
print the same gradation of tint; should he find he has not done so 
completely, he can re-enter each line with a broader tool, cutting 
away a small shaving, thus reducing their width and consequently 
their color. Should he make some fatal error that cannot otherwise 
be rectified, he can cut out the part in the wood, and wedge a plug of 
fresh wood in the place, when that part of the block can be re-en- 
graved. An error of tliis kind in a wood-cut is a very troublesome 
thing; in copper engraving it is scarcely any trouble, a blow with a 
hammer on the back wUl obhterate the error on the face, and produce 
'a new surface, but in wood the surface is cut entirely away except 
where the lines occur, and it is necessary to cut it deep enough not to 
touch the paper, as it is squeezed through the press upon the lines in 
printmg. To aid the general effect of a cut, it is sometimes usual to 
lower the surface of the block before the engraving is executed, in such 
parts as should appear light and delicate ; they thus receive a mere 
touch of the paper m the press, the darker parts receiving the whole 
pressure and coming out with double brilliancy. When careful print* 
ing is bestowed on cuts it is sometimes usual to insure this good effect 
bylayihg thin pieces of card or paper on the tympan, of the shape 
needed, to secure pressure on the dark parts only. 

Die Sinking. — ^^Vhen a die is required for a coin or medals, the 
engraver takes a piece of soft steel of suitable dimensions, generally 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 549 

/ 

3 or 4 inches in length, and about an inch greater in diameter than 
the coin or other article required, on this he hollows out the exact 
form of the desired impression by cutting away the steel by degrees, 
with small, weU-tempered, case-hardened tools. As soon as this work 
is thoroughly accomplished the steel is hardened by being heated red 
hot in a crucible with charcoal and oil or bone-dust, and then plunged 
into cold water. When a great number of coins of one sort are re- 
quired, the original die is termed the matrix, and copies are made 
from it by taking impressions from it m soft steel, which is in relief, 
and is called the puncheon, and from which, when it has been hard- 
ened, other dies are produced by pressure exactly similar to the 
matrix, and in intaglio^ which are case-hardened in their turn before 
they are fit to transmit an impression to any metal used for money. 
The metal used for our coinage, whether gold, silver, copper, or 
bronze is stamped in a cold and solid state; but medals and casts can 
also be produced by a method called casting en cliche, in which the 
metal is used in a soft state. For this purpose an alloy is used, con- 
sisting of J lead, J tin, and J bismuth, which fuses readily at the 
boiling point, 212° Fah. When the metal is soft, resembling paste in 
consistency, the die is placed upon it, and the impression produced by 
a smart blow from a mallet; the surface of the metal sets instantly, 
from coming into contact with the cold die, and thus readily retains 
the form that has been given to it. Copies of medals may be readily 
made in this way, but each face will be obtained in a separate piece, 
and these must be joined to give representations of the cdin in a com- 
plete form. Ornamental work is produced in thin metal for gas fit- 
ting, cornices, parts of cruet-stands, trays, &c., by means of a pair 'of 
dies, on one of which the pattern is formed in relief, and on the other 
in intaglio, the metal being placed between them. 

Raped Rui.e to Reckon Cost of Hay, Coal, &c. — Multiply 
the number of pounds by half the price per ton, and remove the 
decimal point three places to the left. Example ; What is the cost of 
764 lbs. of coal at $14 per ton? Ans. : $5,348. 

Process: 764 

14 — 2= 7 



6.348 



To Measure Grain. — ^Rule. — Level the grain; ascertain the space 
it occupies in cubic feet; multiply the number of cubic feet by 8, and 
point off one place to the left. 

Example : A box 20 ft. long, 10 ft. wide, and 5 ft. deep, how nwiy 
bushels does the box contain? Ans. : 800 bushels. -^ 



Process : 20x10x5=1000x8 -^ 10=^800 

K) 
8 



Or, 1000 ft 



800.0 



Note. — Correctness requires the addition to every 300 bushels of 1 
extra bushel 



u 




(C 




ii 




a 




li 




ic 




i( 





" granite 


u 




ii 


" mahogany 


ii 




ii 


'' oak 


ii 




ii 


" ash 


ii 




ii 


" heech 


ii 




ii 


" elm 


ii 




li 


" iir 


CI 




ii 



550 :,iACHiNiSTS, engineers', &c., receipts. 

CUBIC WEIGHT TABLE. 

13 cubic feet of marble weigh 1 ton. 

13i 

34 

39 

39 

61 

60 

65 

An acre of land is 208-^ ft. square, and contains 43,5G0 square feet 
BuRNLNTG Mirrors. — One oi the most curious speculations is th:.!; 
of concentrating, or multiplying the heat of the sun, by plain mirrors, 
concave mirrors, or convex lenses. As one plain mirror reflects the 
heat of the smi, so the reflection of two, three, or more, augment; 
the heat. In this way Archimedes burnt the Roman fleet at Syra- 
cuse ; and Antheonius^ an architect of Constantinople, described the 
method, and so does Leonard Digges, who wrote on it in the reign of 
Elizabeth, and asserts that he fired bodies half a mile distant. JBiif- 
fon combined plane glass mirrors only 6 inches by 8, and with 40 set 
on fire a tarred beech plank 66 feet distant; with 98 at 126 feet; with 
112 at 138 feet; with 154 at 150 feet; with 168 at 200 feet; and ho 
melted all the metals at 30 or 40 feet. 

Concave burning mirrors have been made of great size and power. 
They concentrate the sun's image at half the focal length. One of 4 
feet diameter, made of copper and tin, melted iron ore m 24 seconds, 
a sixpence in 7J seconds, a penny in 20 seconds, tin in 3 seconds, cast 
iron in 16 seconds, and slate in 3 seconds. Water boils immediately 
and evaporates, wood flames in a moment, pumice stone becomes 
glass, earth yellow or green glass. Parker made a glass lens of 3 
feet in diameter, with 6 feet 8 inches focus, and 3J inches thick at the 
centre. It fused slate in 2 seconds, pure gold, platina, nickel and 
cast iron in 3 seconds, pure silver m 4 seconds, pebbles, barytes, and 
lava in 7 seconds, steel and bar iron in 12 seconds, limestone in 55 
seconds, volcanic clay, Cornish moor-stone, and rhomboidal spar in a 
minute. Gold retained its metallic state though exposed for hours. 
Wedgewood's pyrometric-clay ran into white enamel in a few seconds. 
The lunar raj^s gave no heat. The rays were concentrated about 
4,000 times, if the focus was the J of an inch in diameter. 

Trudaine made another, which" in the focus 11 feet, melted steel 
in 5 minutes, and silver coins in a few seconds. A concave mirror 
makes a focus of cold from ice, but the focus is negation, like its 
source, and there is no cold per se more than heat per se. 

To find the focus of a concave mirror, multiply the distance of the 
object by the radius, and divide by twice the distance added to the 
radius. In parallel rays or infinite distance, it is half the radius. The 
size of the image is inversely as the two distances. A simple arrange- 
ment of mirrors has been found useful in the recovery of lost articles 
in wells, mines, &c., by directing the rays of the sun so as to shed a 
powerful light on the missing objects in these otherwise dark or ob- 
scure places. 
Indelible Stencil Inks. 1. Varnish, such as is used for ordi- 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 551 

nary printing ink, 1 lb. ; black snlpliuret of mercury, 1 lb. ; nitrate of 
silver, 1 oz. ; sulphate of iron, 1 oz. ; lampblack, 2 tablespoonf uls. 
Grind all well together; thin with spts. turpentine as desired. 2. 
Sulphate of manganese, 2 parts; lampblack, 1 part; su^ar, 4 parts; all 
in fine poAvder and triturated to a paste in a little water. Pennanent 
Bed. — ^Vermilion, 4 parts; sulphate of iroii, 1 part; drj^ing oil to mix. 
Any other color will answer besides red. 

Blue Ruling Ikk. — Good vitriol, 4 ozs. ; indigo, 1 oz. ; pulverize 
the indigo, add it to the vitriol. Jet it stand exposed to the air for 6 
days, or until dissolved ; then fill the pots with chalk, add fresh gall, 
J gill, boiling it before use. 

13LACK Ruling Ink. — Take good black ink, and add gall as for 
blue; do not cork it, as it prevents it from turning black. See IG 
different inks on page 215. 

To Pkint a PiCTUiiE FROM THE PRINT ITSELF. — The page or 
picture is soaked in a solution, first of potassa, and then of tartaric 
acid. This produces a perfect diffusion of crystals of bitartarate of 
potassa through the texture of the unprinted part of the paper. As 
this salt resists oil, the ink roUer may now be passed over the sur- 
face, without transferring any part of its contents except to the 
printed pai-t. 

To Clean Old Oil-paintings. — Dissolve a small quantitj^ of salt 
in stale urine; dip a woollen cloth in the mixture, and rub the paint- 
ings over with it tUl they are clean ; then wash , them with a sponge 
and clean water; dry them gradually, and rub them over with a clean 
cloth. Should the dirt not be easily removed by the above prepara 
tion, add a small quantity of soft soap. Be very careful not to rub 
the paintmgs too hard. 

To Renew Old OiL-PAiNTiNGS.—Tlie blackened lights of old pic- 
tures may be instantly restored to their original hue by touching them 
with deutoxide of hydrogen diluted with six or eight times its weight 
of water. The part must be afterwards washed with a clean sponge 
and water. 

Magic Paper. — ^Take lard oil, or sweet oil, mixed to the consist- 
ence of cream, with either of the following paints, the color of which 
is desired : Prussian blue, lampblack, Venetian red, or chrome green, 
either of which should be rubbed with a knife on a plate or stone un- 
til smooth. Use rather thin but firm paper; put on with a sponge, 
and wipe off as dry as convenient; then lay them between micolored 
paper, or between newspai)ers, and press by laying books or some 
other flat substance upon them untn the surplus oil is absorbed, when 
it is ready for use. 

Rubber Hand Stamps. — Set up the desired name and address in 
common type, oQ the type and place a guard about J inch liigh around 
the form ; now mix plaster of Paris to the proper consistence, pour in 
and allow it to set. Have your vulcanized rubber all ready, as made 
in long strips 3 inches wide and ^ of an inch thick, cut off the 
size of the iutended stamp, remove the plaster cast from the type, and 
place both the cast and the rubber in a screw press, applying sufficient 
neat to thoroughly soften the rubber, then turn down the screw hard 
and let it remain until the rubber receives the exact impression of the 
cast and becomes cold, when it is removed, neatly trimmed with a 
sharp knife, and cemented to the handle ready for use. 



552 MACHINISTS, engineers'/ ifcC. J RECEIPTS. 

To Make Door Plates. — Cut your glass the right size, and make 
it perfectly clean with alcohol or soap; then cut a strip of tin- foil suf- 
ficiently long and wide for the name, and with a i^iece of ivory or 
other burnisher rub it lengthwise to make it smooth; now wet the 
glass with the tongue (as saliva is the best sticking substance), or if 
the glass is very large, use a weak solution of gum arable, or the 
white of an egg in half a pint of water, and lay on the foil, rubbmg 
it down to the glass with a bit of cloth, then also with the burnisher; 
the more it is burnished the better it vnR look ; now mark the width 
on the foil which is to be the height of the letter, and put on a straight 
edge, and hold it firmly to the foil, and with a sharp knife cut the 
foil, and take off the superfluous edges; then either lay out the let- 
ters on the back of the foil (so they shall read correctly on the front) 
by your own judgment, or by means of pattern letters, which can be 
purchased for that purpose; cut with the knife, carefully holding 
down the pattern or straight edge, whichever you use; then rub 
down the edge of all the letters with the back of the knife, or edge of 
the burnisher, which prevents the black paint or japan, which you 
next put over the back of the plate from getting nnder the foil; hav- 
ing put a line above and one below the name, or a border around the 
plate or not, as you bargain for the job. The japan is made by dis- 
solving asphaltum in just enough turpentine to cut it; apply with a 
brush, as other pamt, over the back of the letters, and over the glass 
forming a background. This is used on the iron plate of the frame 
also, putting it on when the plate is a little hot, and as soon as it cools, 
it is dry. A little lampblack may be rubbed into it if you desire it 
any blacker than it is without it. 

Reliable FoKiMcx^ for Photographers. — No. 1. Silver Bath for 
Albumen Paper ^ for Summer use. — Crystal nitrate of silver, 40 grains ; 
nitrate of ammonia, 35 grains ; filtered rain water, 1 oz. ; saturated 
solution bicarbonate of soda, about 8 or 10 drops, or enough to make 
the bath slightly alkaline. No. 2. For winter use. Nitrate of silver 
24 ozs. ; nitrate of soda 2 ozs. ; glycerine 3 ozs, ; pure water 40 ozs. 
Make it a little alkaline with aquas ammonia. No. 3. Another Silver 
Bath. Silver, from 40 to 45 grs. (according to temperature ;) nitrate 
of ammonia, 20 grs. ; distilled or ice water, 1 oz. Float 45 seconds to 
1 minute. No. 4. Sal Soda Toning Bath. DistiUed or melted ice 
water 64 ozs. ; acid solution chloride of gold, (4 grs. to the oz. ) 1 oz. ; 
saturated solution of sal soda, J oz. Make it a full half hour before 
you wish to use it, and durmg the cold weather use the water slightly 
warm. No. 5. Chloride of Lime Bath. Water, 40 ozs. ; chloride of 
lime, 5 grains ; chloride of gold, 4 grs. No. 6. Bicarbonate of Soda 
Bath. Chloride of gold solution (1 gr. to the oz. of water, ) 1 oz. ; luke 
warm water, 16 ozs. ; bicarbonate of soda, (saturated solution,) 10 
minims. Make up fresh every time you prepare to tone. Make half 
an hour before using. Precipitate the gold in the old solutions with 
protosulphate of iron. No. 7 Fixing Bath. Hyposulphite of soda, 
1 part to 8 of water, and if the paper blisters in the washing, soap the 
pruits for 5 minutes in a solution of common salt. No. 8. Bath for 
Salting the Paper. Pure rainwater, 60 ozs. ; chloride of ammonium, 
360 grs. ; gelatine, 120 grs. 

Photograph Painting in Oil Colors.— Tints for the First 
Painting.— Flesh. — Wliite and Light -Reci.— White, Naples yellow, 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 553 

and vermilion. White, vermilion, and light red. Gra?/, Pearly, 
and Half Tmi5.— White, vermilion, and black. White and terro 
verde. White, black, Indian red, and raw nmber. Deej) Shades.—. 
Light red and raw nmber. — ^Indian red, lake and black. Carnations. 
— White and Indian red (powerful color). White and rose madder. 
White and lake. Kair.— Light Hai7\— -White and yellow ochre. 
White and Roman ochre. White and Vandyke brown for the dark 
I)arts. White and raw nmber for the dark parts. Dark Brown Hair. 
— Raw and burnt nmber. White and raw umber. White and Van- 
dyke brown. Tints for the Secoio) and Third Painting. High 
Lights. White and Naples yellow. Carnations. Rose madder and 
white. Indian red, rose, madder, and white. Gi^een Tints. — ^White 
and ultramarine, with any of the yellows. White and terre verte, 
with the addition of a little raw umber. The above green tints may 
be converted into green grays. Gray Tints. — ^Ultramarine, light red, 
and white. Indian red, lake, black and white. White, ultramarine, 
Indian red, and raw umber. Pudple Tints. — Any of the lakes or red 
madders, with ultramarine and white. Poioerful Shadow Tints. In- 
dian red, purple lake, and black. Indian red, raw umber, and black. 
Strong Glazing Colors. — Light red and lake. Brown madder. Van- 
dyke brown, Indian red, and lake asphaltimi. Draperies. — ^Back 
Ground Colors. — Pearly. — ^White, vermilion, and blue. White, 
vermilion, and black. White and black. Gray. — ^Wliite, Venetian 
red and black. Yelloio. Yellow ochre and white. Olive. — ^Yellow 
ochre, terre verte, and umber. Stone. — Raw umber and yellow. 
Black, white, and raw umber. Sky. — ^French blue and wliite. French 
blue, vermilion, and white. Edges of Clouds. — ^YelloAV ochre and 
white. C/oiic?s.^— Indian red, lake, and white. Brown madder, French 
blue, and white. 

Photograph Water Colors.— Flesh Tints. No. 1. Fair Conv- 
plexion. — Light red, a little carmine or vermilion, and Indian yeUow. 
Be careful in using the latter, and. in the flesh tints of very fair chil- 
dren, allow the vermilion to predominate ; carnations, rose madder, 
and, if the face be full of color, add a little vermilion to it. 2. Mid- 
dling Complexion. — Much the same as No. 1, saving that the light red 
must be in excess over the other colors — carnations, rose madder, and 
lake. 3 Dark Complexion. — Light red and Indian yellow, or light 
red and Roman ochre, and, if the complexion be generally ruddy, you 
may add a little Indian red, but it must be sparingly used, as it is a 
powerful color, and likely to impart a purple tone to the flesh. Car- 
nations chiefly lake, but if the complexion be warm, lake and a little 
yellow. The carnations for children's portraits are rose madder and 
vermilion, inclining more to the latter tint. Aged persons have rose 
madder, and a little cobalt to give a cold appearance to the color in 
their cheeks and lips. These tints, Nos. 1, 2, and 3, are indispensable 
as general washes, for the purpose of receiving the other colors, 
which are to be worked over them to bring up the complexion to the 
life. Uncolored photograpliic portraits vary so much in tone, that the 
beginner will, perhaps, find some difficulty in mixing up the tiats for 
the washes. He must note that the warm-toned ones do not require 
so much Indian yellow as the cold ones do. 

Kerosene or Carbon Oil Manufacture. — ^Petroleum, or rock 
oil, is a liauid substance, of a dark color, exuding from the earth and 



554 MACHINISTS, engineers', &C.5 RECEIPTS. 

containing certain liquid and solid hydrocarbons sucli as benzole, or 
benzine, kerosene, paraffine, asplialtum, &c., in a state of solution, 
in diiferent proportions. It differs greatly in composition, some sam- 
ples containing solid paraflfine and benzole in lar^e quantities, while 
others do not. Petroleum is separated from its different iDroducts by 
careful distillation at different temperatures. The crude material is 
first heated iJi a retort to a temperature of about 100° Fah. This 
causes a light oil of a strong odor to pass over into the condenser. 
The residue is then distilled at about 120° to 100°, the result being 
burning oil. When this is distilled off, steam is forced mto the retort 
and a heavy oil, fit for lubricating purposes, comes over, a black, 
tarry mass being left behind. The light oil is now used for mineral 
turpentine, and as a grease solvent. It is often of a dark color, which 
is easily removed by agitation, first with sulphuric acid and afterwards 
with soda-ley and water. In many instances this light oil (benzine) 
is sold for illurainatmg purposes under the name of Sunlight Oil, 
Combination Burning Fluid, Lightning oil, &c. I knew a gentle- 
man in Philadelphia who paid one man over $3000 for the receipt for 
making, together with the sole right to manufacture, vend and sell, 
a compoimd of this kind in that city. The curious, or those interest- 
ed, will find the receipt under the name of the " Northern Light " un- 
der the Grocer's Department in this work. Truth requires me to 
state that this article requires to be handled with great caution when 
used for lighting purposes — many lamentable accidents having re- 
sulted from a careless use of it. The heavy lubricating oil, when 
cooled down to 30° Fah., often yields paraffine in large quantities, 
which is separated by straining and pressure. The asphaltum may bo 
used for pavements, or mixed with grease as a lubricant for heavy 
machinery. The most important product is, however, the burning 
oil, which is now used as a cheap and efficient illuminating agent 
in nearly every household in this country. An average sample of pe- 
troleum contains, according to ^Y. B. Tegetmeier, 20 per cent, of ben- 
zine or mineral turps, 55 per cent, of burning oil, 22 per cent of 
lubricating oil, and 8 per cent, of carbonaceous and tarry matter. 

To Deodorize Benzine. — Shake repeatedly with plumbate of soda 
(oxide of lead dissolved in caustic soda), and rectify. The following 
plan is said to be better. Shake repeatedly with fresh portions of 
metallic quicksilver ; let it stand for 2 days, and rectify. 

To Purify Petroleum or Kerosene Oil.— The distillate or 
crude burning oil is converted into ordinary burning oil by being 
placed into a tank when it is violently agitated by forcing air through 
it, and while thus agitated, IJ to 2 per cent, sulphuric acid is added,.' 
after which the agitation is continued 15 or 30 minutes. The oil is 
then allowed to settle, when the acid and impurities are removed, 
and any acid remaining in the oil is neutralized. It is then taken to 
shallow bleaching tanks, where it is exposed to light and air, and al- 
lowed to settle. It is next heated by means of a coil of steam pipe 
miming through it, to expel all gaseous vapors which will ignite at 
a temperature below 110° Fahr. The oil is now called Sifire test oil, 
and is ready to be barreled and sent to market. Kerosene oil is de- 
colorized, by stirring it up with 1 or 2 per cent, of oil of vitriol, which 
will carbonize the colloring matter, then with some miUc of lime or 
some other caustic alkali, settling, and re-distilling. 



MACHINISTS, engineers', AC, PwECEIPTS. 665 

To Bleach Fixed Oils.— Shako strongly for some minutes, 300 
parts of the oil with 40 parts water containing 1 part permangate of potas- 
sa ; allow the mixture to stand m a warm place for some hours, and then 
filter. Tliis renders the oil colorless. To purify oil. Into 1000 parts 
by weight of oil, put a mixture of G parts solution of ammonia and G 
parts water, agitate the barrel well until the alkali is perfectly mixed, 
which may be done in 15 minutes. The barrel is then sealed hermet- 
ically, and after 3 days' repose, the oil is decanted and filtered. The 
residue is used for the manufacture of soap. To Clarify Coal Oil. 
—Place in a close vessel 100 lbs. crude coal oil, 25 qts. water, 1 lb. 
chloride of lime, 1 lb. soda, and J lb. oxide of manganese. The mix- 
ture is violently agitated, and allowed to rest for 24 hours when the 
clear oil is decanted and distUled. The 100 lbs. coal oil are to be 
mixed witli 25 lbs. resin oil ; this is one of the principal points in the 
manipulation ; it removes the gummy parts from t^ie oU, and renders 
them inodorous. The distillation spoken of may terminate the pro- 
cess, or the oils may be distilled before they are defecated and preci- 
pitated. 

Oil for Fine Mechanism.— Oil for fine mechanism can be pre- 
]:>ared by putting zinc and lead shavings, in equal parts, into good 
Florence olive oil, and placing in a cool place until the oil becomes 
colorless. Unequalled for sewing machines, &c. 

To Make Linseed and Cotton Seed Oils. — ^In making Un^ed 
oil quite a variety of machinery is used, more or less expensive ac- 
cording to the enterprise and capital of the manufacturer. The seed 
is first passed through iron rollers, to be crushed or ground, one of 
the rollers is made to revolve more rapidly than the other, which sub- 
jects each seed to a pulling, as well as to a crushing process. The 
meal is taken from the mill to the "chasers," when it is subjected to 
another crushing process, more severe than the first. The chasers 
are two large circular stones about 5 feet diameter, and 18 inches 
thick, rolling upon a third stone in the manner of an old-fashioned 
bark or cider mill. These heavy stones start the oil from the seed, 
iud to keep it from adhering to the chasers it is moistened with water. 
The meal is next put into an iron cylinder, which is kept revolving 
over a fire until the water is evaporated. Much of the skill of making 
oil depends upon this heating process. It must not be scorched, and 
yet it must be brought up to a high temperature, so that it will readi- 
ly give out its oil. The presses are of various structure, some of 
them are patented, and others not open to public inspection. In one, 
the vats or hoops holding about 2 bushels each, were placed opposite 
each other against two immense beams or uprights, made fast in tke 
foundations of the builduig. The followers were forced down upon 
the meal by 2 large levers worked by hydrauUc power. The meal is 
kept mider pressure about an hour, and the two presses work up 
about 92 bushels of seed every 24 hours, the mill being kept running 
night and day. The product is not far from 2 gals, of oil from a 
bushel of seed, a little more or less, according to the quality of the 
seed and the skill in pressing. The cakes, as taken from the press, 
are generally sold by the ton without grinding, and are generally ex- 
ported in this form, but when there is a market in the vicinity of the 
mill, the cakes are put under the chasers, ground into meal, bagged 
and sent to the feed stores. The price of the cake is from $30 to $40 



566 MACHINISTS, engineers', &c., keceipts. 

per ton; ground into meal it retails at about $2 per 100 lbs. The pro- 
cess of making the cotton geed oil and cake is nearly the same. The 
seed of the upland cotton is surrounded with a husk, to which the cot- 
ton adheres. It is surrounded with a soft down after it leaves the 
gin, and in this condition it is purchased from the planter. The seed 
makes better oil and better meal when it is deprived of this liull and 
down. The yield of oil is about 90 gallons per 100 bushels of the Sea 
Island, or 2 gals, to 56 lbs. of the hulled cotton seed. 

To Make Coaij Oiii. — Break the coal or shale into small pieces 
and put from 10 to 16 cwt. in an iron retort, heated to a dull red color. 
Lute the retort door and keep up the retort for 24 hours. By this 
process a vapor is thrown off which passes through ranges of cisterns 
until it condanses, when it is run into cisterns. This crude oil, when 
refined and purified, is sold as paraffine oil, and solid parafline for 
making candles is jnade from it. 

Neat's Foot Oil, — After the hair and hoofs have been removed 
from the feet of oxen, they yioid, when boiled with water, a peculiar 
fatty matter, which is known as Heat's Foot Oil ; after standing, it 
deposits some solid fat, which is separated by filtration; the oil then 
does not congeal at 32°, and is not liable to become rancid. It is often 
mixed with other oils. This oil is used for various purposes, 
such as harness dressing, oiling tower clocks, &c. Tallow Oil. — ^The 
oil is obtained from tallow by pressure. The tallow is melted, and 
when separated from the ordinary impurities by subsidence, is poured 
into vessels and allowed to cool slowly to about 80°, when the stearine 
separates in granules, which may be separated from the liquid part by 
straining through flannel, and is then pressed, when it yields a fresh 
l^ortion of liquid oil. It is used in soap manufacture, &c. Lard oil is 
obtained from hog's lard by pressure, when the liquid part separates, 
while the lard itself becomes much harder. According to Braconet, 
lard yields 0.62 of its weight of this oil, which is nearly colorless. It 
is employed for greasing wool, and other purposes. 

Economic Lubricators. — 1. India rubber, 4 lbs. ; dissolved in 
spts. turpentine ; common soda, 10 lbs. ; glue, 1 lb. ; water, 10 gals. ; 
oil, 10 gals. Dissolve the soda and glue in the water by heat, then 
add the oU, and lastly the dissolved rubber. 2. To Lessen Friction in 
Machinery. — Grind together black lead with 4 times its weight of 
lard or tallow. Camphor is sometimes added, 7 lbs. to the hundred 
weight. 3. Anti-Friction Grease. — Tallow, 100 lbs. ; i)alm oil, 70 lbs. ; 
boil together, when cooled to 80°, strain through a sieve, and mix 
with 28 lbs. soda, and IJ gals, water. For winter take 25 lbs. more 
oil in place of the tallow. 4. Booth's Railway Axle Gi'ease. — Water^ 
1 gal. ; clean tallow, 3 lbs. ; palm oil, 6 lbs. ; common soda, h lb. ; or 
tallow 2 lbs. ; palm oil, 10 lbs. Heat to about 212°, and stir well until 
it cools to 70°. 5. Lrill Lubricator. — For wrought iron, use 1 lb. 
soft soap mixed with 1 gal. of boiling water. It insures good work 
and clean cutting. 

To Remedy Slip op Drivikg Belts. — Dab on a little of the 
sticlry oil which oozes away from the bearings of machinery. 

Blasting Powders. — ^Reduce separate/?/ to powder, 2 parts chlorate 
of potassa and 1 part red sulphuret of arsenic ; mix very lightly to- 
gether, or powder separately, 5 parts chlorate of potassa ; 2 parts 
Ted sulphuret of arsenic, and 1 part ferrocyanido of potassium 



MAcnrriiSTS^ engineers', &c., receipts. 557 

_.i ■* 
(prussiate of potassa) ; mix carefully, or, mix carefully as before, 
after having separately reduced to powder equal parts chlorate of po- 
tassa and f errocyanide potassium. These possess eight times the ex- 
plosive force of gunpowder and must he used with the greatest cau- 
tion. 

Blasting Rocks, &c.— In small blasts, 1 lb. of powder will loosen 
about 4i tons. In large blasts, 1 lb. of powder mil loosen about 2^ 
tons ; 50 or 60 lbs. of powder, enclosed in a resisting bag hung or 
propped up against a gate or barrier, will demolish any ordinary con- 
struction. One man can bore, with a bit 1 inch in diameter, from 
50 to 60 inches per day of 10 hours in granite, or 300 to 400 ius. per 
day hi limestone, Two strikers and a holder can bore with a bit 2 
ius. in diameter 10 feet per day in rock of medium hardness. 

To MAKE DuAiiiN. — Dualin is made from paper stock, saturated 
with nitrate of potassium and dried in a furnace. Then ground and 
mixed with nitro-glycerine. Component parts of nitro-glycerine. 
To 4i lbs. concentrated sulphuric-acid and 2J lbs. of concentrated 
nitric acid, add 1 lb. of glycerine. 

Labor on Embanbigients. — Single horse and cart A horse 
with a loaded dirt cart employed in excavation and embankment, wiU 
make 100 lineal feet, or 200 feet hi the distance per mhiute, while 
movhig. The time lost in ]^>:(liQg, dumpmg, awaiting, etc, =4 min- 
utes per load. A medium Li,jorer will load with a cart in 10 hours, 
of the following earths ; measured in the bank : Gravely earth 10. 
Loam 12, and Sandy earth 14 cubic yards; carts are loaded as follows : 
Descending hauling^ J of a cubic yard in bank; Level hauling 2-7 
of a cubic yard in bank; Ascending haiding, ^ of a cubic yard in bank, 
Loosening, &c. In loam, a three-horse plow will loosen from 250 to 
800 cubic yards per day of 10 hours. The cost of loosenhig earth to 
be loaded will be from 1 to 8 cents per cubic yard, when wages aro 
105 cents per day. The cost of trimming and bossmg is about 2 cents 
per cubic yard. Scooping. A scoop load will measure 1-10 of a cu- 
bic yard, measured m excavation. The time lost ui loading, unload- 
ing and trimming, per load, is IJ minutes. The time lost for every 70 
feet of distance, from excavation to bank, and returning is 1 minute. 
In Double Scooping, the time lost hi loading, turning, &c., will be 1 
minute ; and in Single Scooping, it wiU be IJ minutes. {Ellwood 
Morris. 

Hauling Stone. — A cart drawn by horses over an ordinary road 
wiU travel 1.1 miles per hour of trip. A4-horse team will haul from 
25 to 36 cubic feet of Ume stone at each load. The time expended in 
loading, unloading, &c., including delays, averages 35 minutes per trip. 
The cost of loading and unloading a cart, using a horse cram at tiie 
quarry, and unloading by hand, when labor is Sl-25 per day, and a horse 
75 cents, is 25 cents per perch=24.75 cubic feet The work done by 
an animal is greatest when the velocity with which he moves is | of the 
greatest with which he can move when not impeded, and the force 
then exerted .45 of the utmost force the animal can exert at a dead pull. 

Hay. — ^270 cubic feet of new meadow hay, and 216 and 243 from 
large or old stacks, will weigh a ton, 297 to 324 cubic feet of dry 
clover weigh a ton. 

Ice. — ^To compute the number of tons an ice-house wiU contain, cal- 
culate the number of cubic feet in an ice-houso, and divide by 35 ; 



558 MACHINISTS, engineers', &c,, receipts. 

this gives tlie number^of tons' thb Xce-liduse wili^ontain it if is closely- 
packed. 

Earth Diggen-g. — Humber of cubic feet of earth in a ton. Loose 
eartli 24 ; coarse sand 18.6. Clay 18.6. Earth with gravel 17.8. Chij 
with gravel, 14.4. Common soil 15.6. The volume of earth and sand 
in hank exceeds that in embankment in the followmg proportions ; 
sand 1-7, clay 1-9, gravel 1-11, and the volume of rock in embank- 
ments quarried in large fragmentG exceeds that in hanli fully one 
half. 

Weight of Earth, Rock, &c.— A cubic yard of sand or ground 
weighs about 30 cwt. ; mud, 25 cwt. ; marl, 2<3 cwt. ; clay, 31 cwt. ; 
challv, 36 cwt. ; sandstone, 39 cwt. ; shale, 40 cwt. ; quartz, 41 cwt. ; 
granite, 42 cwt. ; trap, 42 cwt. ; slate, 43 cwt. 

To Determine Weight of Live Cattle. — Measure in inches the 
girth around the breast, just behind the shoulder blade, and the 
length of the back from the tail to the fore part of the shoulder blade. 
Multiply the girth by the length, and divide by 144. If the girth is 
less than 3 feet, multiply the quotient by 11. If between 3 and 5 feet, 
multiply by 16. If between 5 and 7 feet, multiply by 23. If between 
J and 9 feet, multiply by 31. If the animal is lean, deduct 1-20 from 
the result, or take the girth and lengtli y\ feet, multiply the square of 
the girth by the length, and multiply the product b}^ 3.36. The result 
will be the answer inpomids. The live weight multipLLed by 6.05, gives 
a near approximation to the net weight. . ^ - 

Gauging Streajms. — Multiply the square root of the cube of the 
height in inches of the water on the sill of the weir or gauge by the 
constant 17.13, which will give the number of gallons per minute. 
If the water has any initial velocity it must be determined by experi- 
ment, and in that case multiply the square of the height by the square 
of the velocity, and by 0.8 ; to the product add the cube of the 
lieight, extract the square root of the sum, and multiply by 17.13 as 
before. 

Stowage op Coaes.— The following information wiU be valuable 
to many coal dealers and consumers who may be in doubt as to the 
capacity of their coal bins. A box 4 feet long, 3 ft., 5 in., wide, and 
2 ft., 8 in., deep, has a capacity of -36^ cubic feet, and will contain 
20001bs., or one ton of Beaver Meadow or Lehigh (American) coal. 
The spaces occupied by one ton of the undermentioned English coals, 
economic weight are: — ^Haswell's Wallsend, 45*25 cubic feet. North 
Percy, Hartley (Newcastle) 46 '96 cubic feet. Balcarras Arley (Lan- 
cashire) 44*35 cubic feet. Cannel (Wigan, Lancashire) 46*37 cubic 
feet. Duffryn (Welsh) 42*09 cubic feet. Pontyi)ool (Welsh) 40*22 
cubic feet. Hence, a shed 16 feet high, 20 feet broad, and 30 feet long, 
wiU hold over 212 tons of Haswell's Wallsend (Newcastle) coals, 
about 207 tons of Cannel, and 228 of Duffryn. The average space 
occupied by one ton of Newcastle coal, economic weight, is 44 cubic 
feet, that of one ton of Lancashire coal, 44^ cubic feet, and that of 1 
ton of Welsh coal, 41 cubic feet. Therefore a shed of the above 
dimensions, would, on the average, hold 217 tons of Newcastle coal, 
216 of Lancashire, and 234- of Welsh. From the above data, any in- 
tending purchaser can easily calculate the capacity of his coal bins, 
sheds, &c., and in many cases secure a good bargain by laying in •. 
large stock when coals are cheai^. 



MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 559 

Composition Tacks for Muntz Metal on Ships.— Copper 87 
parts, ziiic 4 parts, tiii 9 parts. 

BESULTS OF J. H. CHEEVERS' EXPERIMENTS WITH VULCANIZED 
RUBBER BELTING AND LEATHER, DITTO. 

Ruhher. Leather, 



Lbs. 

Belt slipped on Iron pulley at 90 

Leather ''' 128 

" " Rubber " 183 



Lbs. 

Belt slipped on Iron pulley at 48 

" " Leather " 64 

" " Rubber '' 128 



Deductions from the above : Rubber belts for equivalent resistances 
with leather belts, may be reduced respectively 46, 50 and 30 per cent. 

Vulcanized Rubber belting has greater endurance than leather, its 
resistance to slipping being from 50 to 84 per cent, greater. 

Mill for Spinning Wool and Weaving Merinos.— Nineteen 
machines to prepare the combed wool, having together 350 rollers; 16 
mules Avith 3,400 spindles; one winding machine of 60 rollers to pre- 
pare the warp ; 2 warping machines ; 2 self-acting feeders ; 100-power 
looms; 2 lathes for wood and iron, and one pump require in all 30 
horse power. Produce : 13,600 cops of woolen thread, of 45 cops to 
the pound, each measuring 32 yards. The looms make 115 revolu- 
tions per minute, and produce daily 4 pieces of double width merino 
of 68 yards each, and 4 pieces of simple merino of 1.2 to 1.4 yard 
broad, and each 88 yards long. 

Cotton Factory.- (7oric?ensmr/ Engine, Cylinder, ^ 37 in. diam. 
Stroke of piston, 1 ft. Volume of piston space, 53.6 cubic ft. Average 
pressure of steam, 16.73 lbs. per square inch. Revolutions, 17 per 
minute. Friction of Engine and Shafting, (indicated) 4.75 lbs. per 
sq. inch of piston. Indicated Horses poioer, 125. Total power=l. 
Available, deducting friction=717. 

(The foregoing has reference to an English mill, for driving 22,060 Hand 
mule spindles, with preparation, and 260 looms, with common sizing.) 

Remarks.— Each additional horse's power will drive 305 liand- 
mule spindles, loitli preparation^ 
or 230 self-acting '* 

or 104 throstle " 

or 10.5 looms with common sizing. 

Including preparation : 

1 throstle spindle=3 hand-mule, or 2.25 self-acting spindles. 
1 self-acting spindle=1.2 hand-mule spindles. 
Exclusive of preparation, taking only the spindle : 

1 throstle spindle=3.5 hand-mule, or 2.56 self-acting spindles. 
1 self-acting spindle=1.375 hand-mule spindles. 

The throstles are the common, spinning 34 twist for power loom 
weaving ; the spindles revolve 4,000 times per minute. The self- 
acting mules are, one half spinning 36' s weft, spindles revolving 4, 800; 
the other half spinning 36's twist, spindles revolving 5,200. The 
hand-mules spinning about equal quantities of 36's weft and twist. 
Weft spindles 4,700, and twist spindles 5,000 rev. per minute. Aver- 
age breadth of looms 37 ins. (weaving 37 ins. cloth), making 123 
picks per minute. All common calicoes about 60 reed, Stockport 
count, and 68 picks to the inch. Ko power consumed by the sizing. 
When the yam is dressed instead of sized, one horse's power cannot 



560 MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 

drive so many looms, as the dressing machine will absorb from 17 to 
.14 of the power. 

Size FOR Dressing Cotton Yarn OR Warps. — Flour 280 lbs ; tal- 
low lib. ; add J to 2 per cent, of the amount of flour employed of 
paraffine. The paraffine may be made to replace the whole, or a i>art 
of the tallow employed. 

Beautiful Sizing for Linen. — Crystallized carbonate of soda, 1 
part ; white wax, 4 to 6 parts ; stearine 4 to 6 parts ; pure white soap, 
4 to 6 parts ; fine Paris white or carbonate of magnesia 20 parts ; po- 
tato starch, 40 parts ; fine wheat starch, 160 parts ; boil with sufficient 
water to form 1600 parts altogether, adding, if desired, some ultra- 
marine to counteract the yellow tint of the linen. The linen is starched 
with this preparation, afterwards steamed and dried, then sprinkled 
with soap-water and placed In the stamping mill, afterwards steamed 
and calendered. 

The Mariner's Compass. — The needle or magnet is said to point 
always to the north, and as a matter of course the other points, as 
east, west, &c., are easily found by the needle pointing north and 
south. In certain parts of the world, however, the needle does not 
point to the north, but is drawn considerably to the right or left of 
true north. This is called the variation of the compass, and must 
be known accurately by the navigator in order to correct and steer 
the right course. For Instance in crossing the Atlantic Ocean, 
the variation of the compass amounts in sailing vessels to 2J or 2| 
l^oints westerly, and the course steered must be corrected according- 
ly. Say that you wish to make a due east course, you must steer 
2i or 2J points south of that or to the right hand in order to make a 
direct course. 

Off the Cape of Good Hope in the South Atlantic Ocean, strange 
enough, the variation of the compass in ships bound to India or Aus- 
tralia is 2J i)omts easterly, and in order to make it due east course it is 
necessary to steer 22 to the north or left of her course, while again to- 
wards the equator or centre of the globe there is hardly any percept- 
ible variation of the compass at aU. The way of finding out how 
much the compass varies in different parts of the world, is by obser- 
vations of the sun taken with the compass, and the difference be- 
tween the true and magnetic or compass bearing is the variation, 
which must be applied as a correction to the course steered. We 
have, however, in iron ships or steamers what is called the deviation 
of the compass to attend to besides the variation. This is the local 
attraction caused by the iron, and must be carefully understood be- 
fore steamers or iron ships attempt to go to sea. As in steamers of 
the Allan or Cunard line, each vessel before proceeding on her first 
voyage must be carefully swung, and magnets fixed to the deck, be- 
sides small chains placed on each side of the compasses in boxes, in 
order to counteract the attraction of the iron. Thus the compasses 
are so nicely balanced with the magnets and iron, that it is rare in- 
deed at this day that they get out of order on a trans-Atlantic passage. 
The consequences to either steamer or sailing ship whose compasses 
are astray would be terrible to contemplate, even if it were but one- 
half point, on dark winter nights approaching the land. These diffi- 
culties are now happily obviated by the discoveries of modern science, 
and their application in correcting the compass at sea. 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 561 

Heat of Water rs- Steam Boilees, "Warming of Buildings, &c. 
— ^The following table shows the temperature of water by Fahrenheit's 
and Centigrade scales of measurements, allowing 14.6Jbs. per square inch to 
atmosphere : — 



Pressure of 




Steam in 


Ten 


Atmospheres. 


ti 




F. 


1 


212° 


1.5 


230 


2 


251 


2.5 


261 


3 


275 


3.5 


285 


4 


294 


4.5 


300 


5 


308 


6.5 


314 


6 


320 


6.5 


326 


7 


332 


7.5 


a37 


8 


342 


9 


351 


10 


359 


11 


367 


12 


374 



c. 

100. o 

112.2 

121.2 

128.8 

125. 

140.5 

145.5 

148.8 

153.1 

156.2 

160. 

163.1 

166.2 




F. 

13|'381° 
14387 
15;393 
161398 
17 404 
18409 
19414 
20 1418 
21 1 423 
22 427 
231431 
24|436 
25 1 439 



169.4301457 
172.2 351473 



177.2 
181.2 
186.1 
190. 



40;487 
45491 
50 511 



C. 
155.° 
157.7 
200.5 
203 
206.2 
209.4 
212.2 
214.4 
217.2 
219.4 
221.2 
224.4 
226.1 
236.1 
245.1 
252.7 
255. 
266.1 



g^^o 



ao. 



S a?' 
f-i ■ 
03 






c3^ 



® 

c3 S M 

r^ S 2 ^ 

> +3 •> <D f-( 

?* O ^ 02 O 



.-I 2 03 

o p o o 3^ 

O ^ 0.5 <D' 
® © © c3 ft I 

J:i ^ ^'tt ft ' 
+=> -M +3 _^ «M in 

ftftft^ - 

O O o 5 o Qj 



03 

a> 

ft 
•rH 
ft 

B 
d 



0) OJ 









»-i ^^s^ 



fcJO 



l^ 



H 



Aho 



II II 

F-1 



II II 



*-• ri B 

pi 

U m ^ 

.2 © 

^ « ft 

Has 

•rl rtj 

ft-M 



Value of Fuel.— The evaporative power of Co A:e in the furnace 
of a steam boiler, and under pressure, is from 7h to 9 lbs. of fresh 
water per lb. of coke ; that of charcoal 5^ lbs. of fresh water per lb. 
The evaporative power of 1 cubic loot of pine wood is equal to that of 
1 cubic foot of fresh water ; or, in ~ 

the furnace of a steam boiler, and 
under pressure, it is 4j lbs. fresh 
water for 1 lb. of wood. One cord 
of hardwood and 1 cord of soft 
wood, such as the general average 
in Canada, is equal in evaporative 
effects to 2000 lbs. of anthracite 
coal. One cord of the kind of 
wood used by American river 
steamers in the West, is equal to 
12 bushels (960 lbs.) of Pittsburg 

coal ; 9 cords cotton, ash and cypress wood are equal to 7 cords yellow 
pine. The densest woods give the greatest heat, as charcoal gene- 
rates more heat than flame. The evaporative power of peat In the 
furnace of a steam boiler, and under pressure, is 3J to 5 lbs. of fresh 
water for every lb. of fuel. Bituminous coal is 13 per cent, more ef- 
fective than coke for equal weights, and in England the effects are 
alike for equal costs. In an experiment under a pressure of 30 lbs. 1 
lb. pine wood evaporated 3.5 to 4.75 lbs. ^ater, 1 lb. Lehigh coal, 
7.25 to 8.75 lbs. The least consumption of coal yet attained is Ih IbSr 

36 




Retubn Flue Boiler. 



562 MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 

per indicated horse-power. It usually varies in different engines from 
2 to 8 lbs. . Railway experiments demonstrate 1 ton of Cumberland 
coal, (2240 lbs.) to be equal in evaporating effect to 1.25 tons of an- 
thracite coal, and 1 ton of anthracite to be equal to 1.75 cords pine 
wood ; also that 2000 lbs. Lackawanna coal are equal to 4500 lbs. best 

i>ine wood. Much depends on the kind of boiler used. The Return 
^lue Boiler gives very good results in economizing heat. See diagram 
above. 

Specific Gravity. — ^Is the density of the matter of which any 
body is composed, compared with the density of another body as- 
sumed as the standard, or 1000. This standard is pure distilled water 
for liquids and solids, and atmospheric air for gaseous bodies and 
vapors. Thus as gold is 19, and silver 10 times heavier than water, 
those numbers 19, and 10 are said to represent the specific gravity of 
gold and silver. The heaviest known substance is iridium, used for 
pointing gold pens ; its specific gravity is 23. The lightest of all liquids 
has a specific gravity of 0.6, it is called chimogene, and is made from 
petroleum, it Is exceedingly volatile and combustible, being in fact 
a liquefied gas. Carbonic acid gas or choke damp is 500 times lighter 
than water, common air 800, street gas about 2000, and pure hydro- 
gen the lightest of all substances, 12,000 times. The heaviest substance 
has thus 23+12,000, or more than a quarter of a million times more 
weight than an equal bulk of the lightest ; and the substance of which 
comets consist, has by astronomers been proved to be even several 
thousand times lighter tlian hydrogen gas. 

Appiioved Frictioit Matches. — About the best known prepara- 
tion for friction matches consists of gum arable, 16 parts by weight ; 
phosphorus, 9 parts ; nitre, 14 parts; peroxyde of manganese, in 
powder, 16 parts. The gum is first made into a mucilage with water, 
then the manganese, then the phosphorus, and the whole is heated 
to about 130°"Fah. When the phosphorus is melted the nitre is ad- 
ded, and the whole is thoroughly stirred until the mass is a uniform 
paste. The wooden matches prepared first with sulphur, are then 
dipped in this and afterward dried in the air. Friction papers, for 
carrying in the pocket, may be made in the same manner, and by 
adding some gum. benzoin to the mucilage they will have an agree- 
able order when ignited. - ' ^ 

Improved Colored Fires. — White. — Saltpetre, 2 parts; sulphur, 
2 parts; antimony, 2 parts. Red. Nitrate of strontia, 20 parts; 
chlorate of potash, 5 parts ; sulphur, 6J parts ; charcoal, 1 part. Blue. 
Chlorate of potash, 9 parts; sulphur 3 parts; carbonate of copper, 3 
parts. Yellow. — Nitrate of soda, 24 parts; antimony, 8 i^arts, sul- 
phur, 6 parts ; charcoal, 1 part. Green. — Nitrate of baryta, 26 parts ; 
chlorate of potash, 18 parts; sulphur, 10 parts, Violet. — ^Nitrate of 
strtrntia, 4 parts ; chlorate of potash, 9 parts; sulphur, 5 parts; car- 
bonate of copper, 1 part; calomel, 1 part. 

'J'o Re-cover HajmjViers in Pianos. — Get felt of graduated thick- 
ness, cut it in strips the exact width, touch only the two ends with 
glue, not the part striking the strings, g^ Hold in place with springs of 
naiTow hoop iron. ^' 

Water. — Fresh Water. — The component parts by weight and 
measure is. Oxygen^ 88.9 by weight, and 1 by measure. Hydrogen^ 
11. 1 by weight, and 2 by measure. One cubic inch of distilled water 
at its maximum density of 39°. 83, the barometer at 30 inches, weighs 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 563 

252.6937 grs. A cubic foot weighs 62.5 lbs. Rated by the British 
Imperial standard, a cubic ft. of water at 62^^ weighs 998.224 ozs., 
35.84 cubic ft. of water weigh 1 ton, 39.14 cubic ft. of ice weigh 
Iton. Sca-V/aier. 1 cubic ft. weighs 64.3126 lbs. ; 34.84 cubic ft. 
weigh 1 ton and contains from 4 to 5§ ozs. of salt per gal. varying in 
-different ]xirts of the globe ; carbonic acid, 62 parts in every 1000 of 
water. The saline matter in the Dead Sea is 21.722 parts in every 
100. Dr. Scoresby's observations of the height of waves in the 
North Atlantic Ocean record 24 ft, 30 ft., the highest 43 ft., and the 
mean 18 ft. in western gales. French observers in tlie Bay of Biscay 
state a height of wave of 36 ft. ; Captain Wilkes writes of 36 ft. in the 
Pacific and Sir J. Ross of 22 ft. in the South xitlantic. Heights of 
Ty-aves in northwest gales off the Cape of Good Hope have been com- 
puted at 40 ft., those off Cape Horn at 32 ft., in the Mediterranean 
Sea at 15 ft., and in the German Ocean at 14 ft., but in the British 
waters they are only found to average 8 to 9 ft. The velocity of 
ocean storm waves was observed by Dr. Scoresby in the North 
Atlantic to be about 32 miles per hour ; Capt. Wilkes records it at 
26i miles in the Pacific, and French mariners in the Bay of Bis- 
cay at 60 miles an hour. Dr. Scoresby has estimated the distance 
between or breadth of his Atlantic storm waves at about 600 feet 
from crest to crest which is only about half of that stated by some 
others, and Dr. S. states that the waves of 30 ft. height move at 
the rate of 32 miles per hour. The mean force of the Atlantic 
waves for the summer months is over 600 lbs. per sq. ft., during 
winter 2086 lbs. During a severe gale 6383 lbs. per square ft. has 
been noted. Corrosive effects of Sea- Water on Metals, per square 
Joot. Steel 39 grs., iron 38, copper 9, zinc 8, galvanized iron 1.6, 
tm2. 
Brazing Cast Iron". — There are two ways of joining cast iron. 

1. Fit the broken pieces exactly together in moulding sand and pour 
melted iron over the parts to be joiaed. When cold chip off the 
superfluous metal and you wUl have a joint scarcely to be detected. 

2. Well tm the parts to be joined, fit together in sand as above, and 
pour melted brass over them. 

Macintosh Ci.oth. — The material is merely two layers of cotton 
cemented with liquid India, rubber; but the junction is so well effect- 
ed that the three become, to all intents and purposes, one. The stout 
and well-woven cloth is coiled upon a horizontal beam like the yard 
beam of a loom ; and from this it is stretched out in a tight state and 
a nearly horizontal direction ; a layer of liquid or rather paste-like 
solution is applied with a spatula, to a considerable thickness, and 
the cloth is drawn under a knife edge which scrapes the solution and 
diffuses it equally over every part of the cloth, which may be 
30 or 40 yards long. The cloth is then extended out on a horizontal 
framework to dry ; and when dried a second coating is applied in the 
same way, and a third or fourth coat if necessary. Two pieces, thus 
coated, are next placed face to face with great care to prevent creasing 
or distortion ; and being placed between two wooden rollers, they are 
so thoroughly pressed as to unite durably and permanently. Cloth, 
thus cemented and doubled and dried, may be cut and made into 



564 MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 

garments which will bear many a rough trial, and many a deluging, 
before rain or water can penetrate. 

To Petrify Wood — Gum salt, rock alum, white vinegar, chalk 
and pebbles powder, of each an equal quantity. Mix well together. 
If, after the ebullition is over, you throw into this liquid any wood or 
porous substance, it will petrify it. 

To Construct ak ^olian Harp.— Make a box ^vith the top, bot- 
tom, and sides of thin wood, and the ends IJ inch beech, form it 
the same length as the width of the window" in which it is to bo 
placed. The box should be 3 or 4 inches deep, and 6 or 7 inches 
Avide. In the top of the box, which acts as a sounding board, 
make 3 circular holes about 2 inches in diameter, and an equal 
distance ajmrt. Glue across the sounding board, about 2h inches 
from each end, 2 pieces of hard wood "j inch thick, and! J inch 
high, to serve as bridges. You must now procure from any musi- 
cal instrument maker twelve steel pegs similar to those of a piano- 
forte, and 12 small brass pins. Insert them in the following man- 
ner into the beech : first commence with a brass pin, then insert a 
steel peg, and so on, placing them alternately J in. apart to tho 
number of twelve. Now for the other end, which you must com- 
mence with a steel peg, exactly opposite the brass pin at the other 
end, then a brass pin, and so on, alternately, to the number of 12 ; by 
this arrangement you have a steel peg and a brass pin always oppo- 
site each other, which is done so that the i:)ressure of the strings on 
the instrument shall be miif orm. Now string the instrument with 12 
first violin strings, making a loop at one end of each string, which 
put over the brass pins, and wind the other ends round the oppo- 
site steel pegs. Tune them in unison, but do not draw them tight. 
To increase the current of air, a thin board may be placed about 
2 inches above the strings, supported at each end by 2 pieces of 
wood. Place the instrument in a partly opened window, and to 
increase the draft, open the opposite door. 

To Construct a Metronome. — ^Take a cheap clock movement 
and substitute for the pendulum a wire with a sliding weight, mark- 
ing the wire with a file at the different points of graduation. Used to 
indicate the proper time in music. 

To Bend Glass Tubes. — Hold the tube in the upper part of the 
flame of a spirit-lamp, revolving it slowly between the fingers : when 
red hot it may be easily bent into any desired shape. To soften large 
tubes a lamp with a double current of air should be used, as it gives 
a much stronger heat than the simple lamp. 

Black Lead Pencils. — The best pencils are made by grinding 
the black lead into a fine imi^alpable powder, then forming it mto 
blocks by compression without any cementing substance, and finally 
sawing it up into the square prisms, which, when placed in grooves in 
wood, form the black lead pencils of commerce. The color can be 
graduated to any desired tinge by the intermixture of very finely 
ground clay. By the process of Prof. Brodie, the most intractable 
graphite may be reduced to the finest powder with great ease. The 
mineral is coarsely powdered and mixed with l-15th of chlorate of 
potash, to which mixture is added twice its weight of sulphuric acid. 
Chloric acid is disengaged, and, after the masshas cooled, it is well 
washed, dried, and heated to redness. During the latter operation, 



MACHINISTS, ENGINEEKS'jjfcC, RECEIPTS. 5^5 

tile black lead swells and becomes reduced to so fine a powder that 
it will swim upon water, a little fluoride of sodium is used to dissolve 
the silicious impurities. The finest quality is found near Burrowdale 
in Cumberland, England. It is nearly pure carbon, and perfectly 
free from grit. It is used principally in tlie manufacture of lead pen- 
cils, the coarser quality being used, when ground, for polishing iron 
work, glazing gunpowder, as a lubricator for machmery, compounded 
^s^ith four times its weight of lard or tallow, and in the manufacture of 
crucibles for melting metals, as it is very intractable in an intense 
heat. 

Phili^tp's Fire Annthtlator. — Consists of a case ^ containing 
water, within which is a smaller case containing chlorate of potash 
and sugar. Dipped in the latter is a small tube cont.aining sulphuric 
acid ; when this tube is broken the chlorate of potash and sugar be- 
come ignited, throwmg off large quantities of mixed gases wmch are 
non-supporters of combustion; the action is maintained by the water 
in the outer case becoming heated. The gases are conveyed to the 
fire by means of a flexible tube fitted with a proper nozzle and sto])- 
cock. I have seen still another kind constructed of copper in quite 
an elegant style, fitted with shoulder straps, &c., for easy transporta- 
tion, in which the gases were generated by means of chemicals on the 
principle of what may be seen every day in the effervescence of car- 
bonic acid gas from the intermixture of seidlitz powders in water. 
The chemicals bein^ introduced from white and blue paper packages 
into the water contained in the copper case. 

Mantjpacture of Cobn Starch. — Watfs Fatent— The com is 
steeped in water, ranging in temperature from 70° to 140° Fah., 
for about a week, changing the water at least once in 24 hours. A 
certain amount of acid fermentation is thus produced, causing the 
starch and refuse of the corn to be easily separated afterwards. 
The swollen corn is ground in a current of clear soft water, and 
the pulp passed through sieves, witli the water into vats. In these 
the starch gradually settles to the bottom, the clear water is then 
run off by a tap, and the starch gathered and dried in a i^roper 
ajDaitment for the i:)iirposG. 

Refixixg of Sugah. — Both cane and beet-root sugar are refined 
on the same principle, by mixture with limewater, boiling with 
animal charcoal, and filtration through twilled cotton. In some 
establishments bullock's blood is used to aid in the clarifying. 
The albumen of the serum becomes coagulated on the application 
of heat, forming a network, which rises to the top of the liquor, 
carrying with it a great part of the impurities. The reddish syrup 
obtamed by the first filtration is next passed through filters into 
large vats, twelve or fourteen feet deep, upon which are laid coarse 
ticking, coarsely ground animal charcoal, and a second layer of 
ticking. The syrup is allowed to flow over the surface of the filter, 
and runs slowly through the charcoal, coming out perfectly 
colorless. The concentrated syrup is then boiled in vacuo, by means 
of which two important results are arrived at. The viscid liquid 
would boil in air at 230° Fah., at which temperature a quantity of 
uncrystallizable sugar would be formed. By performing the ope- 
ration in a vacuum-pan the boiling point is brought down to 150° 
or 1G0°, no formation of uncrystallizable sugar takes place, and 



566 MACHINISTS, engineers', &c., receipts. 

a great saving in fuel is effected. When the concentration reaches 
a certain point, the syrup is transferred to a yessel heated by steam 
to 170°, and forcibly agitated with wooden beaters, until it forms 
tliick and granular. From the heating-vats it is transferred into 
inverted conical moulds of the "weU-known shape, at the bottom of 
each of which is a movable plug. The syrup is weU stirred to 
prevent the formation of air-bubbles, and then left at rest for several 
hours, at the end of which time the plug is removed, and the 
nncrystallized syrup runs out. The loaves are further freed from 
all colored matter by a portion of perfectly colorless syrup being 
run through them. They are then dried in a stove and finished 
for market by being turned in a lathe. Crushed or granulated sugar 
is made by causing the granular syrup to revolve in a perforated 
drum, by which means the uncrystaUizable portion is separated 
from the crystals by centrifugal force. 

Button Manufacture. — Metal buttons are formed of an inferior 
kind of brass, pewler, or other metalUc compositions. For button 
metal, see a variety of alloj'S on pages 291 and 292. Buttons with 
shanks are usually made of these compositions, which is supplied 
to the manufacturers in sheets of the required thickness. By means 
of fly presses and punches, circular disks called blanks, are cut out 
of these sheets. This is mostly performed by females, who can 
furnish about 30 blanks per minute, or 12 gross per hour. Hand 
launching is the general mode of cutting out blanks, but more 
complicated machines, wliich cut out 8 or 10 blanks at a time, arc 
in use. After being i")unched, the edges of the blanks are very 
sharp, and require to be smoothed and rounded. Their surfaces 
are then planished on the face by placing them separately in a die 
under a small stamp, and allowing them to receive a smaU blow 
Irom a polished steel hammer. In this state they are ready to 
receive the shanks or smaU metal loops by which they are attached 
to the dress. They are made by a machine in which a coil of wire 
is gradually advanced toAvards a pair of shears which cuts off short 
pieces. A metal finder then presses against the middle of each 
piece, first bending it and then pressing it into a vice, when it is 
compressed so as to form a loop ; a hammer then strikes the two 
cuds, spreading them mto a flat surface, and the shank is pushed 
out of the machine ready for use. The shanks are attached to the 
blanks by women, with iron wire, solder and rosin. They are then 
put into an oven, and when firmly united, form plain buttons. If 
a crest or inscription is wanted, it is placed in a die and stamped. 
Buttons are gilded by gold amalgam, by being put into an earthen 
l)an with the proper quantity of gold to cover them, amalgamated 
with mercury in the following manner : the gold is put iuto an 
iron ladle in thin strips, and a small quantity of mercury, say 1 
part of mercury to 8 of gold, added to it, the ladle is held over 
the fire till the gold and mercury are perfectly united. This amal- 
gam being put into the pan with the buttons, as much aquafortis, 
diluted with water, as will wet them aU over, is thrown in, and 
they are stirred up with a brush till the acid, by its affinity to the 
copper in the buttons, carries the amalgam to every part of their 
surface, giving it the appearance of silver ; this done, the acid is 
washed away with clean water. This is called the quicking iiro- 



MACniXISTS, engineers', <&rC., KECEIPTS. 567 

cess. In drying off, the pan of "buttons is heated by a charcoal fire 
expellmg the mercury in the form of a vapor, which, under the 
improved system, is conducted *nto on oblong iron flue or gallery, 
gently sloped downwards, having at its end a small vertical tube 
dipped into a water cistern, for condensing the mercury, and a 
large vertical pipe for promoting the draught of the products of 
the combustion. The gold thus deposited in an exceedingly thin 
film upon the buttons, presents a dull yellow color, and must now 
be burnished ; this is effected by a piece of hematites, or bloodstone, 
fixed on a handle and applied to the button, as it revolves in the 
lathe. 

To KEXDER Wood Indestextctible. — Bobbins* Process. The 
apparatus used consists of a retort or stni, which can be made of any 
size or form, in which resui, coal tar, or other oleaginous substances, 
together with water, are placed in order to subject them to the heat. 
Fire being applied beneath the retort containing the coal tar, &c., 
oleagiuous vapor commences to rise, and passes out through a con- 
necting pipe into a large iron tank or chamber (which can also bo 
built of any size), containing the timber, &c., to be operated upon. The 
heat acts at once upon the wood, causing the sap to flow from every 
pore, wliich, rising in the form of steam, condenses on the body of 
the chamber, and discharges through an escape pipe in the lower part. 
In this process a temperature of 212^ to 250° Fahr. is suflScient to 
remove the surface moisture from the wood; but alter this the tem- 
perature should be raised to 300° or more, in order to completely 
saturate and permeate the body of the wood with the antiseptic vapors 
and heavier products of the distillation. The hot vapor coagulates tlio 
albumen of the wood, and opens tlie pores, so that a large portion of 
the oily product or creosote is admitted; the contraction resulting 
from the cooling process hermetically seals them, and decay seems to 
be almost impossible. There is a man-hole in the retort, used to 
change or clean out the contents ; and the wood chamber is furnished 
with doors made perfectly tight. The whole operation is completed 
in less than one hour, rendering the wood proof against rot, parasites, 
and the attacks of the Teredo navilis or naval worm. Germoji Stone 
Coating for Wood. — CJialk, 40 parts; resin, 50 parts; linseed oil 4 
parts ; melt together. To this add 1 part of oxide of copper, afterwards 
1 ])art of sulphuric acid ; add this last carefully ; apply with a brush. 

Ikon Tube Maxueacture. — In the present method of manufac- 
turing the patent welded tube, the end of the skelp is bent to the 
circular form, its entire length is raised to the welding heat in an ap- 
propriate furnace, and as it leaves the furnace almost at the point of 
fusion, it is dragged by the chain of a draw-bench, after the man- 
ner of wire, though a pair of tongs with two bell-shaped jaws ; these 
are opened at the time of introducing the end of a skelp, which is 
welded without the agency of a mandril. By this ingenious arrange- 
ment wrought iron tubes may be made from the diameter of 6 inches 
internally and about 1-8 to 3-8 of an inch thick, to as small as 1-4 of 
an inch diameter and 1-10 bore, and so admirable is the joining effected 
in those of the best description that they will withstand the greatest 
pressure of water, steam, or gas to which they have been subjected, and 
they admit of bein 2: bent both in the heated and cold state, almost 
with impunity. Sometimes the tubes are made one upon the other 



568 MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS', &C:, RECEIPTS. 

wheu great thickness is required ; but those stout pipes, and those larger 
than 3 inches, are but seldom required. The wrought iron tubes of 
hydrostatic presses which measure sihout J an inch internally, and J to 
§ of an inch thick in the metal, are frequently subjected to a pressure 
otfour tons on each square inch. 

Brass Tubes. — ^Brass or other tubes are formed of rolled metal 
which is cut to the desired width by means of revolving discs; in the 
large sizes of tubes, the metal is partially curv^ed in its length by 
means of a pair of rolls, when in this condition it is passed through a 
steel hole or a die, a plug being held in such a position as allows the 
metal to pass between it and the interior of the hole. Oil is used to 
lubricate the metal, the motion is communicated by power, the draw- 
ing apparatus being a pair of huge nippers, which holds the brass, 
and is attached to a chain and revolves round a windlass or cylmder. 
The tube in its unsoldered slate is annealed, bound round at intervals 
of a few inches with iron wire, and solder and borax applied along the 
seam. The operation of soldering is completed by passing the tubes 
through an air stove, heated with " cokes '* or " breezes" which melts 
tjie solder, and unites the two eyes of the metal, and forms a perfect 
tube; it is then immersed in a solution of sulphuric acid, to remove 
scaly deposits on its surface, the wire and extra solder having been 
previously removed; it is then drawn through a "finishing hole 
plate" when the tube is completed. Mandril drawn tubes are drawn 
upon a very accurately turned steel mandril, by this means the in- 
ternal diameter is rendered smooth. The tubes drawn by this pro- 
cess are well adapted for telescopes, syringes, small pump cylinders, 
&c. The brass tubes for the boilers of locomotive enghies are now 
made by casting and drawing without being soldered, and some of 
them are drawn taper in their thickness. Tubes from 1-10 inch in- 
ternal diameter and 8 or ten inches long, up to those of two or three 
inches diameter and 4 or 5 feet long, are drawn vertically by means 
of a strong chain wound on a barrel by wheels and pinions, as in 
a crane. In Donkin's tube drawing machine, which is applicable to 
making tubes, or rather cylinders, for paper-makmg and other ma- 
chinery, as large as 20^ mclies diameter, and CJ feet long, a vertical 
screw is used, the nut of which is turned round by toothed wheels 
driven by six men at a windlass. The fluted tubes of pencil cases are 
drawn through oramental plates, with elevations and depressions 
corresponding to the impressions left on the tube. 

Lead Pipe, is made by forcing lead, while heated to a plastic state, 
-over an annular mandril or die to form the core, by means of hy- 
draulic pressure. 

Cutlery Manufacture. — ^There are three kinds of steel employed 
in manufacture of different articles of cutlery, common steel, shear 
steel, and cast steel. All edge tools which require to be tenacious 
without being very hard, are made of shear steel. The best scissors, 
razors, penknives, &c. , are made from cast steel, which is able to 
take a very fine polish, common steel is only used in making cheap 
articles of cutlery. In maldng good table-knives, shear steel and 
cast steel are generally preferred. In the ordinary method of mak- 
ing knives, the blades are cut out of a sheet of steel, and the backs, 
shoulders and tangs of wrought iron, are attached to the steel 
blades by welding at the forge. Tlie knife is then ground to the 



MACHINISTS, engineers/ &C., RECEIPTS. 569 

proper shape, and tho^ blade polished and hardened. The fork 
manufacture is a distinct branch of industry, and the manufacturers 
of table knives generally buy their forks from the fork makers 
ready to be put into their handles. In making table knives, two 
men are generally employed ; one is called the foreman, or maker, 
and the other the striker. Pen knives are usually forged by a shiglo 
hand, with hammer and anvil simply ; they are hardened by heating 
the blades red-hot, and dipping them into water up to the shoulder. 
Razors are also hardened in the same manner. The grinding and 
polishing of cutlery are generally performed by machinery, the busi- 
ness of the grinders is divided into grindmg, glazing and polishing. 
Grinding is performed upon stones of various dimensions. Those ar- 
ticles which require temper being ground on wet stones. Glazing is 
a process by which lustre is given to cutlery ; it is performed with a 
glazier, consisting of a circular piece of wood, sometimes covered 
with leather, or an alloy of lead and tm ; it is fixed on an axis like a 
grfndstone. The polishing process is the last, and is performed on a 
similar piece of wood covered with buff leather. Only articles of 
cast steel which have been hardened and tempered are subjected 
to this operation. 

0:n- Needle Manufacture, TE]\rPERrN-G, &c. — ^This small but im- 
portant implement has to go through the hands of about 120 work- 
men during the process of manufacture. The steel wire, being drawn 
to the proper size, is submitted to various tests to ascertain its qual- 
ity, and is then cut into proper lengths by shears, which, by striking 
21 blows in a minute, cut in 10 hours fully 400,000 ends of steel wire, 
which produce about 800,000 needles. These are passed on for fur- 
tlier manipulation to other workmen, who straighten and point the 
pieces of wire. After pointing they are cut in two, so as to form two 
separate needles of equal length and quality. For each different size 
a small copper i^late is employed. It is nearly square, and has a 
tumed-up edge on two of its sides, the one is mtended to receive all 
the points, while the other resists the pressure of the shears. On 
this plate a certain number of wires are put with their pomts in con- 
tact with the border, and they are cut together flush with the plate, 
by means of a small pair of shears moved by the knee of the work- 
man. These even wires are now taken to the head-flattener. This 
workman, seated over a table with a block of steel before him about 
3 inches cube, takes up from 20 to 25 needles between his finger and 
thumb, spreadmg them out like a fan, with the points under the 
thumb, he lays the heads on the steel block, and, with a small flat- 
faced hammer strikes a few successive blows upon them so as to 
flatten them in an instant. The heads, having become hardened by 
hammering, are now annealed by heating and slow coonng, and are 
handed to the inercer, generally a cliild, who forms the eye in a 
second by laying the head upon a block of steel, and by driviug a 
small punch through one side with a smart tap of the hammer, and 
then exactly opposite on the other. The eyes are then trimmed by 
driving the punch through them again on a lump of lead and, after 
laying the needle with the punch sticking through it, u^Don the block 
of steel, hammering the head on the sides, which causes it to take 
the form of the punch. Tne next operator makes the groove at the 
eye and rounds the head, which he does with a small file. The 



570 MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS*, &C., KECEIPTS 

needles, "being tlius prepared, are thrown by the workmen pell-mell 
mto a sort of drum or box, in which they are made to arrange them- 
selves in parallel lines by means of a few dexterous shakes of the 
workman's arm. They are now ready to be tempered, for which 
purpose they are ranged on sheet-iron plates, about 30 lbs. weight at 
a time, containing from 250,000 to 500,000 needles, and are placed in a 
proper furnace, where they are heated to a bright redness for the 
larger needles, and to a less intense degree for the smaller ; they are 
then removed, and inverted suddenly over a bath of cold water in 
such a way that all the needles may be immersed at the same time, 
yet separate from each other. This has the effect of making them 
very hard and brittle. The water being run off, the needles are re- 
moved for further operations. Some manufacturers heat the needles 
by means of immersion in melted lead, others throw them into a pan 
along with a quantity of grease, which, being placed on the lire, the 
oily matter soon ignites, and alter it bums out, the needles are found 
to be in the proper temper ; those which are twisted in the temi)ering 
bemg afterwards straightened by the hammer on the anvil. 

Polishing is the next and most expensive and prolonged operation. 
This is effected on bundles containmg 500,000 needles intermixed with 
quartzoze sand, and a little rape-seed oil. Thirty of those bundles 
are exiDosed to the vibratory pressure of wooden tables, which make 
about 20 horizontal double movements per minute, causing the 
bundles to run over 2 feet each time, or 800 feet per hour. This 
agitation is kept up about 18 or 20 hours, causing such a move- 
ment and attrition as to polish the needles in the bags or bundles. 
They are then removed from the packets into wooden bowls and 
mixed with sawdust to remove the grease and other impurities, 
placed in a cask, which is turned by a winch ; more sawdust is 
introduced as required, and the turning is continued until the 
needles become clean and bright. They are then winnowed by a 
fan to clean them from the sawdust and refuse matter, and arc 
subsequently arranged in regular order on a small, somewhat con- 
cave, iron tray. The operation of making up the rolls or bags, 
polishing, winiiowmg and arrangmg them, have to be repeated ten 
times on the best needles. It is found that emery powder mixed 
with quartz and mica or pounded granite is preferable to anything 
else for polishing needles by friction in the bags at the first, emery 
mixed with olive oil, from the second to the seventh operation, 
I>utty, or oxide of tin for the eighth and ninth, putty with very little 
oil for the tenth, and lastly bran to give a finish. In this mode of 
operating, the needles are scoured in a copper cask studded in the 
interior with raised pomts to increase the friction and a quantity of 
hot soap suds is introduced occasionally to keep them clean. The 
cask must be slowly turned upon its axis for fear of injuring the 
mass of needles it contains. They are finally dried in the wooden 
cask by attrition with saw dust, then wiped with a linen rag or 
soft leather — ^the damaged ones being thrown aside. The sorting 
is performed in dry apartments, where aU the points are first laid 
the same way, and the needles arranged in the order of their polish 
with great rapidity. The workman places 2000 or 3000 needles 
in an iron ring two inches in diameter, and sets aU their heads in 
one plane, then, on looking carefully at their points, he easily re- 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C,, RECEIPTS. 571 

cognizes the "broken ones and removes tliem with an instrument 
adapted for the purpose. These defective needles pass into the 
hands of the pointer in order to be ground again, when they form 
articles of inferior value. Those needles bent in the polishing must 
now be straightened, and the whole are finally arranged by the 
tact of the fijQger and thumb of the sorter, and weighed out mto 
quantities for packing into blue papers. The bluei^ puts the final 
touch to them by taking 25 needles at a time between his fore-finger 
and thumb, and i)ressing their points against a small hone-stone 
of compact micaceous schist, quadrangular in form, mounted in a 
small lathe, turning them briskly round, giving the points a bluish 
cast, while he i)olishes and improves them. 

0:tf File Maistjfactuke Files are made of bars of steel, rendered 

doubly hard by a process called double conversion^ drawn the re- 
quired size at the tilt hammer, and then shaped, the square and flat 
ones by the hammer and common anvil only, but those of round, 
half-round, and three-angled forms, by means of bosses and dies made 
in the above shapes, which fit into a groove left for them in the anvil. 
The steel blanks having been thus formed, are next annealed^ or 
softened, to render them capable of being cut, by placing a number 
of them together in a brick oven, rendered air-tight by filling up all 
the interstices with sand (to prevent the oxidation of the steel, to 
which it is very liable, if air be admitted, ) and then making a fire 
play as equally as possible all round until they are red hot, when the 
heat is discontinued, and the steel allowed to cool gradually before it is 
uncovered. The surface to contain the teeth is now rendered as 
smooth as possible by grinding or filing; the teeth are then cut with a 
carefully ground chisel, each incision being made separately. The 
next and last process, that of hardening, is performed in various ways 
by different makers, the ordinary method, however, is to cover the 
files with a kind of composition or protecting varnish to prevent oxi- 
dation and scalding of the steel when heated; and, lastly, they are 
plunged in cold, fresh water to cool them as quickly as possible. Some 
file-makers coat their files, before tempering, with a composition of 
cow-dung, or pig-flour, which not only protects the sharp angles of 
the cuttings from the action of the fire, but furnishes a highly azotized 
substance, which conduces greatly to still further harden and steelify 
the finished work. I know several file manufacturers who make use 
of a bath of melted lead for tempering purposes. The files are first 
coated with a greasy composition to prevent any oxide adhering, then 
introduced for a short time into melted lead, or the "metallic bath" 
as it is called, and then j)lunged into the tempering liquid. The melt- 
ed lead may be kept covered with charcoal, or other suitable ingredi- 
ents, to prevent oxidation. In some manufactories a charcoal fire is 
kept burning on the surface of the melted lead. 

Ten Making. — ^Pens should be made of the best steel that can be 
got, as peculiar elasticity is required in them, which could not be ob- 
tained if poor steel were used. The steel is cut into slips some 3 feet 
long and 4 inches broad; these slips are then plunged into a pickle of 
diluted sulphuric acid so as to remove the scales .from the surface ; 
next it is passed between heavy rollers by which it is reduced to the 
thickness required, and made fit to undergo the first process in pen 
making. This is performed by a girl, who, seated at a stamping- 



572 ^ ^MACHINISTS engineers', &c. regeipts 

press provided with a bed and corresponding punch, speedily cuts out 
the blank, which is perfectly flat. The next step is to perforate the 
hole which terminates the slit, and to remove any superfluous steel 
which might interfere with the elasticity of the pen. The embryo 
pens are then annealed in a muffle, and the maker's name stamped 
upon them. ^ The pens are next transferred to another class of work- 
men, who, by means of a press, either make the pens concave, if they 
are merely to be nibs, or, if they are to be barrel pens, they roll the 
barrel together. ^ The next process is termed the hardening, and con- 
sists in placing a number of pens in an iron box which is introduced 
into a muffle. . After they become of a deep red heat they are plung- 
ed into a tank of oil, and, when they get cool, the adhering oil is re- 
moved by agitation in circular tin barrels ; tempering is the next step, 
by heating to the necessary elasticity in a. warm bath of oil; and, fin- 
ally, the whole number of pens are placed in a revolving cylinder 
along with sand, ground crucible, and other cutting substances, which 
tends to brighten them up to the natural color of the steel; next the 
nib is ground down finely, with great rapidity, by a girl, who picks it 
up with a pair of pliers, and, with a single touch on an emery wheel, 
j)erfe9ts it at once. The slit is now made by means of a press. A 
chisel, or wedge, with a flat side, is affixed to the bed of the press, 
and the descending screw has a corresponding chisel-cutter, which 
passiQg down with the greatest accuracy on the x^en, which had been 
placed on the chisel affixed to the bed, and the slit is made and the 
pen complete. They are next colored brown or blue, by x^lacing them 
in a revolving metal cylinder, under which is a charcoal stove, and, 
by watcliing narrowly the different gradation of color, the requisite 
tint is speedily attained; a brilliant polish is subsequently imparted 
by immersing the pens in lac dissolved in naphtha; they are then 
dried, counted, selected and placed into boxes for sale. 

Gold Pens. — Gold pens are made much in the same manner as 
steel, with this important difference, that, as they cannot be tempered 
in the same way that steel is, the necessary elasticity is imparted to 
them by hammering, and by rubbing them with a small hard stone 
and water, instead of the tempering, &c., in oil. As gold is too soft 
of itself to make a durable pen, it is found necessary to attach a min- 
ute portion of an alloy of irridium and osmium, by soldering to the 
tips. This makes an extremely hard and durable point. 

Tinning Small Articles. — Dissolve as much zinc scraps in mu- 
riatic acid as it will take up, let it settle, then decant the clear, and 
it is ready for use. Next prepare a suitable iron vessel, set it over 
the fire, put your tin therein, and melt it, and put as much mutton 
or beef tallow as will cover the tin about J inch thick. This prevents 
the oxidation of the metal; but be very careful that the tallow does 
not catch fire. The iron, or any other metal to be tinned, must be 
well cleaned, either with scraping, filing, polishing with sand, or im- 
mersion in diluted vitriol. Proceed to wet the articles in the zinc so- 
lution, then carefully immerse them in the tallow and melted tin; in a 
very short time they will become perfectly tinned, when they may be 
taken out. 

To Tin Iron Wire. — Clean the wire thoroughly in a pickle made 
of sulphuric acid and water (acid, 1 part, water, 2 parts "* cover it with 
a solution of muriate of zinc, and dip in melted tin. 



SIACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS' DEPARTMENT. 573 




JOHN LAIRD, THE BRITISH SHIP-BUILDER. 
Bom in Greenock, Scotland, in 1808, Died, 1875. 

Mr. John Laird was head of the great Iron shij)-building firm of 
Laird, Sons and Company, of Birkenhead, near Liverpool, England. 
The Birkenhead Iron Works were started hj William Laird, m 1824, 
and the first iron vessel built in them was in 1829; hut, so great was 
the prejudice against this class of vessels that it was necessary to send 
one to sea several times before the public could be induced to accept 
it as seaworthy. From 1829 to the present time over 400 vessels of a 
tonnage of over 150,000 tons, have been constructed at the Birken- 
head 5'ards. 

CoiviPARATivE Weight of Ikon an^d Wood Hulls. — An iron 
hull weighs nearly 45 per cent, less than a wood hull. The weight of 
hull of a vessel with an iron frame and oak planking, compared with 
a hull entirely of wood, is as 8 to 15. 

Lubricant for Turning Tools. — ^It is said that steel annealed to 
a straw color can be easily turned by using a mixture of petroleum 
and turpentine as a lubricant. Alloys which resisted the best tempered 
tools have been turned by the use of petroleum alone. 

Planer Tools. — For comm,on planing, use a half side tool, stout 
and short, and with the point turned up, like a common diamond 
pomt ; tor planing under, as in slide rests, &c., use tools sharpened 
up to a point, with the sharp end turned up with a taper from the 
point to the thick part of about 2 inches. For squarinij,- up, u^e a 
round point tool ciittinii- from tJio ; idrv 



574 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 




OLIVER EYANS. 



Inventor of tlie Higli-Pressure Steam Engine. 

In 1793, Oliver Evans, a native of Newport, Delaware, invented 
the High- pressure Engine, and in 1804 he constructed an engine in 
Philadelphia, working on the high-pressure system, and placed it on 
a large scow mounted on wheels, as shown in the following cut. Al- 
though the whole Aveight was equal to 200 barrels of flour, yet his 
small engine propelled it up Market street and round the circuit to 
the Water Works, where it was launched into the Schuylkill, A 
paddle-wheel was then applied to its stern, and it thus sailed down 
that river to the Delaware, a distance of 16 miles, in the presence of 
thousands of spectators. 

Papier Mache, is used for fancy articles, such as the covers for 
albums, inkstands, blotting books, paper knives, etc., as well as for 
the cells of galvanic batteries. It is obtained from old paper made 
into a pulp with a solution of lime, and gum or starch, pressed into 
the form required, coated with linseed oil, baked at a high tempera- 
ture, and finally varnished. The pulp is sometimes mixed with clay, 
sand, chalk, etc., and other kinds are made of a paste of pulp and 
lime, and used for ornamenting wood, inlaying, etc. 



EVANS LOCOMOTIVE, SUNDRY ITEMS. 



575 




PRiivnxG Powder for Percussion Caps.— Reduce 40 parts of 
gunpowder to very fine dust; mix to a thin paste with water, next add 
chlorate of potassa, 21 parts, previously reduced to a very fine i^owder ; 
make the paste rather thin and deposit a small drop at the bottom 
of the cap. The mixture is liable to explode if incautiously handled. 

Balloon Varnish. — Melt India rubber in small pieces with its 
weight of linseed oil, and thin with spirits turpentine. 

Artificial Coral. — Yellow resin, 4 parts; vermilion, 1 part; melt 
very fine for ornamental work, &c. 

Gold Beater's Skin is prepared by extending the peritoneal 
membranes of caecum, washing them first with plain water, then with 
a solution of alum and lastly with a solution of isinglass and spices. 

Home-made Microscope. — Remove the bottom from a common 
I)ill box and insert a piece of window glass, paint the inside black, and 
make a small eye hole in the lid. In this hole insert a single drop of 
Canada balsam and allow it to cool. It i)ossesses magnifying power. 

To Remove Tin from Copper A^essels, immerse the article in 
a solution of blue vitriol. To remove tin from plates without acid, 
boil the scrap tin with soda ley in presence of litharge. 

Sound. — In dry air at 82° sound travels 1,142 It. per second, or 
about 775 miles per hour; in Avater, 4,900 ft. per second: in iron, 
17,500 ft. ; in copper, 10,378 ft. ; and in wood from 12 to 16,000 ft. per 
second. In water, a bell heard at 45,000 ft., could be heard in the air 
out of the water but 656 ft. In a balloon the barking of dogs can be 
heard on the ground at an elevation of 4 miles. Divers on the wreck 
of the Hussar frigate, 100 ft. under watej.-, at Hell Gate, near New 
York, heard the paddle wheels of distant steamers hours before they 
hove in sight. The report of a rifle on a still day may be heard at 
5,300 yds. ; a military band at 5,200 yds. The fire of the English on 
landing in Egypt was distinctly heard 130 miles. Dr. Jamieson says 
he heard, during calm weather, every word of a sermon at a distance 
of 2 miles. The bell of ^N'otre Dame, Montreal, Que., weighs 28,560 
lbs. ; that of the City Hall, N. Y., 22,300 lbs. ; of St. Paul's, London, 
11,470; "Big Ben," Westminster, 30,350; " Great Tom." of Oxford, 
18,000; St. Peter's, Rome, 18,607; Rouen, France, 40,000; St. Ivan's, 
Moscow, 127,830; one unhung at Moscow, 440,000, and one in China 
weighs 120,000 lbs. 



576 



hoe's printing machine. 




PEINTEES AND PUBLISHERS TABLE. 577 



PAPER TABLE FOR PRINT- 
ERS' AND PUBLISHERS' 
USE, 

Showing the quantity of paper re- 
quired for printing looo copies, (in- 
cluding 56 extra copies to allow for 
wastage), of any usual sized Book 
from 8vo. down to 32mo. If the 
quantity required is not found in the 
Table, double or treble some suita- 
ble number of pages or quantity of 
paper. 



»« w 


, 


^ 








1000 


g 


„•& 


!» 


il 


6 ci 

p: to 


;3 tjo 


Cop's. 


^■^ 


8 


■fz 


^f2 


U 


l& 


Rs.Qs 


I 


16 


24 


33 


I 2 


2 


16 


24 


32 


48 


64 


2 4 


3 


24 


36 


48 


72 


96 


3 6 


4 


32 


48 


64 


96 


128 


4 8 


5 


40 


60 


80 


120 


160 


5 10 


6 


48 


72 


96 


144 


192 


6 12 


7 


,S6 


84 


1X2 


168 


224 


7 14 


8 


64 


96 


128 


192 


2S6 


8 16 


9 


72 


108 


144 


216 


288 


9 iS 


10 


80 


120 


160 


240 


320 


II 


II 


88 


132 


176 


264 


352 


12 2 


12 


96 


144 


192 


288 


384' 13 4 


n 


104 


I5& 


208 


312 


4i6|i4 6 


H 


112 


168 


224 


336 


448; 15 8 


IS 


120 


180 


240 


360 


480I16 10 


16 


128 


192 


256 


3«4 


5^2 


17 12 


17 


136 


204 


272 


40S 




18 14 


18 


144 


216 


288 


432 




19 16 


19 


152 


228 


304 


456 




20 iS 


20 


160 


240 


320 


480 




22 


21 


168 


252 


336 


504 




23 2 


22 


17b 


2b4 


3S2 






24 4 


23 


184 


276 


368 






2S 6 


24 


192 


288 


384 






26 8 


2S 


200 


300 


400 






27 10 


26 


208 


3^2 


416 






28 12 


27 


216 


324 


432 






29 14 


28 


224 


336 


448 






30 16 


29 


232 


348 


464 






31 iS 


30 


240 


360 


480 






33 


31 


248 


372 


496 






34 2 


52 


256 


384 


512 






35 4 


n 


264 


396 


528 






36 6 


?4 


272 


408 


544 






37 8 


35 


280 


420 


560 






38 10 


36 


288 


432 


576 






39 12 


37 


29b 


444 


^92 






40 14 


38 


304 


4S6 


608 






41 16 


39 


312 


468 








42 18 


40 


320 


480 








44 



NAMES AND DIMENSIONS OF 
VARIOUS SIZES OF PAPER. 



PRINT. 

Medium ig x 

Royal, (20 X 24) 20 x 

Super Royal 22 x 

Imperial 22 x 

Medium and a half 24 x 

Small Double Medium 24 x 

Double Medium 24 x 

Double Royal 26 x 

Double Super Royal 28 x 

Double Super Royal 29 x 

Broad Twelves 23 x 

Double Imperial 32 x 

FOLDED. 

Billet Note , 6 x 

Octavo Note 7 x 

Commercial Note 8 x 

Packet Note 9 x 

Bath Note 8>^x 

Letter 10 x 

Commercial Letter 11 x 

Packet Post ii^x 

Foolscap i25^x 

FLAT. 

Legal Cap 13 x 

Flat Cap 14 X 

Crown 15 X 

Double Flat Letter 16 x 

Demy 16 x 

Folio Post. 17 X 

Check Folio 17 x 

Double Cap 17 x 

Extra Size Folio ig x 

*Medium 18 x 

*Royal 19 X 

*Super Royal 20 x 

^Imperial 22 x 

Double Demy 21 x 

Elephant 22 Kx 

Colum^bier 23 x 

Atlas 26 X 

Double Elephant 26 x 



24 

25 

28 

32 
30 
36 
38 
40 
42 
43 
41 
4O 



8 

9 
10 
II 

14 
16 

17 
18 

16 



16 
17 
19 
20 
21 
22 
24 
28 
23 
23 
24 
28 

30 

31 

27K 

31K 

33 

40 



N. B. — The weight of a ream of paper 
and the price per pound being given, the 
cost per ream or quire may be known at 
once by consulting the Ready Reckoner 
Table. 



578 PASTEBOARD, PULP COLORS, &C. 

To Remove Printer's Ink form Paper Pulp.— Potasli 4 lbs; dis- 
solve in as little boiling water as possible, and add 3^ lbs. tallov/, boil 
for 3 hours, and add while cooling and stirring, 3 gals, rain water. 
Boil the paper pulp, keeping it covered with water, and to each 20 gals, 
pulp, add 1 gal. of the above mixture; beat and stir thoroughly, and 
the black printing uik will rise to the surface ; skim it off as long as it 
continues to rise. 

Colored Paper. — The papers made from colored rags are the 
brown packing paper and coarse colored paper, such as sugar and pin 
papers. According to Wagner, colored pin paper requires to every 
50 Idlos (see the French measures and their English equivalents 
described elsewhere) of dry pulp the several" under-mentioned sub- 
stances :— 

v^i,^_ ( 2.05 Kilos Acetate of Lead, 

^ ^^^^^ I 0.45 " Bichromate of Potash, 

-R, ,^ 1 2.05 '' Sulphate of Iron, 

^^^^ j 1.05 " Ferrocyanide of Potash, 

r^nn,. J 3.00 *' Blue, 

^^^^^^ I 1.05 " Yellow, 

Violet 1.05 " Extract of Logwood, 

Rose 6.00 " Extract of Brazil Wood, 

-p.,«, (3.00 " Oil of Vitriol, 

^^^ ) 3.00 '' Chloride of Lime. 

Ultra marine and aniline blue are also nsed in coloring. In varie- 
gated paper chemical, mineral and vegetable colorings are used ac- 
cording to the desired colors. Body colors are rendered fluid by a 
solution of gum arable or alum in the size, which can be applied by 
a brush or sponge when only one side is to be colored. Variegated 
and tapestry papers are an important part of the manufacture. 

French Composition for Printer's Rollers. — For a 24-inch 
roller, take Russian isinglass, J oz; gelatine i oz; when the usual com- 
position, compounded of glue, 1 lb ; molasses 1 pt. is ready for pouring 
add the above to it; let all boil 15 minutes longer, then cast in the 
usual way. 

PastI:board and other Papers. — Pasteboard is made in 3 ways : 
1. By placing the pulp in a form ; form-board. 2. By pressing several 
damp sheets to f oim a thick card ; elastic pasteboard. 3. By pasting 
together the finished paper sheets ; sized pasteboard. 1. Form-board 
is an inferior kind employed for ordinary purposes of packiug, book- 
binding, etc. It is made, from waste paper, refuse rags, and the 
coarse parts of the pulp. Clay or chalk is sometimes present to 25 
per cent, of the weight of this pasteboard. It is made in a coarse 
ribbed form, goes through the same process of knotting as the paper 
sheet, and is dried and dressed under a roller. 

2. Elastic pasteboard is of better material, and presents a smoother 
surface; 6 to 12 sheets of paper previously dampened are placed to- 
gether and pressed into one compact sheet. A separate and harder 
kind of pasteboard is the thick elastic board, used for binding books. 
The mner layer is made of coarse stuff, saw dust, etc. 3. Size paste- 
board, or cardboard is made of 2 to 15 sheets of sized paper, pressed 
and satined. There are varieties of this cardboard, such as Bristol- 
board, London-board, the former being extensively used for water- 
color drawings, mounting-board, ornamental-board, etc. 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 579 

Bronze PRrNTixG. — Take a small portion of strong lithographic 
varnish and grind with Yorli BroTVTi, when well ground, thin down 
with thin varnish and gold size equal parts. This will do for letter 
press or lithograph printing, for paper, cloth, silk, &c. 

Another Way. — Print as with common printers' ink, then dust on 
or rub over with good pale or other colored bronze powder, allow it 
to set, then shake or brush off the superfluous bronze with a light 
soft brush. 

Gold Printing. — ^Have gold leaf cut the proper form to suit your 
job, and use gold size instead of ink as in the usual way on the type. 
Apply the gold leaf to the size until the impression is covered, usiug 
a gilders tip, or by a dexterous use of the thumb, and forefinger of 
the right hand slightly moistened, raise the gold leaf with the ac- 
companying paper and apply to the size. When all is covered dab it 
down gently with a ball or soft cushion of cotton or other proper 
material, and remove the superfluous gold with a soft brush, and if 
the size has been well applied it will assume a splendid appearance. 
Use a good firm roUer for gold and bronze printing. 

Colored Inks for Printers. — 21 Tints. — In every case use good 
varnish, the greatest cleanliness, a good marble slab, a good muller 
for grinding, and never compound a surplus quantity over and above 
the present requirements. Grind, blend, and finely pulverize the 
ingredients, in each and every instance. Good work demands 
smooth good ink, free from gritty particles. For a good Red, grind 
in English vermilion, ^vith a little lake. Deep Red use Indian red 
and lake. Bright Red, add carmine to pale vermilion. Deep 
Scarlet, add a little portion of vermilion to carmine. Blue, 
Prussian blue. Bright Pale Blue, cobalt, also verditure and indigo 
for other shades of blue. Green, to pale chrome add Chinese blue; 
vary the colors by varying the proportions of the different pigments. 
Emerald Gree:?^, grind pale blue with a little Chinese blue, then 
add the emerald until the color suits. Deep Bronze Blue, Chinese 
blue. Deep Brown, burnt umber, with a small quantity of scarlet 
lake. Pale BROW^r, burnt sienna with a little scarlet lake. Deep 
Lilac, add a little carmine to cobalt blue ; for a pale lilac, reverse 
the proportions of each. Bright Pink, crimson, lake or carmine as 
you i)refer. Blue and black inks intermixed, wiU evolve a Deep 
Blue Ink ; carmine and blue, will yield a Purple Ink ; yellow and 
blue, a Green Ink; yellow and carmine, a Vermilion Ink; yellow 
and black, a Bronze Green; yellow, blue, and black, a Deep 
Green Ink; carmine, yellow and black, a Brown Ink. 

Copper Plate Printer's Ink* is made by adding Frankfort 
black in proper quantity to the usual linseed oil burnt as for common 
printing ink. See page 545. - 

Gold Leaf.— According to the color, gold leaf is demoninated 
deep, medium, fine, red, pale red, deep orange, lemon, pale ichite, &c. 
Deep gold admits very little alloy, the quantity being usually about 
24 of silver and 2| copper, making 5 in all. A medium kind is made of 
42 parts pure gold, 12 silver and 6 copper. The gold is first made in- 
to small ingots IJ x | in. and 3-16 in. thick. The ingot is passed 
repeatedly between 2 polished steel rollers, until it becomes a long 
ribbon only 1-800 in. thick. The ribbon being cut into inch square 
piecesj 150 of these are interleaved with thick paper, and enclosed in 
a parchment case called a kuich. The kutch is subjected to a long 
continued series of blows administered with a 16 lb. hammer, and to 



580 MACHINISTS, engineers', ifcC, RECEIPTSo 

all parts of both surfaces equally. When each piece has been stretch- 
ed out by this beating to 4 in. square, the kutch is opened, the pieces 
are cut into 4 of 2 in. square each, and these are interleaved in a 
book of gold-beater's skin caUed a shoder, the 150 pieces being now 
600. Another beating with a 9 lb. hammer spreads out these as be- 
fore and another cutting augments the number from 600 to 2400. 
These are separated hito 3 packets of 800 each, and each of these 
packets is again beaten in a book of gold beater' s skin called a mould ; 
this beating, lasting 4 hours, is done with a 7 lb. hanmier. The leaves 
of gold now reduced to the proper thickness, are cut into 8J in. square 
which are interleaved in books and made up in packs. Leaf gold u 
the thinnest substance produced in the mechanical arts, being only 
the 280.000 of an inch in thickness, a single grain covering 56 square 
ins. Dentist's gold is thicker than the ordiuary leaf gold. 

AjBTiriciAii Writing Slate.— Sand (fine), 82 parts; lampblack, 
8 parts; boiled linseed or cotton seed oil, 10 parts; boil thoroughly 
together, then add spirits turpentine in order to reduce the mixture 
for easy application to a thin piece of paste-board. When dry, apply 
another coat, dry again, give it a third coat and finish oft by rubbing 
smooth with a piece of cotton waste soaked in spirits turpentine. 
Makes most superb memorandum books, &c. ; use a slate pencil. 

The Drummond Light is produced by directing a jet of mixed 
oxygen and hydrogen upon a pencil of pure lime, the gases being 
conveyed in separate tubes or pipes, to "within a very short distance 
from the aperture at which they are to be delivered, and the flowing 
together and mixing in a very minute quantity before combustion 
takes place. This arrangement is adopted to ensure safety. The 
gases are used in the proportion of 2 of hydrogen to 1 of oxygen, 
which form a dreadfully explosive mixture. 

To Engrave on Copper. New Method. — Coat the copper with 
any of the silvering solutions described in this work, cover this with 
colored varnish, then draw the lines with a sharp point in the manner 
of using a diamond for stone engraving, and etch them in with per- 
chloride of iron. 

To Enamel Copper Vessels. — Pulverize finely 12 parts of fluor 
spar, 12 parts unground gypsum, and 1 part borax, and fuse together 
in a crucible; when cold, mix with water to a paste, and apply to the 
interior with a paiut brush ; when dry the vessel should be thoroughly 
baked in a muffle or furnace. 

Tempering Points op Tools. — After being tempered the volume 
of the tool is slightly increased, and consequently its specific gravity 
is decreased. As the expansion or increase, of volume is so very 
slight, it is quite immaterial which is plunged into the liquid first ; 
however, every moment the edge is kept out it is cooling, and the 
tempering may be rendered defective thereby. Mercury tempers 
the hardest, then water, then salt water, then oil of various kinds — 
as whale oil. As oil cools the metal more slowly, it is not tempered 
so hard but the tenacity is increased. 

Hard Tinning CojMPOUnd. — An alloy of nickel, iron and tin has 
been introduced as an improvement in tinning metals, by thfe firm of 
Blaise & Co., Paris. In an experiment to show the tenacity of the 
nickel, a piece of cast iron tinned with the compound was subjected 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 581 

for a few minutes to a white heat under the blast, and, although tlie 
tin was consumed, the nickel remained as a i^ermanent coating- ui)on 
the iron. The proportions of nickel and iron mixed with the tm, in 
order to produce the best tinning, are 10 ozs. of the best nickel and 7 
ozs. of sheet iron, to 10 lbs. of tin. These metals are mixed in a 
crucible to prevent the oxidation of the tin by the high temperature 
necessary for the fusion of the nickel ; the metals are covered with 1 
oz. of borax and 3 ozs. pomided glass. The fusion is complete in half 
an hour, when the composition is run off through a hole made in thq 
flux. In tinning metals with this composition the workman proceed^i 
in the ordinary manner. 

To Recover Gold from Quartz. — ^Pulverize the quartz rock as 
usual, and fuse the mass with lime and oxide of iron. When fused, 
immerse thin plates of wrought iron in the mixture. The plates 
soon become coated with a thin film of gold, and are then with- 
drawn and immersed in a bath of melted lead, which removes the 
adhering gold, when the plates can at once be returned to the fused 
quartz and the operation repeated as frequently as the case may 
require. Another method, when the metal is disseminated through 
quartz pyrites or lead, is to pulverize the ore as usual and wash the 
whole with a stream of water, which carries away the lighter 
portions of sand, leaving the heavy metals behind. It is further 
freed from impurities by being amalgamated wiU quick-silver, 
A7hich is afterwards distilled off. In this state it generally contains 
from 2 to 10 per cent, of silver or tellurium. It U further refined 
by being finely granulated and boiled with concentrated sulphuric 
acid until every other constituent is boiled out. Gold by being 
alloyed, loses much of its ductility and malleability, but gains in 
fusibility and hardness. Gold alloys are assayed in two ways, 
first, by rubbing the article on a touchstone (which is a velvety, 
black flinty variety of jaspar) so as to make a metallic streak, 
wliich is touched with aqua regia^ and thr effect is compared with 
that of a similar streak made by an alloy %i known composition. By 
this means an experienced operator can estimate the amoimt of 
aUoy in any mixture correctly within one per cent. Full informa- 
tion regarding the second process can be seen under the article on 
Refining Gold and Silver. 

Gold Mining in Colorado.— From the veins of Gilpin County 
alone nearly GOO tons of ore are raised daily, or 180,000 tons annually. 
Nearly 500 lodes have been assayed or mapped in a circle of three 
miles in diameter ; fully ^thousand lodes have been recorded, and 
more or less work performed on each. From fifteen to twenty miles 
of reputable lodes are known to exist, upon which there is not less 
than 8 miles of shafting, the deepest being 800 feet. There is not less 
than 20 miles of drifting on these veins, foUowmg the ore deposit in 
the crevices, and the official assays show the ore to be worth from 
$40 to $130 per ton. The tailings, or refuse of ore put through the 
stamps, are found to be worth $20 per ton, notwithstandmg from 10 
to 20 per cent, of the precious metal passes down the stream. The 
average shipments of bullion from this one county verges on $2,600,- 
000 annually. The machinery required for this immense production 
consists of 83 stamp mills, 185 engines in place, 4367 horse power, 
and 1597 stamps, of which there are over 800 in use, requiring 1703 



582 MACHINISTS, engineers', «fcC., RECEIPTS. 

horse power. There are 30 engines used at the shafts of mines for 
raising ore from the veins and keeping them free from water. These 
mills contain from 5 to 50 stamps^ mostly driven by steam. The 
ore, broken into fragments, is fed into a battery in which the stamps 
are raised and allowed to fall, crushing the ore fine enough to flow 
through a screen placed in front. Mercury is fed in this battery, and 
the pulverized ore mixed with stifiicient water is then made to flow 
over wide plates of copper amalgamated with quicksilver. The gold, 
or imrt of it, adheres, forming an amalgam with the mercury, which 
is afterwards scraped off, squeezed hard, and the lump retorted in 
a close retort of iron for the purpose of vaporizing the mercury and 
getting the gold almost pure ; the retorts being subsequently shipped 
to the East for mmting. Each stamp is calculated to do from J to J 
of a ton in 24 hours, requiring about one horse power to each stamp 
head. Most of the ore is reduced in leased mills abandoned by com- 
panies. These mill men charge their customers between $3 and $4: 
per ton for domg this work and returning the retort of gold. The 
tailings are partially caught in the best mills on blankets, and 
reworked at a profit ; the bulk, however, passes outside, a portion 
stopping to be shovelled into a ]Dile, the balance going on to the stream. 
The waste is nearly or quite equal to the gross yield in bullion. 
The most profitable branch of vein mining and reduction by tho 
smelting process was undertaken by Prof. Hill in 1867, in connection 
with some Boston and Providence capitalists, and is managed with 
much ability, energy and skill, compensated by enormous profits, of 
which the outside public know little or nothing, from the vigilance 
with which all such information is suppressed. From the road side 
you see from 20 to 30 piles of ore sending forth sulphurous emanations 
Into the air. These piles are first started on a layer of wood, and 
are run up in a pyramid form some 5 to 6 feet, with diameter at base 
of from IG to 20 feet, and then fired, the sulphur affording the only 
fuel, after the exhaustion of the wood, to keep the fire going from 
four to six weeks. This ore has been passed through the sampling 
works and been paid for, the amount lying thus in piles at one timo 
amounting to, i)erhaps, ^80,000. After roasting sufficiently to drive 
off the sulphur, and oxidize a portion of the iron, these piles are 
cooled and the ore carried to the smelting furnaces, where under a 
heavy heat, more sulphur is driven off, and the silica or gangue mat- 
ter is made to unite with the oxide of iron to form a slag. At the end 
of tho smelting some 8 or 10 tons are thus reduced to one called 
"matte," containing from $1,500 to S2,00(ftii the precious metals, and 
from 40 to GO per cent of copper. This product is then shipped in bags 
to Swansea, England, for separation into the several metals contained. 
The establishment contains three smelting furnaces and three calcin- 
ing furnaces, capable of reducing from 20 to 25 tons of ore per day. 
The tailings which arc concentrated along the streams, and are also 
sold to this establishment, average from $35 to $40 per ton. These 
works are doubtless the most profitable of the kind Imown in the 
world. In working tolerably high grade sulphuretted ores, if the 
facilities do not admit of sending them to England, the best way is to 
erect a common furnace, having the fire surfaces of good soap stone; 
then, to every 150 lbs. of ore, put in one bushel of charcoal and 10 
per cent of salt. The ore will readily melt to a slag, and will bo 



MAcniNisTs, engineers', &c., receipts. 583 

pretty well desulphurized. The slag can be drawn olT, and when 
cold can be broken up, and worked like free gold ore. 

Recovering Silver by the Patio Process. — The operation 
kno^vn by tliis name is sometimes conducted on an immense scale. 
In one instance at the hacienda of Regla near Real de Monte, there is 
an estabhshment the floor of which is 1^ acres in extent, built in tlic 
most substantial manner, slightly sloped to facilitate the flow of water. 
The flooring consists of well matched pine boards, and this vast re- 
ceptacle sometimes contains as much as 1000 tons of argentiferous 
slime, 30 tons of salt, 3 tons sulphate of copper, and 18,000 lbs. of 
mercury in various stages of the amalgamating process. The reason 
why this takes place m the well known manner is because there is au 
affinity between the different ingredients employed in the operation. 

Ox Correspondences. — The aflinity above referred to as existing 
between different materials, arises from a nature inseminated or ini- 
planted in each substance by the Creator, by virtue of which such 
a mutual affinity exists between them that when an intermixture 
takes place, they, as it were attract each other, and rush together in 
mutual embrace. Closely connected with these affinities, as showing 
the cause of their existence and origin, we have in the science of cor- 
respondences a most wonderful and instructive study, entering in 
its varied ramifications, so deeply into the inherent nature of every 
created thing, that there is nothing, and can be nothing in tlio universe 
but what comes within its consideration. The transcendent import- 
ance of the subject is such that it is deserving of vastly more elaborate 
consideration than the transient notice of a single paragraph, but as it 
would be a violation of order to enter into an extended explanation in 
this place, the reader is referred to the appendix for further illustration. 

Mercury or Quicksilver. — The ore is cinnabar of a bright ver- 
milion color. Its specific gravity is 8098. It is produced in immense 
quantities at the New Almaden mine in Santa Clara County, 12 miles 
from the town of San Jose, wliich is454: miles from San Francisco, Cal. 
The process by which the fluid metal is extracted is one of great sim- 
pUcity. There are 6 furnaces, near which the ore is deposited from 
the mine, and separated according to its quality; the larger masses- 
are first broken up and then all is piled up under sheds near the 
furnace doors. The ore is next heaped on the furnaces, and a steady 
though not a strong fire is apphed ; as the ore becomes heated the 
quicksilver is sublimed, and being condensed it faUs by its own weight, 
and is conducted by pipes, which lead along the bottom of the furnace 
to small pots or reservoirs imbedded in the earth, each containing from 
1 to 2 gallons of the metal. The furnaces are kept going night and 
day, wliile large drops or minute streams of the pure metal are 
.constantly trickling down into the receivers ; from there it is car- 
i-ied to tiie store house and deposited in large cast iron tanks or 
vats, the largest of which is capable of containing 20 tons of 
quicksilver. Seven or eight days are required to fill the furnaces, 
extract the quicksilver and remove the residuum. The miners and 
those who merely handle the quicksilver are not injured thereby, 
but those who work about the furnaces and inhale the fumes of 
the metal are seriously affected. Salivation is common, and the 
attendants on the furnaces are compelled to desist from their 
labour every three or four weeks, when a fresh set of hands is put 



584 3IACIIINISTS, ENGINEEKS", ^cC, KECEirXti. 

on. The liorses and mules are also salivated, and from 20 to 30 of 
them die every year from the effects of the mercury. 

Smelting of Copper. — After the ore is raised from the mine, it is 
freed from its matrix and sorted, the purest portions being broken 
into pieces the size of a nut. The first calcination is effected in a 
reverberatory furnace, the heat not being raised too liigh. At the 
end of 12 hours tlie ore is converted into a black i30wder, contain- 
ing sulphide of copper, oxide and sulphide of iron, and earthy 
impurities. Tlie roasted ore is next fused witli a quantity of silicious 
slag, bj^ which means it is converted into a fusible slag, consisting 
of silicate of iron and sulphides of iron and copper, which gink 
through the slag, forming at the bottom a hea^^ mass, termed a 
matt. The matt thus procured is, while melted, run into water, 
by which it is granulated. The product obtained is caUed coarse 
metal. It is roasted once more for twenty-four hours, by which 
means the larger proportion of the sulphide of iron is converted 
into oxide. It is then calcined with some copper ore known to 
contain oxide of copper and silica. The oxide of copper transforms 
any remaining sulphide of iron into oxide, which is taken up by the 
silica to form a slag, through which the sulphide of copper sinks. 
This matt contains about 80 per cent, of copper, and is known 
by the name of fine metal. It is cast into pigs, the lower portions 
of which contain most of the impurities ; the metal extracted from 
the upper portions being known in the market as best selected 
copper. The fine metal "has now to be freed entirely from sulphur 
by a final calcination, at a heat just short of that required to fuse 
it. Daring the process the metal becomes oxidized at the surface. 
The oxide thus formed decomposes the rest of the sulphide, sul- 
phurous acid escapmg, the metaUic copper remaining behind. The 
metal obtained is run off into moulds, forming ingots full of bub- 
bles, from the escape of the sulphurous acid gas. These ingots, 
which are known as pimple^ or blistered copper, from their peculiar 
appearance, have now to undergo the process of refining. They 
are placed in a reverberatory furnace, and kept in a melted state 
•for upwards of 20 hours, to oxidize the last traces of foreign 
metals. Slags are formed on the surface and skimmed off, and a 
great deal of oxide is produced which is absorbed by the metal. To 
reduce this oxide, the surface of the melted metal is covered with an- 
thracite or charcoal, and towards the last a young tree is thrust in. 
This process, which is called poling, disengages the whole of the 
oxygen from the oxide diffused through the mass. The above is, as 
nearly as possible, the method of copper-smelting, as employed in 
England, the processes adopted in Saxony and North America being 
nearly indentical with it, the difference merely being modifications 
to suit the various impurities contained in the ore. When the ore con- 
sists of oxide or carbonate of copper only, it is reduced to the metallic 
state by simple fusion with charcoal and subsequent poling. 

Sbielting of Lead. — The ore having been brought to the surface, 
is first sorted by hand, the purest portions being set aside ready for 
smelting. The rest is broken by hammers into lumps as large as a 
walnut, and again sorted. The remainder is then crushed in a mUl, 
and sifted through coarse sieves, the coarser portions being set aside 
for the stampers, and the finer being subjected to the process oijig- 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 585 

rjinrf. This consists in plnngin.i:^ a sieve containing the ore into water, 
and shaking it dexterously, so that the smallest particles pass through 
leaving the larger pieces in the sieve, with the lightest and least me- 
tallic portions upi^ermost. If the sorted galena be tolerably free 
from gangue, about IJ tons of the ore is mixed with l-15th to l-40th 
its weight of lime, and heated to dull redness in a reverberatory fur- 
nace, through which a current of air is passing. By this means a 
large portion of the sulphur is burnt off as sulphurous acid, oxide of 
lead and sulphate of lead being formed, and much of the ore re- 
maining undecomposed. When the roasting has been carried 
sufficiently far, the furnace doors are shut and the heat is raised. 
The sulphate and oxide of lead re-act on the undecomposed sulphide, 
a large quantity of sulphurous acid is formed which passes off, leav- 
ing large quantities of metallic lead behind. The fire is noAV damped, 
and a quantity of lime thrown in, which forms a very infusible slag, 
allowing the metallic lead to be draAvn off into moulds. This is 
smelted with an additional portion of ore. Lead is refined by bemg 
melted in a shalloAVx^an in a reverberatory furnace. By this operation 
any tin or antimony it may contain is oxidized and removed. When 
a ladlef ul of the lead under this operation cools with a peculiar crys- 
talline surface; the process is discontinued, and the metal is run off 
into pigs. For some iDurpose, such for instance as the making of red 
lead for the manufacture of flint glass, it is necessary that the lead 
should be almost chemically pure, as a proportion of copper for in^ 
stance, amounting only to a few grains per ton, would color the glass and 
spoil the batch. Silver may be profitably extracted from lead, even 
when it contains only three or four ounces to the ton, by Pattinson's 
process. This process depends upon the fact that, as lead solidifies, 
the first portions that crystallize are pure lead. The operation is, 
therefore, performed by melting the metal in. an iron pot and al- 
lowing it to cool gradually ; as it cools, the crj^stals of pure lead are 
removed by a perforated ladle, and the i^rocess continually repeated 
with fresh i^ortions of lead until the mass contains about 300 ounces 
to the ton. It is then submitted to ciipellation. 

To Construct a Barometer. — Get a strong glass tube 34 inches 
long and of a smooth even bore. Close one end by means of a spirit 
lamp and blow pipe, or Bunsen burner, and fill the tube with pure, 
clean, dry mercury, excluding all bubbles of air. Now i)lace your 
finger over the open end of the tube, and cautiously insert it in a 
small cistern or vessel partially filled with mercury. Do not remove 
your finger until the end of the tube which it covers is safely below 
the surface of the mercury in the vessel. When the tube is thus in- 
serted remove your finger and the contents will fall until the height 
of the mercury is nearly 30 ins. above the level of the mercury in the 
cistern beneath. In the barometer the mercury nev£r rises above 
31 inches and seldom falls below 27. The tube may be fitted into a 
grooved wooden case, the scale attached in the proper place, and the 
final adjustment made by comparison -with a correct instrument. 

S3IELTING OF TIN. — ^To cxtract the metal, the ore is first stamped or 
washed to get rid of the lighter particles of sand or earth adhering to 
it. It is then roasted to free it from arsenic and sulphur, and again 
washed to carry off the sulphate of copper and oxide of iron. The wash- 
ed ore is mixed with from one-fifth to one-eighth its weight of powder- 
ed anthracite, or charcoal, and a small x>ortion of lime to form a fusible 



586 MACHINISTS, ENGINEERS V &C., XIECEIPTSJ 

slag Trith au^^ of tlic remamiiig gangue. The charge is placed in the 
hearth of a low crowned reverberatory furnace, and the doors arc 
closed up. Heat is applied very gradually for five or six hours, care 
being taken to raise the temperature high enough to cause the carbon 
to reduce the tin without nielting the silicious gangue, which would 
form with the binoxide an enamel too troublesome to remove. When 
nearly all the tin is reduced, the heat is raised considerably, the slags 
being thus rendered fluid and capable of floating on the surface of the 
melted metal. The tin is tlien run off into cast iron pans from which 
it is ladled off into moulds to form ingots. The tui thus procured is 
far from being pure, it is therefore submitted to the i^rocess of ligiiation, 
which consists in heatmg the ingots to incipient fusion. "By this 
means the purer tin, which fuses at a comparatively low heat, separates, 
running down and leaving the impure portions behind, a The less fusi- 
ble portion, when remelted, forms block tin, and the part which has 
run out is again melted and run out with wet stakes. The steam thus 
formed bubbles up to the surface, carrying with it all the mechanical 
impurities contained in the tui. The mass is then skimmed and allowed 
to cool. When just about to set, the upper half is ladled out, the other 
metals and impurities having sunk into the bottom half, from the ten- 
dency that this metal has to separate from its alloys. The finest quality 
of tin is frequently heated to a temperature just short of its melting 
point. At this heat, it becomes brittle, and is broken up into masses, 
shovdng the crystals of the metal, and forming what is known as 
grain tin. The formation of crystals is to some extent a guarantee 
of its purity, since impure tin does not become brittle in this way. 
English tin generally contains small quantities of arsenic, copper, iron 
and lead. Tin fuses at 442° Fahr. , but it is not sensibly volatilized at 
that or any higher temparature. For the manufacture of tin plate the 
best soft charcoal iron is obliged to bo used. After it has been rolled 
and cut to the requisite size, its surface is made chemically clean by 
immersion for a few minutes in dilute sulphuric acid. The sheets are 
then heated to a red heat in a reverberatory furnace, withdrawn, al* 
lowed to cool, hammered flat, passed between polished rollers, and 
are now washed in dilute acid. This preparation is needed to free the 
surface of the iron from the slightest portion of oxide, to which the 
tin would not adhere. In order to tin them they are plunged one hj 
one into a vessel of tallow, from which they are transferred to a bath 
of tin. From this they are taken, after a certain time, allowed to 
drain, and dipped again. The superfluous tin at the edge of the plate 
is removed by dipping it in the melted tin once more, and detaching 
it by giving the plate a sharp blow. 

Royal British Washing Powder. — Soda ash, 10 lbs; carbonate 
of soda (ordinary soda), 10 lbs. ; crush into coarse grains. Have a 
thin solution of glue, or decoction of linseed oil ready, into which pour 
the soda untn quite thick, and spread out on boards, in a warm apart- 
ment, to dry, then pack up into nice square packages for sale, label- 
ling neatly. Used to soften hard water; finds a ready sale at a good 
profit. Another Way to soften Hard Water, Stir 1 oz. fresh lime in 
a bucket of water, pour all into a barrel of water, rummage well; 
when it settles, the water will be soft, pure, and fit for use. Seltzer 
Aperient. Calcined magnesia, 1 lb. ; tartaric acid, in crystals, IJ lbs. ; 
loaf sugar, IJ lbs. ; bicarbonate of soda, 1 lb. Towder all carefully, 



MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 587 

dry separately, mix, and add of ess. lemon and orange, Ox eacli, h fl. 
dr. Cork tightly in warm dry bottles, after passing tlirongh a line 
sieve. 1 tablespoonf ul to a tumbler of water acts as a mild cathartic. 
Liquid Black Lead Polish. — A good and reliable substitute for 
powdered stove polish, can be thus made : black lead, pulverized, 2 
lbs. ; spts. turpentine, 2 gills ; water, 2 gills ; sugar, 2 ozs. ; mix. 

USEFUL ITEMS FOR DAILY REMEMBRANCE. 

Legal Breyities. — A note dated on Sunday is void. A note op- 
tained by frand, or from one intoxicated, is void. If a note be lost 
or stolen, it does not release the maker, he must pay it. An endorser 
of a note is exempt from liability, if not served with notice of its dis- 
honor within 24 hours of its non-payment. A note by a minor is 
void. Notes bear interest only when so stated. Principals are re- 
sponsible for their agents. Each individual in partnership is respon- 
sible for the whole amount of the debts of the firm. Ignorance of the 
law excuses no one. It is a fraud to conceal a fraud. It is illegal to 
compound a felony. The law compels no one to do impossibilities. 
An agreement without a consideration is void. Signatures in lead 
])encil are good in law. A receipt for money is not legally conclusive. 
The acts of one partner bind all the others. Contracts made on Sun- 
day cannot be enforced. A contract with a minor is void. A con- 
tract made with a lunatic is void. Written contracts concerning land 
must be under seal. 

A TABLE OF DAILY SAVINGS AT COIMPOUXD ESTTEREST. 

Cents per Day Per Year In Ten Years Fifty Year^ 

2| ^10 $ 130 '6 2,900 

hi 20 2G0 5,800 

11 40 520 11,000 

27Jr..., 100 1,300 29,000 

557 200 2,G00 58,000 

LIO 400 5,200 110,000 

1.37. 500 0,500 145,000 

By the above table it appears that if a mechanic, or clerk saves 2| 
cents per day from the time he is 21 till he is 70, the total with in- 
terest will amount to $2,900, and a daily saving of 27 J cents reacheg 
the important sum of $29,000. Save all you can in a prudent man- 
ner for a time of possible want, but act justly by paying your debts, 
and liberally by assisting those in need,, and helping in a good 
cause. 

On Profane Swearing. — Let every man do his best to discoun- 
tenance tills abominable habit, and shim it as an accursed sin in every 
possible way. No respectable person wiU allow himself to be guilty 
of it. Business men who make a practice of it will find themselves 
avoided by the best class of customers, for I know that some persons 
can suffer no mental punishment equal to that inflicted by being com- 
pelled to listen to profane language. Besides, every man known as a 
profane swearer, will not be credited by those whose good opinion is 
worth having, even when he may be speaking the truth. 

Act Well Your Part, Don't be Selfish. — Remember that it 
is by imparting happiness to others, and making ourselves useful, 



588 MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 

that we receive happiness. Stand by this trutli, live it out, and al- 
ways keep doing something useful for the common good, doing it well, 
and acting sincerely. Endeavour to keep your heart in the attitude of 
cherishing good will to all, thinking and speaking evil of no one, and 
always with a kind word for every body. Selfishness is its own curse ; 
it is a starving vice. The man who does no good gets none. He is 
like the heatli in the desert, neither yielding fruit nor seeing when 
good Cometh, a stunted dwarfish, miserable shrub. Let all your in- 
fluence be exerted for the purpose of doing all you can for the com- 
mon good and individual welfare of every one. 

Married Life, its Joys and Sorrows.— A good wife is the 
greatest earthly blessing. A wife never makes a greater mistake 
than when she endeavours to coerce her huband with other weapons 
than those of love and affection. Those weapons are a sure pull if 
he has any thing human left in him. Forbear mutual upbraidings. 
In writing letters, during temporary separation, let nothing contrary 
to love and sincere affection be expressed; such letters from a wife 
have a most powerful emotional effect, sometimes little understood 
by those who write them. It is the mother who moulds the character 
and destiny of the child as to the exteriors, therefore let calmness, 
peace, affection, and firmness rule her conduct towards her children. 
Children are great imitators, whether they have scolding or peaceful 
mothers, they are generally sure to learn from the examples set before 
them, and thus the consequent joy or sorrow is transferred to other 
families, therefore let mothers take heed to their conduct. It is not 
possible to exercise judgment and prudence too much before entering 
on the married life. Be sure that the affections on both sides are so 
perfectly intertwined around each other, that the two as it were, form 
one mind ; this requires time, and a thorough mutual knowledge on 
both sides. Marry in your own religion, and into a different blood 
and temperament from your own. Bend your whole powers to avoid 
depreciatory remarks, jibing and anger in every form, and spec- 
ially avoid everlastingly dishing up any unsuccessful past action that 
was done from a good motive and with the best intentions at the time. 
Let Qothing foreign to the spirit of love and mutual affection intervene 
to cause distance between husband and wife ; to this end let self-de- 
nial rule over each, and reciprocal unselfishness. Avoid habitual 
fault-finding, scolding, &c., as you would perdition itself; many men 
tremble as they cross their threshold into the presence of scolding wives. 
Let husband and wife cultivate habits of sobriety, and specially avoid 
drunkenness in every form. What a dreadful spectacle it is to see a 
husband transformed into a demon, tottering homeward to a broken- 
hearted wife, whose noble self-sacrificing devotion to him seems to 
partake more off the nature of heaven than of earth. Never part, even 
for a journey, without kind and endearing words, and as a kiss sym- 
bolizes union from interior affection, do not dispense with it on 
such occasions, repeating it when you return. In one word, let 
love rule supreme. 

In all your dealings with woman, take a lesson from the cooing dove, 
speak softly, deal gently, kindly and considerately with her in every 
way. Let every husband and every wife cherish for each other the 
heavenly flame of affection, and let no rude, harsh, or embittered ex- 
pression on either side chill the sacred fire. If ever adoration of the 



MAcniNiSTs, engineers', &c., receipts. 589 

creature may hope for pardon, surely the worsMp rendered by man 
to a kind, pure, affectionate and loving wife, heaven's best gift, may 
invoke forgiveness. What countless millions of women have sac- 
rificed health, strength and life in attendance on sick and dying hus- 
bands, children and strangers ? How many have perished by rush- 
ing through fire and water to save their children, and starved them- 
selves that they might live ? In how many hospitals has she proved 
herself an an^el of mercy, and her sweet voice uttered words of 
comfort and cueer ? Therefore let woman have her f uU rights, even 
that of votmg if she desires it, for a good woman's influence will ever be 
used for a good purpose ; but let ^voman act towards man as indi- 
cated in the above advice for man to act towards woman, and she would 
be all bnt omnipotent, for man in a manner would move heaven and 
earth to serve her, and would do unspeakably more for her than can 
ever be done by all the fussy croakers, old maids, and woman's rights 
associations and lecturers in the creation. Love in the family is the 
one thing needful to regenerate the earth and cause the wilderness to 
become as Eden, and the desert to blossom as the rose. Reversed 
love and discord have broken more hearts, and caused more sorrow, 
estrangement, and downright death, than war, pestilence and all other 
causes combined. It palsies energy and ambition, engenders gloom 
and despair, and transform- nanhood into an icicle. Statistics prove 
that the married live longer on the average by several years, than 
the unmarried, a most satisfactory proof that the married state is pre- 
eminently the life designed for man, therefore let ail interested do 
their utmost to make itthe happiest. 

In reference to the maintenance of haalth, many valuable prescriptions 
and much good advice wiU be found under the Medical Department 
in tliis work, but truth requires us to state that for the purpose of 
mitigating the pains and labour incident to woman at the most event- 
ful and critical periods of her life, nothing within the whole compass 
of nature will compare with water, in its varied applications. This 
intimation is made for the purpose of directing enlightened and in- 
telligent action on the subject as necessity may caU for it. Past ex- 
perience sustains us when we say that aU may enjoy the great bless- 
ing of good health in the free nse of the bath, the temperate use of 
proper diet, i)lenty of exercise, pure air, warm clothing and ab- 
stinence from every excess inimical to health. 

Children and Home Conversation. — Children hunger perpetu- 
ally for new ideas. They wiU learn with pleasure from the lips of 
parents what they deem drudgery to learn from books, and even if 
tliey have the misfortune to "be deprived of many educational ad- 
vantages they will grow up intelligent if they enjoy in childhood the 
privilege of listening to the conversation of iutelligent people. Let 
them have many opportunities of learning in this way. Be kind to 
them, and don't think it beneath you to answer their little questions, 
for they proceed from an implanted faculty which every true man and 
woman should take a great dehght in gratifying. 

Home after Business Hours. — Happy is the man who can find 
that solace and that poetry at home. Warm greetings from loving 
hearts, fond glances from bright eyes, and welcome shouts of merry 
hearted children, the many thousand little arrangements for comfort 
and enjoyment, that sHently tell of thoughtful and expectant love, 
Uiese are the ministrations that reconcile us to the prose of life. 



590 MACHINISTS, engineers', &C., RECEIPTS. 

Think of this ye wives and daughters of business men ! Think of the 
toils, the anxieties, the mortification and wear that fathers undergo 
to secure for you comfortable homes, and compensate them for their 
toils by making them happy by their own fireside. 

Well Worthy of Imitation. — A worthy Quaker thus wrote : — 
" I expect to pass through this world but once. If, therefore, there 
be any kindness I can do to any fellow being, let me do it now, let 
me not defer nor neglect it, for I will not pass this way again. ** 
Were all to act thus how many would be made happy ! 

Another Sensible Quaker. — A Quaker lately propounded the 
momentous question to a fair Quakeress, as follows : *' Hum ! yea 
and verily; Penelope, the spirit urgeth and moveth me wonderfully 
to beseech thee to cleave unto me, flesh of my flesh, and bone of my 
bone." "Hum ! truly, Obadiah, thou hast wisely said. Inasmuch 
as it is not good for man to be alone, lo, I will sojourn with thee." 

Table Conversation. — Instead of swallowing your food in sullen 
silence, or brooding over your business, or severely talking about 
others, let the conversation at the table be genial, kind, social and 
cheering. Don't bring any disagreeable subject to the table in your 
conversation, any more than you would in your dishes. Avoid 
scandalizing people, and never cherish a jubilant feeling over the 
infirmities or misfortunes of others. The more good company you 
have at your table the better. Hence the intelligence, refinement and 
appropriate behaviour of a family given to hospitality. Never feel that 
intelligent visitors can be anything but a blessing to you and yours. 

Keep the House Clean and Well Ventilated. — A neat, clean, 
fresh aired, sweet, cheerful, well arranged house, exerts a moral in- 
fluence over its inmates, and makes the members of a family peace- 
able and considerate of each other's feelings; on the contrary, a filthy 
squalid, noxious dwelling, contributes to make its inhabitants selfish, 
sensual, and regardless of the feelings of others. Never sleep in a 
small close bedroom, either during summer or winter, without free 
ventilation from door or windows, unless otherwise supplied with 
abundance of fresh air. It will be seen that a person's house usually 
corresponds with his character. 

Safe Business Rules. — Business ivien, in business hours, attend 
ONLY to busmess matters. Social calls are best adapted to the 
SOCIAL circle. Make your business known in few words, without 
loss of time. Let your dealings with a stranger be most carefully 
considered, and tried friendship duly appreciated. A mean act 
will soon recoil, and a man of honour w^ill be esteemed. Leave 
" Tricks of trade" to those whose education was never completed. 
Treat all with respect, confide in few, wrong no man. Be never 
afraid to say No, and always Prompt to acknowledge and rectify a 
wrong. Leave nothing for to-morrow that should be done to-day. 
Because a friend is polite, do not think his time is valueless. Have 
a PLACE for everything, and every thing in its place. To preserve 
LONG friendship, keep A short credit, the way to get credit is to 
be punctual ; the way to preserve it is not to use it much. 
Settle often; have short accounts. Trust no man's appearances, 
tliey are often deceptive, and assumed for the purpose of obtaining 
credit. Rogues generally dress weU. The rich are generally plain 
MEN. Be WELL satisfied bcfoie you give a credit, that those to 
WHOM you give it are safe men to be trusted. 



ITEMS FOR DAILY REMEMBRANCE. 591 

Habits of a Man of Business. — A sacred regard to the princi- 
ples of justice forms the basis of every transaction, and regulates the 
conduct of the upright man of business. 1. He is strict in keeping his 
engagements. 2. Does nothing carelessly or in a hurry. 3. Employs 
nobody to do what he can easily do himself. 4. Leaves nothing un- 
done that ought to be done, and v^^hich circumstances permit him to 
do. 5. Keeps his designs and business from the views of others^ yet 
he is candid with all. 6. Is prompt and decisive with his customers, 
and does not overtrade his capital. 7. Prefers short credit to long 
ones; and cash to credit at all times, either in buying or selling; and 
small profits in credit cases with little risk, to the chance of better 
gains with more hazards. 8. He is clear and explicit in his bargains. 
9 Leaves nothing of consequence to memory which he can and ought 
to commit to writing. 10. Keeps copies of all his important letters 
which he sends away, and has every letter, invoice, &c., belonging 
to his business, titled, classed and put away. 11. Never suffers his 
desk to be confused by many papers lying upon it. 12. Keeps 
everything in its proper place. 13. Is always at the head of his busi- 
ness, well knowing that if he leaves it, it will leave him. 14. Holds 
it as a maxim, that he whose credit is suspected is not to be trusted. 
15. Is constantly examining his books, and sees through all his affairs 
as far as care and attention will enable him. 16. Balances regu- 
larly at stated times, and then makes out and transmits all his accounts 
current to his customers, both at home and abroad. 17. Avoids as 
much as possible aU sorts of accommodation in money matters and 
law-suits where there is the least hazard. 18. He is economical in 
his expenditure, always living within his income. 19. Keeps a memo- 
randum book in his pocket, in which he notes every particular relative 
to appointments, addresses, and petty cash matters. 20. Is cautious 
how he becomes security for any person. 21. And is generous when 
urged hy motives of humanity. Let every man act strictly to these 
habits; when once begun wiirbe easy to continue in, ever remember- 
ing that he had no profits by his pains whom Providence does not 
prosper, and success will attend his efforts. Let him also remember 
that the true achievements of life do not consist in making starthng 
strikes, but in the solid performance of daily duty. 

How TO Make a Fortune.— Cornelius Vanderbilt, on being inter- 
rogated as to the best way to make a fortune, is reported to have said 
in repl}^, " There is no secret about it, all you have to do is to attend 
to your business and go ahead." " There is nothing," said George 
Law, "so easy as making money when you have money to make it 
with ; the only thing is to see the crisis and take it at its flood." Alex- 
ander T. Stewart, the millionaire merchant prince of New York, who 
died April 10, 1876, once said to an anxious enquirer, "I consider 
honesty and truth great aids in making a fortune." This was ster- 
ling advice, and when it is supplemented by good management, 
ardent application to business, and strong self-reliance, as it was in 
an eminent de.gree in Mr. Stewart's own case, it cannot fail to tell 
with irresistabie power in favor of the man who follows it. 

True Charity. — Mr. Stewart's idea of charity was that in order 
to lielp men you must assist them to get work to help themselves, 
and not cherish in them a spirit of cringing dependence by giving 
them money for nothing. " Himself a man of strong self-reliance, 



592 ITEMS FOR DAILY REMEMBRANCE. 

he believed that the best service you could do men was to teach them 
to rely on themselves— to present them opportunities which only 
could be improved by individual effort. He had no charity for idle, 
ness, or the ambition to reap Avhen you have not sown." As observ- 
ed by his executor, Judge Hilton, "It is more charitable to furnish 
employment to men and women, than it is to destroy their self-respect 
by giving them money, as to paupers. Mr. Stewart never believed in 
helphig people to live without work. We have 9,600 persons on the 
pay roll of A. T. Stewart & Co., and I think that I will best carry out 
Mr. Stewart's views, and be practically charitable by maintaining the 
business which will keep those 9,600 persons in honorable employ- 
ment, so that they can support themselves and the thousands of fami- 
lies dependent upon them." Of Mr. Stewart's honesty and rigidly fair 
dealing there are numerous accounts. ' ' What do you mean by saying 
what you loiow to be untrue," he once demanded of a clerk who was 
trying his best to convince a woman that a piece of calico Avould not 
fade. "The calico won't wash, she'll demand her money back and 
she'll be right. I don't want goods represented for what they are 
not." It was this perfect honesty towards his customers that was Mr. 
Stewart's leading characteristic ; and it was his invariable custom, 
when questioned as to his explanation for his success, to reply with 
much emphasis. '' Truth, truth is the tahsmanic word; and if I have 
one earthly wish or desire greater than another, it is that in this 
respect my example may be commended and followed by young men 
entering into business, and especially by young merchants." On this 
firm basis of truth and integrity he conducted his colossal business, 
not by reckless risks or bargains, but by steady adherence to business, 
perfect system, and close attention to the least details as well as the 
largest. 

It is much to be regretted that Mr. Stewart did not, during his 
long and most successful business career, see fit to inaugurate and 
carry out to completion any such system of public beneficence as was 
at all commensurate with the ample means at his command, and that 
the performance of such important offices should be delegated or in- 
trusted in an optional way, to another. Every m^an, prospered and 
blest with the almost boundless prosperity meted out to Mr. Stewart, 
owes a duty to society which should never be neglected in this waj^ 
The generous conduct of that great and good philanthrophist, George 
Peabody, is in this respect most worthy of double honor, and his es- 
teemed name will be deservedly and gratefully remembered by gen- 
erations yet unborn, for the memorable services w^hich he rendered 
in his princely bequests to the industrious poor of London, and the 
education of the colored population of the South. 

The following extracts from a letter written hj Dr. Franklin to the 
Rev. George Whitefield (in response to a letter of thanks for relief 
derived by the latter from the application of electricity in a case of 
paralysis f very clearly defines the mutual duty of mankind to each 
other. The following is the first part of Franklin's letter : — 

Philadelphia, June 6, 1753. 

Sir : I received your kind letter of the 2d inst. , and am glad to 
hear that you increase in strength. I hope you will continue mend- 
ing till you recover your former health and firmness. Let me know 



ITEMS FOR DAILY REMEMBRANCE. 593 

whether you still use the cold bath, and what effect it has. As to tlie 
kindness you mention, I TNish it could have been of greater service to 
you. But if it had, the only thanks I should desire is, that you would 
alw^ays be equally ready to serve any other person that may need 
your assistance, and so let good offices go round, for mankind are all 
of a family. For my own part, when I am employed in serving 
others, I do not look upon myself as conferring favors, but on paying 
debts. 

In my travels and since my settlement, I have received much 
kindness from men, to whom I shall never have any opportunity of 
making the least direct return, and numberless mercies from God, 
Avho is infinitely above being benefited by our services. Those kind- 
nesses from men I can therefore only return on their fellow-men and 
I can only show my gratitude for those mercies from God, by a readi- 
ness to help his other children and my brethren. For I don't think 
that thanks and compliments, though repeated weekly, can discharge 
our real obligation to each other, and much less those to our Creator. 
You will see in this my notion of good works, that I am far from ex- 
pecting to merit heaven by them. By heaven we understand a state 
of happiness infinite in degree and eternal in duration ; I can do 
nothing to merit such rewards. He that for giving a draught of 
water to a thirsty i)erson, should expect to be paid with a good planta- 
tion, would be modest in his demands, compared with those who 
think they deserve heaven for the little good they do on earth. Even 
the mixed imperfect pleasures we enjoy in this world, are rather 
from God's goodness than our merit ! how much more such happiness 
of heaven ! for my part, I have not the vanity to think I deserve it, 
the folly to expect it, nor the ambition to desire it, but content myself 
in submitting to the will and disposal of that God who made me^who 
has hitherto preserved and blessed me, and in whose fatherly good- 
ness I may well confide, that he will never make me miserable, and 
that even the afflictions I may at any time suffer, shall tend to my 
benefit. 

Correspondence or Symbolic Meaning of Colors. — W?dte 
Avas the emblem of light, religious purity, innocence, faith, joy and 
life. In the judge, it indicates integrity, in the sick, humihty, in the 
woman, chastity. 

Bed, the ruby, signifies fire, divine love, heat of the creative 
power, and royalty. White and red roses, express love and wisdom. 
The red color of the blood has its origin in the action of the heart, 
Avhich corresponds to, or symbolizes love. In a bad sense, red cor- 
responds to the infernal love of evil, hatred, etc. 

Blue, or the sapphire, expresses heaven, the firmament, truth from 
a celestial origin, constancy and fidelity. 

Yellow, or gold, is the sjonbol of the sun, of the goodness of God, 
of marriage, and faithfulness . In a bad sense, yellow signifies in- 
constanc}^, jealousy and deceit. 

Green, the emerald, is the color of the spring, of hope, particularly 
of the hope of immortality and of victory, as the color of the laurel 
and palm. 

Violet, the amethyst, signifies love and truth, or passion and suf- 
fering. Purple and scarlet signify things good and true from a celes- 
tial origin. 

S8 



594 



ITEMS FOR DAILY REMEMBRANCE. 



Black corresponds to despair, darkness, earthliness, mourning, 
negation, wickedness and death. 

The Best Things. — Tlie best theology — a pure and beneficent 
life. The best philosophy — a contented mind. The best law — the 
golden rule — The best education — self-knowledge. The best state- 
njanship — self-government. The best medicine cheerfulness and 
temperance. The best art — painting a smile on the brow 
of childhood. The best science — extracting sunshine from a 
cloudy wray. The best war — to war against internal evils and 
selfishness. The best music— the laughter of an innocent child. The 
best journalism — printing the true and the beautiful only on mem- 
ory's tablet. The best telegraphing — flashing a ray of sunshine into 
a gloomy heart. The best biography— the life whicli writes charity 
in the largest letters. The best mathematics — that which doubles the 
most joys and divides the most sorrows. The best navigation — steer- 
ing clear of the lacerating rocks of personal contention. The best 
diplomacy— effecting a treaty of peace with one's own conscience. 
The best engineering — building a bridge of love, faith, and trust, in 
the Divine, over the river of death. 

Save a Little. — Every man who is obliged to work for his liv- 
ing, should make a point to lay up a little money for that "rainy 
day " Avhich we are all liable to encounter when least expected. The 
best way to do this is to open an account with a savings bank. Ac- 
cumulated money is always safe ; it is always ready to use when 
needed. Scrape together five dollars, make your deposit, receive 
your bank book, and then resolve to deposit a given sum, small 
though it be, once a month, or once a week, according to circum- 
stances . Nobody knows without trying it, how easy a thing it is to 
save money when an account with a bank has been opened. With 
such an account a man feels a desire to enlarge his deposit. It gives 
him lessons in frugality and economy, weans him from habits of ex- 
travagance, and is the very best guard in the world against intemper- 
ance, dissipation and vice. The following table is appended in order 
to exhibit the time required by money to double itself when loaned at 
the designated rates of interest : — 



Rate per cent. 



2 
2 
3 
3 
4 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 



1-2 



1-2 



Time in which a Sum will double. 



Simple Interest. Compound Interest 



50 years. 

40 years. 

33 years 4 months 

28 years 208 days. 

25 years. 

22 years 81 days. 

20 years. 

16 years 8 months 

14 years 104 days. 

12 1-2 years. 

11 years 40 days 

10 vears. 



35 years 

28 years 

23 years 

20 years 

17 years 

15 years 

15 years 

14 years 

10 years 

9 years 

8 years 

7 years 



Iday. 

26 days. 
164 days. 

54 days. 
246 days. 
273 days. 

75 days. 
327 days. 

89 days. 
2 days. 

16 days. 
100 days. 



WAGES TABLE. 



SALARIES AND WAGES BY THE YEAR, MONTH, WEEK OR BAY, SHOW- 
ING WHAT ANY SUM FROM $20 TO $1600 PER ANNUM, IS PER 
MONTH, WEEK OR DAY. 



Per Year 


Per Month. 


Per Week. 


Per Day. 


Per Year. 


Per Month 


Per Week. 


Per Day 


$ 


$ c. 


$ c. 


$ c. 


$ 


$ c. 


$ c. 


$ c. 


20 is 


1.67 


.38 


.05 


280 is 


23.33 


5.37 


.77 


25 


2.08 


.48 


.07 


285 


23.75 


5.47 


.78 


30 


2.50 


.58 


.08 


290 


24.17 


5.56 


.79 


35 


2.92 


.67 


.10 


295 


24.58 


5.66 


.81 


40 


3.33 


.77 


.11 


300 


25.00 


5.75 


.82 


45 


3.75 


.86 


.12 


310 


25.83 


5.95 


.85 


50 


4.17 


.96 


.14 


320 


26.67 


6.14 


.88 


55 


4.58 


1.06 


.15 


325 


27.08 


6.23 


.89 


60 


5.00 


1.15 


.16 


330 


27 ..50 


6.33 


.90 


65 


5.42 


1.25 


-18 


340 


28.33 


6.52 


.93 


70 


5.83 


1.34 


.19 


350 


29.17 


6.71 


.96 


75 


6.25 


1.44 


.21 


360 


30.00 


6.90 


.99 


80 


6,67 


1.53 


.22 


370 


30.83 


7.10 


1.01 


85 


7.08 


1.63 


.23 


375 


31.25 


7.19 


1.03 


90 


7.50 


173 


.25 


380 


31.67 


7.29 


1.04 


95 


7.92 


1.82 


.26 


390 


32.50 


7.48 


1.07 


100 


8.33 


1.92 


.27 


400 


33.33 


7.67 


1.10 


105 


8.75 


2.01 


.29 


425 


35.42 


8.15 


1.16 


110 


9.17 


2.11 


.30 


450 


37.50 


8.63 


1.23 


115 


9.58 


2.21 


.32 


475 


39,58 


9.11 


1.30 


120 


10.00 


2.30 


.33 


500 


41.67 


9.59 


1.37 


125 


10.42 


2.40 


.34 


525 


43.75 


10.07 


1.44 


130 


10.83 


2.49 


.36 


550 


45.83 


10.55 


1.51 


135 


11.25 


2.59 


.37 


575 


47.92 


11.03 


1.58 


140 


11.67 


2.69 


.38 


600 


50.00 


11.51 


1.64 


145 


12.08 


2.78 


.40 


625 


52.08 


11.99 


1.71 


150 


12.50 


2.88 


.41 


650 


54.17 


12.47 


1.78 


155 


12.92 


2,97 


.42 


675 


56.25 


12.95 


1.85 


160 


13.33 


3.07 


.44 


700 


58.33 


13.42 


1.92 


165 


13.75 


3.16 


.45 


725 


60.42 


13.90 


1.99 


170 


14.17 


3.26 


.47 


750 


62.50 


14.38 


2.05 


175 


14.58 


3.36 


.48 


775 


64.58 


14.86 


2.12 


180 


15.00 


3.45 


.49 


800 


66.67 


15.34 


2.19 


185 


15.42 


3.55 


.51 


825 


68.75 


15.82 


2.26 


193 


15.83 


3.64 


.52 


850 


70.83 


16.30 


2.33 


195 


16.25 


3.74 


.53 


875 


72.92 


16.78 


2.40 


200 


16.57 


3.84 


.55 


900 


75.00 


17.26 


2.47 


205 


17.08 


3.93 


.56 


925 


77.08 


17.74 


2.53 


210 


17.50 


4.03 


.58 


950 


79.17 


18.22 


2.60 


215 


17.92 


4.12 


,59 


975 


81.25 


18.70 


2.67 


220 


18.33 


4.22 


.60 


1000 


83.33 


19.18 


2.74 


225 


18.75 


4-31 


.62 


1050 


87.50 


20.14 


2.88 


230 


19.17 


4.41 


.63 


1100 


91.67 


21.10 


3.01 


235 


19.58 


4.51 


.64 


1150 


95.83 


22.06 


3.15 


240 


20.00 


4.60 


.66 


1200 


100.00 


23.01 


3.29 


245 


20.42 


4.70 


.67 


1250 


104.17 


23.29 


3.42 


250 


20.83 


4.79 


.69 


1300 


108.33 


24.93 


3.56 


255 


21.25 


4.89 


.70 


1350 


112.50 


25.89 


3.70 


260 


21.67 


4.99 


.71 


1400 


116.67 


26.85 


3.84 


265 


22.08 


5.08 


.73 


1450 


120.84 


27.80 


3.98 


270 


22.50 


5.18 


.74 


1500 


125.00 


28.77 


4.11 


275 


22.92 


5.27 


.75 


1600 


133.34 


30.68 


4.38 



Note. — If the desired sum is not in tlie table, double some number ; for 
instance if the salaiy or wages is $2000, double the sums opposite $1000, and so 
on with the rest. 



WAGES TABLE. 

WAGES TABLE, calculated on A scale of TEN HOURS labor 

PER DAY. THE TIME, IN HOURS AND DAYS IS NOTED IN THE 
LEFT HAND COLUMN, AND THE AMOUNT OF WAGES UNDER THE 
RESPECTIVE HEADINGS AS NOTED BELOAY. 



Wages. 


$1.00 


$1.50 


$2.00 


$2.50 


$3.00 


$3.50 


$4.00 


$4.50 


$5.00 


$5.50 


$6.00 


r V. 


.1 


IV4 


.1% 


.2 


.2% 


3 


•3% 


.2% 


.4% 


.4% 


.5 


h 1 


.1% 


.2% 


.3% 


AH 


.5 


« 


.«% 


.v% 


.8% 


.9^^ 


.10 


W 2 


.3% 


.5 


.6% 


•8% 


.10 


11% 


.13^/3 


.15 


.16% 


.18% 


.20 


3 


.5 


.7% 


.10 


.12^/2 


.15 


17% 


.20 


.22% 


.25 


.27% 


.30 


4 


.6% 


.10 


.13% 


.16% 


.20 


23% 


.26% 


.30 


.33% 


.36% 


.40 


5 


.8% 


.12% 


.16% 


.21 


.25 


29H 


.33% 


.37% 


.41% 


.46 


.50 


6 


,10 


.15 


.20 


.25 


.30 


35 


.40 


.45 


.50 


.55 


.60 


7 


.11% 


.17% 


.23% 


.29% 


.35 


41 


.46% 


.521/^ 


.58% 


.641^ 


.70 


8 


.13% 


.20 


.26% 


.331/3 

.37% 


.40 


46% 


.53% 


.60 


.66% 


.73% 


.80 


9 


.15 


.22% 


.30 


.45 


62% 


.60 


.67% 


.75 


.82% 


.90 



Days. 

1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 



.16% 


.25 


.33% 


.41% 


.50 


.58% 


.66% 


.75 


.83% 


.912/3 


.33% 


.50 


.66% 


.83% 


1.00 


1.16% 


1.33% 


1.50 


1.66% 


1.83% 


.50 


.75 


1.00 


1.25 


1.50 


1.75 


2.00 


2.25 


2.50 


2.75 


.66% 


1.00 


1.33% 


1.66% 


2.00 


2.33% 


2.66% 


3.00 


3.33% 


3.66% 


.83% 


1.25 


1.66% 


2.08% 


2.50 


2.91% 


3.331/3 


3.75 


4.16% 


4.58% 


1. 00 


1.50 


2,00 


2.50 


3.00 


3.50 


4.00 


4.50 


00 


5.50 



1.00 
2.00 
3.00 
4.00 
5,00 
6.00 



Wages. 


$6.50 


$7.00 


$7.50 


$8.00 


$9.00 


$10.00 


$11.00 


$12.00 


$13.00 


$14.00 


$15.00 


S V2 


.5% 


.6 


.6% 


.131/3 


.7% 


.8% 


.9 


.10 


.11 


.12 


.12% 


§ 1 


.11 


.11% 


.12^2 


.15 


.16% 


.18% 


.20 


.22 


.23% 


.25 


S 2 


.21% 


.23% 


.25 


.262/^ 


.30 


.33% 


.36% 


.40 


.43% 


.46% 


.50 


3 


.32% 


.35 


.37 y. 


.40 


.45 


.50 


.55 


.60 


.65 


.70 


.75 


4 


.43% 


.462/, 


.50 


.53% 


.60 


.66% 


.73% 


.80 


.862/, 


.93% 


1.00 


5 


MYe 


.58% 


.62% 


.66% 


.75 


.83% 


.yi% 


1.00 


1.08% 


1.16% 


1.25 


6 


.65 


.70 


.75 


.80 


.90 


1.00 


1.10 


1.20 


1.30 


1.40 


1.50 


7 


.76 


,81% 


.87% 


.93% 


1.05 


1.16% 


1.28% 


1.40 


1.52 


1.63% 


1.75 


8 


.862/, 


.93% 


1.00 


1.062/3 


1.20 


1.33% 


1.462/3 


1.60 


1.73% 


1.862/3 


2.00 


9 


.97% 


1-05 


1.12% 


1.20 


1.35 


1.50 


1.65 


1.80 


1.95 


2.10 


2.25 



Days. 


l-^l 


1.162/3 


1.25 


1.33% 


1.50 


1.66% 
3.33% 


1.83% 


2.00 


2.17 


2.33% 




1 


2.50 


2 


2.33% 


2.50 


2.662/3 


3.00 


3.662/3 


4.00 


4.34 


4.66% 
6.992/3 


5.00 


3 


3.25 


3.50 


3.75 


4.00 


4.50 


5.00 


5.50 


6.00 


6.51 


7.50 


4 


4,33% 
5.412/3 


4.662/3 


5.09 


5.331/3 


6.00 


6.66% 
8.33% 


7.33% 


8.00 


8.68 


9.33 


10.00 


5 


5.83% 


6.25 


6.662/3 


7.00 


9.16% 


10.00 


10.85 


11.66% 


12.50 


6 


6.50 


7.00 


7.50 


8.00 


9.00 


10.00 


11.00 


12.00 


13.00 


14,00 


15.00 



If the desired number of days or amount of wages is not in tlie table, 
double or treble any suitable number of days or amount of money as the case 
may be, until you obtain the desired number of days and the wages to 
correspond. 

To Reduce the Price of Wheat, in Sterling, per Imperial 
Quarter, to Dollars and Cents. — ^Reduce the shillings per quarter 
into dollars and cents, at 24.2 cts. per shilling, and divide by 9J, the num- 
ber of United States bushels in an imperial quarter. 

Example. — Required the price of wheat per U. S. busliel in Liverpool, 
when it fetches 58s. 6d. per imperial quarter. 58s. 6d. equals $14 15, 
which, divided by 9 J, gives $1.51 J the price per bushel. 

596 



INTEREST TABLE, 

AT SIX PER CENT., IN DOLLARS AND CENTS, FROM ONE DOLLAR TO 

TEN THOUSAND. 



. 


Iday. 


7 days. 


15 days. 


1 mo. 


3 KIOS. 


KIOS. 


12 mos. 


§ 


§c. 


§c. 


^ c. 


§ c. 


§c. 


$ c. 


^c. 


1 


00 


00 


001/4 


001/2 


011/2 


03 


05 


2 


00 


001/4 


001/2 


01 


03 


06 


12 


3 


00 


001/4 


00% 


011/2 


041/2 


09 


18 


4 


00 


001/2 


01 


02 


06 


12 


24 


5 


00 


001/2 


011/4 


021/2 


071/2 


15 


30 


C 


00 


00% 


011/2 


03 


09 


18 


36 


7 


00 


00% 


01% 


031/2 


101/2 


21 


42 


8 


00 


01 


02 


04 


12 


24 


48 


9 


00 


01 


^k 


011/2 


131/2 


27 


54 


10 


00 


011/4 


05 


15 


30 


60 


20 


001/4 


021/2 


05 


10 


30 


60 


1 20 


30 


001/2 


031/2 


07y2 


15 


45 


90 


1 80 


40 


00% 


Oil/2 


10 


20 


60 


1 20 


2 40 


50 


01 


06 


121/2 


25 


75 


1 50 


3 00 


100 


011/2 


11% 


25 


50 


1 50 


3 00 


6 00 


200 


03 


231/2 


50 


1 00 


3 00 


6 00 


12 00 


300 


05 


35 


75 


1 50 


4 50 


9 00 


18 00 


400 


07 


461/2 

581/2 

1 I6I/2 


1 00 


2 00 


6 00 


12 00 


24 00 


500 


08 


1 25 


2 50 


7 50 


15 00 


30 00 


1000 


17 


2 50 


5 00 


15 00 


30 00 


60 00 


2000 


33 


2 331/2 


5 00 


10 00 


30 00 


60 00 


120 00- 


oOOO 


50 


3 50 


7 50 


15 00 


45 00 


90 00 


180 00 


4000 


07 


4 66I/2 

5 831/^ 


10 00 


20 00 


60 00 


120 00 


240 00 


5000 


83 


12 50 


25 00 


75 00 


150 00 


300 00 


10000 


1 67 


11-661/2 


25 00 


50 00 


150 00 


300 00 


600 00 



AT SEVEN PER CENT., IN DOLLARS AND CENTS, FROM ONE DOLLAR 
TO TEN THOUSAND. 



1 


00 


00 


001/4 


001/2 


01% 


031/2 


2 


00 


001/4 
001/2 
001/2 


001/2 


011/4 


031/2 


07 


3 


00 


00% 


01% 

021/8 


051/4 


lOVo 


4 


00 


01 


07 


14 ' 


5 


00 


00% 
00% 


011/2 


03 


08% 
101/2 


171/2 


a 


00 


01% 


031/2 


21 


7 


00 


01 


02 


04 


121/4 


241/2 


8 


00 


01 


021/4 

021/2 


04% 

051/^ 
05% 

11% 

I7I/I 


14 


28 


9 


00 


011/4 


J?l 


311/2 


10 


001/4 


22I 


03 


35 


20 


OOiJ 


06 


35 


70 


30 


04 


09 


521/2 


1 05 


40 


00% 


051/2 


12 


231/3 
2914 


70 


1 40 


50 


01 


06% 


15 


871/2 


1 75 


100 


02 


131/2 


29 


581/3 
1 16% 


1 75 


3 50 


200 


04 


271/4 


58 


3 50 


7 00 


300 


06 


871/2 


1 75 


5 25 


10 50 


400 


08 


1 17 


2 331/8 


7 00 


14 00 


500 


10 


68 


1 46 


2 912/, 
5 83i| 


8 75 


17 50 


1000 


191/2 


1 36 


2 92 


17 50 


35 00 


2000 


39 


2 721/4 

4 O8I/4 

5 44i| 

6 801^ 


5 83 


11 66% 


35 00 


70 00 


3000 


58 


8 75 


17 50 


52 50 


105 00 


4000 


78 


11 67 


23 331/8 


70 00 


140 00 


5000 


97 


14 58 


29 16% 


87 50 


175 00 


LOOOO 


1 94 


13 61 


29 17 


58 33 


175 00 


350 00 



07 
14 
21 
28 
35 
42 
49 
56 
63 
70 

1 40 

2 10 

2 80 

3 50 
7 00 

14 00 

21 00 

28 00 

35 00 

70 00 

140 00 

210 00 

280 00 

350 00 

700 00 



597 



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READY RECKONER. 

READY RECKONER, to find the Price of any Number of Pounds, Yards 
Pieces, or Bushels, from 2 cents to $3.00. 

The first column contains the NUMBER, the top columns the PRICES. 



Nos 


2ct. 


3ct. 


4ct. 
. 8 


5ct. 
.10 


6ct. 
.12 


eV^ct. 


7ct. 


8ct. 


9ct. 


10 ct. 


11 ct. 


2 


. 4 


. 6 


.121/2 


.14 


.16 


.18 


.20 


.22 


3 


. 6 


. 9 


.12 


.15 


.18 


.1834 


.21 


.24 


.27 


.30 


.33 


4 


. 8 


.12 


.16 


.20 


.24 


.25 


.28 


.32 


.36 


.40 


.44 


5 


.10 


.15 


.20 


.25 


• .30 


.3114 


.35 


.40 


.45 


.50 


.55 


6 


.12 


.18 


.24 


.30 


.36 


.371/2 


.42 


.48 


.54 


.60 


•66 


7 


.14 


.21 


.28 


.35 


.42 


.43% 


.49 


.56 


.63 


.70 


.77 


8 


.Ifi 


.24 


.32 


.40 


.48 


.50 


.56 


.64 


.72 


.80 


.88 


9 


.18 


.27 


.36 


.45 


.54 


.561/4 


.63 


.72 


.81 


.90 


.99 


10 


.20 


.30 


.40 


.50 


.60 


.621/2 


.70 


.80 


.90 


1.00 


1,10 


11 


.22 


.33 


.44 


.55 


•66 


.68% 


.77 


.88 


.99 


1.10 


1.21 


12 


.24 


.36 


.48 


.60 


.72 


.75 


.84 


.96 


1.08 


1.20 


1.32 


13 


.26 


.39 


.52 


.65 


.78 


.8II/4 

.871/2 


.91 


1.04 


1.17 


1.30 


1.43 


14 


.28 


.42 


.56 


.70 


.84 


.98 


1.12 


1.26 


1.40 


1.54 


15 


.30 


.45 


.60 


.75 


.90 


.93% 


1.05 


1.20 


1.35 


1.50 


1.65 


16 


.32 


.48 


.64 


.80 


.96 


1.00 


1.12 


1.28 


1.44 


1.60 


1.76 


17 


.34 


.51 


.68 


.85 


1.02 


I.O6I/4 


1.19 


1.36 


1.53 


1.70 


1.87 


18 


.36 


.54 


.72 


.90 


1.08 


1.121/2 


1.26 


1.44 


1.62 


1.80 


1.98 


19 


.38 


.57 


.76 


.95 


1.14 


1.18% 


1.33 


1.52 


1.71 


1.90 


2.09 


20 


.40 


.60 


.80 


1.00 


1.20 


1.25 


1.40 


1.60 


1.80 


2.00 


2.20 


25 


.50 


.75 


1.00 


1.25 


1.50 


1.561/4 


1.75 


2.00 


2.25 


2.50 


2.^5 


30 


.60 


.90 


1.20 


1.50 


1.80 


1.871/2 


2.10 


2.40 


2.70 


3.00 


3.30 


40 


.80 


1.20 


1.60 


2.00 


2.40 


2.50 


2.80 


3.20 


3.60 


4.00 


4.40 


50 


1.00 


1.50 


2.00 


2.50 


3.00 


3.121/2 


3.50 


4.00 


4.50 


5.00 


5.50 


60 


1.20 


1.80 


2.40 


3.00 


3.60 


3.75 


4.20 


4.80 


5.40 


6.00 


6.60 


70 


1.40 


2.10 


2.80 


3.50 


4.20 


4.371/2 


4.90 


5.60 


6.30 


7.00 


7.70 


80 


1-60 


2.40 


3.20 


4.00 


4.80 


5.00 


5.60 


6.40 


7.20 


8.00 


8.80 


90 


1.80 


2.70 


3.60 


4.50 


5.40 


5.621/2 


6.30 


7.20 


8.10 


9.00 


9.90 


100 


2.00 


3.00 


4.00 


5.00 


6.00 


6.25 


7.00 


8.00 


9.00 


10.00 


11.00 


Nos 


12 ct. 


12y2Ct. 


13ct. 


14 ct. 

.28 


15 ct. 

.30 


16 ct. 


18 ct. 


183^ct. 


19 Ct. 


20 ct. 


21 ct. 


2 


.24 


.25 


.26 


.32 


.36 


M 


.38 


.40 


.42 


3 


.36 


.371/2 


.39 


.42 


.45 


.48 


.54 


.57 


,60 


.63 


4 


.48 


.50'' 


.52 


.56 


.60 


.64 


.72 


.75 


.76 


.80 


.84 


5 


.60 


.621/2 


.65 


.70 


.75 


.80 


.90 


.93% 
1.121/2 


.95 


1.00 


1.05 


6 


.72 


.75 


.78 


.84 


.90 


.96 


1.08 


1.14 


1.20 


1-26 


7 


.84 


.871/2 


.91 


.98 


1.05 


1.12 


1.26 


1.311/4 


1.33 


1.40 


1.47 


8 


.96 


1.00 


1.04 


1.12 


1.20 


1.28 


1.44 


1.50 


1.52 


1.60 


1.68 


9 


1.08 


1.121/2 


1.17 


1.26 


1.35 


1.44 


1.62 


1.68% 
1.871/2 


1.71 


1.80 


1.89 


10 


1.20 


1.25 


1.30 


1.40 


1.50 


1.60 


1.80 


1.90 


2.00 


2.10 


11 


1.32 


1.371/2 


1.43 


1.54 


1.65 


1.76 


1.98 


2.O6I/4 


2.09 


2.20 


2.31 


12 


1.44 


1.50 


1.56 


1.68 


1.80 


1.92 


2.16 


2.25 


2.28 


2.40 


2.52 


13 


1.56 


1.621/2 


1.69 


1.82 


1.95 


2.08 


2.34 


2.433^ 

2.621/2 


2.47 


2.60 


2.73 


14 


1.68 


1.75 


1.82 


1.96 


2.10 


2.24 


2.52 


2.66 


2.80 


2.94 


15 


1.80 


1.871/2 


1.95 


2.10 


2.25 


2.40 


2.70 


2.811/4 


2.85 


3.00 


3.15 


16 


1.92 


2.00 


2.08 


2.24 


2.40 


2.56 


2.88 


3.00 


3.04 


3.20 


3.36 


17 


2.04 


2.121/2 


2.21 


2.38 


2.55 


2.72 


3.06 


3.183/, 


3.23 


3.40 


3.57 


18 


2.16 


2.25 


2.34 


2.52 


2.70 


2.88 


3.24 


3.371/2 


3.42 


3.60 


3.78 


19 


2.28 


2.371/2 


2.47 


2.66 


2.85 


3.04 


3.42 


3.561/4 


3.61 


3.80 


3.99 


20 


2.40 


2.50 


2.60 


2.80 


3.00 


3.20 


3.60. 


3.75 


3.80 


4.00 


4.20 


25 


3.00 


3.121/2 


3.25 


3.50 


3.75 


4.00 


4.50 


4.683^ 
5.621/2 


4.75 


5.00 


5.25 


30 


3.60 


3.75 


3.90 


4.20 


4.50 


4.80 


5.40 


5.70 


G.OO 


6.30 


40 


4.80 


5.00 


5.20 


5.60 


6.00 


6.40 


7.20 


7.50 


7.60 


8.00 


8.40 


50 


6.00 


6.25 


6.50 


7.00 


7.50 


8.00 


9.00 


9.371/2 


9.50 


10.00 


10.50 


60 


7.20 


7.50 


7.80 


8.40 


9.00 


9 60 


10.80 


11.25 


11.40 


12.00 


12.60 


70 


8.40 


8.75 


9.10 


9.80 


10.50 


11.20 


12.60 


13.121/2 


13.30 


14.00 


14.70 


80 


9.60 


10.00 


10.40 


11.20 


12.00 


12.80 


14.40 


15.00 


15.20 


16.00 


16.80 


90 


10.80 


11.25 


11.70 


12.60 


13.50 


14.40 


16.20 


16. 871/0 


17.10 


18.00 


18.90 


100 


12.00 


12.50 


13.00 


14.00 


15.00 


16.00 


18.00 


18.75 


19.00 


20.00 


21.00 



600 



READY RECKONER. 

Tlie first column on the left contains the NUMBER of the Article, and the 
column on the tops of the tables the PRICE. 



Nos 


22 ct. 


23ct. 


24 ct. 

.48 


25 Ct. 
.50 


26 ct. 


27 ct. 


28 ct. 


29 ct. 


30 ct. 


31 ct. 


3iy4Ct. 


2 


.44 


I' 
.46 


.52 


.54 


.56 


.58 


.60 


.62 


:il 


3 


.66 


.69 


.72 


.75 


.78 


.81 


.84 


.87 


.90 


.93 


4 


.88 


.92 


.96 


1.00 


1.04 


1.08 


1.12 


1.16 


1.20 


1.24 


1.25 


5 


1.10 


1.15 


1.20 


1.25 


1.30 


1.35 


1.40 


1.45 


1.50 


1.55 


1.561/4 
1.871/2 
2.183^ 


6 


1.32 


1.38 


1.44 


1.50 


1.56 


1.62 


1.68 


1.74 


1.80 


1.86 


7 


1.54 


1.61 


1.68 


1.75 


1.82 


1.89 


1.96 


2.03 


2.10 


2.17 


8 


1.76 


1.84 


1.92 


2.00 


2.08 


2.16 


2.24 


2.32 


2.40 


2.48 


2.50 


9 


1.98 


2.07 


2.16 


2.25 


2.34 


2.43 


2.52 


2.61 


2.70 


2.79 


2.8II/4 
3.121/2 


10 


2.20 


2.30 


2.40 


2.50 


2.60 


2.70 


2.80 


2.90 


3.00 


3.10 


11 


2.42 


2.53 


2.64 


2.75 


2.86 


2.97 


3.08 


3.19 


3.30 


3.41 


3.433/4 


12 


2.64 


2.76 


2.88 


3.00 


3.12 


3.24 


3.36 


3.48 


3.60 


3.72 


3 75 


13 


2.86 


2.99 


3.12 


3.25 


3.38 


3.51 


3.64 


3.77 


3.90 


4.03 


4.O6I4 
4.371/2 
4.68% 


14 


3.08 


3.22 


3.36 


3.50 


3.64 


3.78 


3.92 


4.06 


4.20 


4.34 


15 


3.30 


3.45 


3.60 


3.75 


3.90 


4.05 


4.20 


4.35 


4.50 


4.55 


16 


3.52 


3.68 


3.84 


4.00 


4.16 


4.32 


4.48 


4.64 


4.80 


4.96 


5.00 


17 


3.74 


3.91 


4.08 


4.25 


4.42 


4.59 


4.76 


4.93 


5.10 


5.27 


5.311/4 

5.621/2 


18 


3.96 


4.14 


4.32 


4.50 


4.68 


4.86 


5.04 


5.22 


5.40 


5.58 


19 


4.18 


4.37 


4.56 


4.75 


4.94 


5.15 


5.32 


5.51 


5.70 


5.89 


5.933/4 


20 


4.40 


4.60 


4.80 


5.00 


5.20 


5.40 


5.60 


5.80 


6.00 


6.20 


6.25 


25 


5.50 


5,75 


6.00 


6.25 


6.50 


6.75 


7.00 


7.25 


7.25 


7.75 


7.8II/4 
9.371/2 


30 


6.60 


6.90 


7.20 


7.50 


7.80 


8.10 


8.40 


8.70 


9.00 


9.30 


40 


8.80 


9.20 


9.60 


10.00 


10.40 


10.80 


11.20 


11.60 


12.00 


12.40 


12.50 


50 


11.00 


11.50 


12.00 


12.50 


13.00 


13.50 


14.00 


14.50 


15.00 


15.50 


15.62% 


60 


13.20 


13.80 


14.40 


15.00 


15.60 


16.20 


16.80 


17.40 


18.00 


18.60 


18.75 


70 


15.40 


16.10 


16.80 


17.50 


18.20 


18.90 


19.60 


20.30 


21.00 


21.70 


21.871^ 


80 


17.60 


18.40 


19.20 


20.00 


20.80 


21.60 


22.40 


23.20 1 


24.00 


2i.80 


25.00 


90 


19.80 


20.70 


21.60 


22.50 


23.40 


24.30 


25.20 


26.10 1 


27.00 


27.90 


28.1214 


100 


22.00 


23.00 


24.00 


25.00 


26.00 


27.00 


28.00 


29.00 1 


30.00 


31.00 


31.25 


Nos 


32 ct. 


33ct. 


SSVaCt. 


34 ct 

.68 


35 ct. 

.70 


36 ct. 


37 ct. 


37y2Ct. 


38 ct. 


39 ct. 


40 ct. 


2 


.64 


.66 


.662/3 


.72 


.74 


.75 


.76 


.78 


.80 


3 


.96 


.99 


1.00 ^ 


1.02 


1.05 


1.08 


1.11 


1.121/2 


1.14 


1.17 


1.20 


4 


1.28 


1.32 


1.331/3 


1.36 


1.40 


1.44 


1.48 


1.50 


1.52 


1.56 


1.60 


5 


1.60 


1.65 


1.662/3 


1.70 


1.75 


1.80 


1.85 


1.871/2 


1.90 


1.95 


2.00 


6 


1.92 


1.98 


2.00 


2.04 


2.10 


2.16 


2.22 


2.25 


2.28 


2.34 


2.40 


7 


2.24 


2.31 


2.331/3 
2.662/3 


2.38 


2.45 


2.52 


2.59 


2.621/2 


2.66 


2.73 


2.80 


8 


2.56 


2.64 


2.72 


2.80 


2.88 


2.96 


3.00 


3.04 


3.12 


3.20 


9 


2.88 


2.97 


3.00 


3.06 


3.15 


3.24 


3.33 


3.371/2 


3.42 


3.51 


3.60 


10 


3.20 


3.30 


3.331/3 


3.40 


3.50 


3.60 


3.70 


3.75^' 


■ 3.80 


3.90 


4.00 


11 


3.52 


3.63 


3.662/3 


3.74 


3.85 


3.98 


4.07 


4.121/2 


4.18 


4.29 


4.40 


12 


3.84 


3.96 


4.00 


4.08 


4.20 


4.32 


4.44 


4.50 '^^ 


4.56 


4.68 


4.80 


13 


4.16 


4.29 


4.331/3 


4.42 


4.55 


4.68 


4.81 


4.871/2 


4.94 


5.07 


5.20 


14 


4.48 


4.62 


4.662| 


4.76 


4.90 


5.04 


5.18 


5.25 


5.32 


5.46 


5.60 


15 


4.80 


4.95 


5.00 


5.10 


5.25 


5.40 


5.55 


5.621/2 


5.70 


5.85 


6.00 


16 


5.12 


5.28 


5.331/3 


5.44 


5.60 


5.76 


5.92 


6.00 


6.08 


6.24 


6.40 


17 


5.44 


5.61 


5.662/3 


5.78 


5.95 


6.12 


6.29 


6.371/2 


6.46 


6.63 


6.80 


18 


5.76 


5.94 


6.00 


6.12 


6.30 


6.48 


6.66 


6.75 


6.84 


7.02 


7.20 


19 


6.08 


6.27 


6.331/3 


6.46 


6.65 


6.84 


7.03 


7.121/2 


7.22 


7.41 


7.60 


20 


6.40 


6.60 


6.662/3 
8.331/3 


6.80 


7.00 


7.20 


7.40 


7.50 


7.60 


7.80 


8.00 


25 


8.00 


8.25 


8.50 


8.75 


9.00 


9.25 


9.371/2 


9.50 


9.75 


10.00 


30 


9.60 


9.90 


10.00 


10.20 


10.50 


10.80 


11.10 


11.25 


11.40 


11.70 


12.00 


40 


13.80 


12.20 


iliy 


13.60 


14.00 


14.40 


14.80 


15.00 


15.20 


15.60 


16.00 


50 


16.00 


16.50 


17.00 


17.50 


18.00 


18.50 


18.75 


19.00 


19.50 


20.00 


60 


19.20 


19.80 


2o;oo ^ 


20.40 


21.00 


21.60 


22.20 


22.50 


22.80 


23.40 


24.00 


70 


22.40 


23.10 


23.331/3 


23.80 


24.50 


25.20 


25.90 


26.25 


26.60 


27.30 


28.00 


80 


25.60 


26.40 


26.662/3 


27.20 


28.00 


28.80 


29.60 


30.00 


30.40 


31.20 


32.00 


90 


28.80 


29.70 


30.00 


30.60 


31.50 


32.40 


33.30 


33.75 


34.20 


35.10 


36.00 


100 


32.00 


33.00 


33.331/3 


34.00 


35.00 


36.00 


37.00 


37.50 


38.00 


39.00 


40.00 



601 



READY RECKONER. 

The fii'st column on the left contains the NUMBER of the Article, and 
the column on the tops of the Tables the PRICE. 



>^os 


41 ct. 


42 ct. 


43 ct. 


44 ct. 


45 ct. 


46 ct. 


47 ct. 


48 ct. 


49 ct. 


50 ct. 


51 ct. 


2 


.82 


.84 


.86 


.88 


.90 


.92 


.94 


.96 


.98 


1.00 


1.02 


3 


1.23 


1.26 


1.29 


1.32 


1.35 


1.38 


1.41 


1.44 


1.47 


1.50 


1.53 


4 


1.64 


1.68 


1.72 


1.76 


1.80 


1.84 


1.88 


1.92 


1.96 


2.00 


2.04 


5 


2.05 


2.10 


2.15 


2.20 


2.25 


2.30 


2.35 


2.40 


2.45 


2.50 


2.55 


6 


2.46 


2.52 


2.58 


2.64 


2.70 


2.76 


2.80 


2.88 


2.94 


3.00 


3.06 


7 


2.87 


2.94 


3.01 


3.08 


3.15 


3.22 


3.29 


3.36 


3.43 


3.50 


3.57 


8 


3.28 


3.36 


3.44 


3.52 


3.60 


3.68 


3.76 


3.84 


3.92 


4.00 


4.08 


• 9 


3.69 


3.78 


3.87 


3.96 


4.05 


4.14 


4.23 


4.32 


4.41 


4.50 


4.59 


10 


4.10 


4.20 


4.30 


4.40 


4.50 


4.60 


4.70 


4.80 


4.90 


5.00 


5.10 


11 


4.51 


4.62 


4.73 


4.84 


4.95 


5.06 


5.17 


5.28 


5.39 


5.50 


5.61 


12 


4.92 


5.04 


5.16 


5.28 


5.40 


5.72 


5.64 


5.76 


5.88 


6.00 


6.12 


13 


5.a3 


5.46 


5.59 


5.72 


6.85 


5.98 


6.11 


6.24 


6.37 


6.50 


6.63 


14 


5.74 


5.88 


6.02 


6.16 


6.30 


6.44 


6.58 


6.72 


6.86 


7.00 


7.14 


15 


6.15 


6.30 


6.45 


6.60 


6.75 


6.90 


7.05 


7.20 


7.35 


7.50 


7.65 


16 


6.56 


6.72 


6.88 


7.04 


7.20 


7.36 


7.52 


7.68 


7.84 


8.00 


8.16 


17 


6.97 


7.14 


7.31 


7.48 


7.65 


7.82 


7.99 


8.16 


8.33 


8.50 


8.67 


18 


7.38 


7.56 


7.74 


7.92 


8.10 


8,28 


8.46 


8.64 


8.82 


9.00 


9.18 


19 


7.79 


7.98 


8.17 


8.30 


8.55 


8.74 


8.93 


9.12 


9.31 


9.50 


9.69 


20 


8.20 


8.40 


8.60 


8.80 


9.00 


9.20 


9.40 


9.60 


9.80 


10.00 


10.20 


25 


10.25 


10.50 


10,75 


11.00 


11.25 


11.50 


11.75 


12.00 


12.25 


12.50 


12.75 


30 


12.30 


12.60 


12.90 


13.20 


13.50 


13.80 


14.10 


14.40 


14.70 


15.00 


15.30 


40 


16.40 


16.80 


17.20 


17.60 


18.00 


18.40 


18.80 


19.20 


19.60 


20.00 


20.40 


50 


20.50 


21.00 


21.50 


22.00 


22.50 


23.00 


23.50 


24.00 


24.50 


25.00 


25.5a 


60 


24.60 


25.20 


25.80 


26.40 


27.00 


27.60 


28.20 


28.80 


29.40 


30.00 


30.60 


70 


28:70 


29.40 


30.10 


30.80 


31.50 


32.20 


32.90 


33.00 


34.30 


35.00 


35.70 


80 


32.80 


33.60 


34.40 


35.20 


36.00 


36.80 


37.60 


38.40 


39.20 


40.00 


40.80 


90 


36.90 


37.80 


38.70 


39.60 


40.50 


41.40 


42.30 


43.20 


44.10 


45.00 


45.92 


100 


41.00 


42.00 


43.00 


44.00 


45.00 


46.00 


47.00 


48.00 


49.00 


50.00 


51.00 


Nos 


52 ct. 


53 ct. 


54 ct. 


55 ct. 
1.10 


56 ct. 
1.12 


57 ct. 


58 ct. 


59 ct. 


60 ct. 


61 ct. 


62 ct. 


2 


1.04 


1.06 


1.08 


1.14 


1.16 


1.18 


1.20 


1.22 


1.24 


3 


1.56 


1.59 


1.62 


1.65 


1.68 


1.71 


1.74 


1.77 


1.80 


1.83 


1.86 


4 


2.08 


2.12 


2.16 


2.20 


2.24 


2.28 


2.32 


2.36 


2.40 


2.44 


2.48 


5 


2.60 


2.65 


2.70 


2.75 


2.80 


2.85 


2.90 


2.95 


3.00 


3.05 


3.10 


6 


3.12 


3.18 


3.24 


3.30 


3.36 


3.42 


3.48 


3.54 


3.60 


3.66 


3.72 


7 


3.64 


3.71 


3.78 


3.85 


3.92 


3.99 


4.06 


4.13 


4.20 


4.27 


4.34 


8 


4.16 


4.24 


4.32 


4.40 


4.48 


4.56 


4.64 


4.72 


4.80 


4.88 


4.96 


9 


4.68 


4.77 


4.86 


4.95 


5.04 


5.13 


5.22 


5.31 


5.40 


5.49 


5.58 


10 


5.20 


5.30 


5.40 


5.50 


5.60 


5.70 


5.80 


5.90 


6.00 


6.10 


6.20 


11 


5.72 


5.83 


5.94 


6.05 


6.16 


6.27 


6.38 


6.49 


6.60 


6.71 


6.82 


12 


6.24 


6.36 


6.48 


6.60 


6.72 


6.84 


6.96 


7.08 


7.20 


7.32 


7.44 


13 


6.76 


6.89 


7.02 


7.15 


7.28 


7.41 


7.54 


7.67 


7.80 


7.93 


8.06 


14 


7.28 


7.42 


7.56 


7.70 


7.84 


7.98 


8.12 


8.26 


8.40 


8.54 


8.68 


15 


7.80 


7.95 


8.10 


8.25 


8.40 


8.55 


8.70 


8.85 


9.00 


9.15 


9.30 


16 


8.32 


8.48 


8.64 


8.80 


8.96 


9.12 


9.28 


9.44 


9.60 


9.76 


9.92 


17 


8.84 


9.01 


9.18 


9.35 


9.52 


9.69 


9.86 


10.03 


10.20 


10.37 


10.54 


18 


9.36 


9.54 


9.72 


9.90 


10.08 


10.26 


10.44 


10.62 


10.80 


10.98 


11.16 


19 


9.88 


10.07 


10.26 


10.45 


10.64 


10.83 


11.02 


11.21 


11.40 


11.59 


11.78 


20 


10.40 


10.60 


10.80 


11.00 


11.20 


11.40 


11.60 


11.80 


12.00 


12.20 


12.40 


25 


13.00 


13.25 


13.50 


13.75 


14.00 


14.25 


14.50 


14.75 


15.00 


15.25 


15.50 


30 


15.60 


15.90 


16.20 


16.50 


16.80 


17.10 


17.40 


17.70 


18.00 


18.30 


18.60 


40 


20.80 


21.10 


21.60 


22.00 


22.40 


22.80 


23.20 


23.60 


24.00 


24.42 


24.80 


50 


26.00 


26.50 


27.00 


27.50 


28.00 


28.50 


29.00 


29.50 


30.00 


30.50 


31.00 


60 


31.20 


31.80 


32.40 


33.00 


33.60 


34.20 


34.80 


35.40 


36.00 


36.60 


37.20 


70 


36.40 


37.10 


37.80 


38.50 


39.20 


39.90 


40.60 


41.30 


42.00 


42.70 


43.40 


80 


41.60 


42.40 


43.20 


44.00 


44.80 


45.60 


46.40 


47.20 


48.00 


48.80 


49.60 


90 


46.80 


47.70 


48.60 


49.50 


50.40 


51.30 


52.20 


53.10 


54.00 


54.90 


55.80 


100 


52.00 


53.00 


51.00 


55.00 


58.00 


57.00 


58.00 


59.00 


60.00 


61.00 


62.00 



602 



READY RECKONER. 

If the Number required is not found in the Tables, add two Numbers to- 
gether ; for instance, if 35 bushels are required, add the prices opposite 
30 and 5 together ; and so for 365 bushels— treble the value of 100, and 
add 60 and 5 together. 



Nos 


62y2ct. 


63 ct 


|64ct. 


65 ct. 


66 ct. 
1.32 


662/3Ct. 


67 ct. 


68ct. 69ct. 70ct. 


71 ct. 


2 


1.25 


1.26 


1.28 


1.30 


1.331/3 


IM 


1.36 


1.38 i 1.40 


1.42 


3 


1.871/2 


1.8S 


1.92 


1.95 


1.98 


2,00 


2.01 


.2.04 


2.07 


2.10 


2.13 


4 


2.50 


2.52 


2.56 


2.60 


2.64 


2.662/3 


2.68 


2.72 


2.76 


2.80 


2.84 


5 


3.121^ 


3.15 


3.20 


3.25 


3.30 


3.331/3 


3.35 


3.40 


3.45 


3.50 


3.55 


6 


3.75 


3.78 


3.84 


3.90 


3.96 


4.00 


4.02 


4.08 


4.14 


4.20 


4.26 


7 


4.371/2 


4.41 


4.48 


4.55 


4.62 


4.662/^ 


4.69 


4.76 


4.83 


4.90 


4.97 


8 


5.00 


5.04 


5.12 


5.20 


5.28 


5.331/3 


5.36 


5.44 


5.52 


5.60 


568 


9 


5.621/n 


5,67 


5.76 


5.85 


5.94 


6.00 


6.03 


6.12 


6.21 


6.30 


6.39 


10 


6.25 


6,30 


6.40 


6.50 


6.60 


6,662/3 
7.3314 


6.70 


6.80 


6.90 


7.00 


7.10 


11 


6.871/0 


6.93 


7.04 


7.15 


7.26 


7.37 


7.48 


7.59 


7.70 


7.81 


12 


7.50 ^ 


7.56 


7.68 


7.80 


7.92 1 8.00'" 


8.04 


8.16 


8.28 


8.40 


8.52 


13 


8.121/2 


8.1s 


8.32 


8.45 


8.58 8.6624 


8.71 


8.84 


8.97 


9.10 


9.23 


14 


8.75 


8.8C 


8.96 


9.10 


9.241 9.331/3 


9.38 


9.52 


9.66 


9.80 


9.94 


15 


9.371/2 


9.45 


9.60 


9.75 


9.90110.00 


10.05 


10.20 


10.35 


10.50 


10.65 


16 


10.00 


10.08 


10.24 


10.40 


10.56 1 10.662/3 
11.22111.331/3 


10.72 


10.88 


11.04 


11.20 


11.36 


17 


10.621/2 


10.71 


10.88 


11.05 


11.39 


11.56 


11.73 


11.90 


12.07 


18 


11.25 


11.34 


11.52 


11.70 


11.88 '12.00 


12.06 


12.24 


12.42 


12.60 


12.78 


19 


11.871/2 


11.97 


12.16 


12.35 


12.54112.662/3 


12.73 


12.92 


13.11 


13.30 


13.49 


20 


12.50 


12,6C 


112.80 


13.00 


13.2013.331/3 
16.50116.662/3 


13.40 


13.60 


13.80 


14.00 


14.20 


25 


15.621/2 


15.7£ 


> 16.00 


16.25 


16.75 


17.00 


17.25 


17.50 


17.75 


30 


18.75 


18,9C 


1 19.20 


19.50 


19.80 20.00 


20.10 


20.40 


20.70 


21.00 


21.30 


40 


25.00 


25.2C 


) 25.60 


26.00 


26.40 26.662/3 
33.00 33.33% 


26.80 


27.20 


27.60 


28.00 


28.40 


50 


31.25 


31.5C 


1 32.00 


32.50 


33.50 


34.00 


34.50 


35.00 


35.50 


60 


37.50 


37.8( 


) 38.40 


39.00 


39.60 '40.00 


40.20 


40.80 


41.40 


42.00 


42.60 


70 


43.75 


44.1( 


)!44.80 


45.50 


46.20'46.662/3 
52.80 '53.33% 


46.90 


47.60 


48.30 


49.00 


49.70 


80 


50.00 


50.4( 


)' 51.20 


52.00 


53.00 


54.40 


65.20 


56.00 


56.80 


90 


51.25 


56.7( 


)' 57.60 


58.50 


59.40160.00 


60.30 


61.20 


62.10 


63.00 


63.90 


100 


62.50 


63.0( 


)! 64.00 


65.00 


66.00 I66.66I/2 


67.00 


68.00 


69.00 


70.00 


71.00 


Nos 


72 ct. 


73 ct. 
1.46 


74 ct. 

1.48 


75 ct. 
1.50 


76 ct. 
1.52 


77 ct. 


78 ct. 


79 ct. 


80 ct. 


81 ct. 


82 ct. 


2 


1.44 


1.54 


1.56 


1.58 


1.60 


1.62 


1.64 


3 


2.16 


2.19 


2.22 


2.25 


2.28 


2.31 


2.34 


2.37 


2.40 


2.43 


2.46 


4 


2.88 


2.92 


2.96 


3.00 


3,04 


3.08 


3.12 


3.16 


3.20 


3.24 


3.28 


5 


3.60 


3.65 


3.70 


3.75 


3,80 


3.85 


3.90 


3.95 


4.00 


4.05 


4.10 


6 


4.32 


4.38 


4.44 


4.50 


4.56 


4.62 


4.68 


4.74 


4.80 


4.86 


4.92 


7 


5.0i 


5.11 


5.18 


5.25 


5.32 


5.39 


5.46 


5.53 


5.60 


5.67 


5.74 


8 


5.76 


5,84 


5.92 


6.00 


6.08 


6.16 


6.24 


6.32 


6.40 


6.48 


6.56 


9 


6.48 


6.57 


6.66 


6.75 


6.84 


6.93 


7.02 


7.11 


7.20 


7.29 


7.38 


10 


7.20 


7.30 


7.40 


7.50 


7.60 


7.70 


7.80 


7.90 


8.00 


8.10 


8.20 


11 


7.92 


8,03 


8.14 


8.25 


8.30 


8.47 


8.58 


8.69 


8.80 


8.91 


9.02 


12 


8.64 


8,76 


8.88 


9.00 


9.12 


9.24 


9.36 


9.48 


9.60 


9.72 


9.84 


13 


9.36 


9.49 


9.62 


9.75 


9.88 


10.01 


10.14 


10.27 


10.40 


10.53 


10.66 


14 


10.08 


10,22 


10.36 


10.50 


10.64 


10.78 


10.92 


11.06 


11.20 


11.34 


11.48 


15 


10.80 


10.95 


11.10 


11.25 


11.40 


11.55 


11.70 


11.85 


12.00 12.15 


12.30 


16 


11.52 


11.68 


11.84 


12.00 


12.16 


12.32 


12.48 


12.64 


12.80 


12.96 


13.12 


17 


12.24 


12.41 


12.58 


12.75 


12.92 


13.09 


13.26 


13.43 


13.60 


13.77 


13.94 


18 


12.96 


13,14 


13.32 


13.50 


13.68 


13.86 


14.04 


14.22 


14.40 


14.58 


14.76 


19 


13.68 


13.87 


14.06 


14.25 


14.44 


14.63 


14.82 


15.01 


15.20 


15.39 


15.58 


20 


14.40 


14.60 


14.80 


15.00 


15.20 


15.40 


15.60 


15.80 


16.00 1 16.20 


16 40 


25 


18.00 


18.25 


18.50 


18.75 


19.00 


19.25 


19.50 


19.75 


20.00 


20.25 


20.50 


30 


21.60 


21.90 


22.20 


22.50 


22.80 


23.10 


23.40 


23.70 


24.00 


24.30 


24.60 


40 


28.80 


29.20 


29.60 


30.00 


30.40 


30.80 


31.20 


31.60 


32.00 


32.40 


32.80 


50 


36.00 


36 50 


37.00 


37.50 


38.00 


38.50 


39.00 


39.50 


40.00 


40.50 


41.00 


60 


43.20 


43.80 


44.40 


45.00 


45.60 


46.20 


46.80 


47.40 


48.00 


48.60 


49.20 


70 


50.40 


51.10 


51.80 


52.50 


53.20 


53.90 


54.60 


55.30 


56.00 


56.70 


.57.40 


80 


57.60 


58.40 


59.20 


60.00 


60.80 


61.60 


62.40 


63.20 


64.00 


64.80 


65.60 


90 


64.80 


65.70 


66.60 


67.50 


68.40 


69.30 


70.20 


71.10 


72.00 


72.90 


73.80 


100 


72.00 


73.00 


74.00 


75.00 


76.00 


77.00 


78.00 


79.00 


80.00 


81.00 


82.00 



READY RECKONER. 

If the Number required is not found in the Tables, add two Numbers to- 
gether; for instance, if 35 bushels are required, add the prices opposite 
20 and 5 together ; and so for 365 bushels — treble the value of 100, and 
add 60 and 5 together. 



Nos 


83 ct. 


84 Ct. 
1.68 


85 Ct. 


86 ct. 


87 Ct. 


87y2Ct. 


88 Ct 


89 Ct. 


90 Ct. 


91 ct. 


92 ct. 


2 


1.66 


1.70 


1.72 


1.74 


1.75 


1.7( 


; 1.78 


1.80 


1.82 


1.84 


3 


2.49 


2.52 


2.55 


2.28 


2.61 


2.621/2 


2.6^ 


[ 2.67 


2.70 


2.73 


2.76 


4 


3.32 


3.36 


3.40 


3.44 


3.48 


3.50 


3.5$ 


1 3.56 


3.60 


3.64 


3.68 


5 


4.15 


4.20 


4.25 


4.30 


4.35 


4.371/2 


4.4( 


> 4.45 


4.50 


4.55 


4.60 


6 


4.98 


5.04 


5.10 


5.16 


6.22 


5.25 


5.2t 


5.34 


5.40 


5.46 


5.52 


7 


5.81 


5.88 


5.95 


6.02 


6.09 


6.121/2 


6.16 


► 6.23 


6.30 


6.37 


6.44 


8 


6.64 


6.72 


6.80 


6.88 


6.96 


7.00 


7.04 


t 7.12 


7.20 


7.28 


7.36 


9 


7.47 


7.56 


7.65 


7.74 


7.83 


7.871/2 


7.92 


8.01 


8.10 


8.19 


8.28 


10 


8.30 


8.40 


8.50 


8.60 


8.70 


8.75 


8.8C 


8.90 


9.00 


9.10 


9.20 


11 


9.13 


9.24 


9.35 


9.46 


9.57 


9.621/2 


9.6^ 


9.79 


9.90 


10.01 


10.12 


12 


9.96 


10.08 


10.20 


10.32 


10.44 


10.50 


10.56 


> 10.68 


10.80 


10.92 


11.04 


13 


10.79 


10.92 


11.05 


11.18 


11.31 


11.371/2 


11.4^ 


[ 11.57 


11.70 


11.83 


11.96 


14 


11.62 


11.76 


11.90 


12.04 


12.18 


12.25 


12.32 


* 12.46 


12.00 


12.74 


12.88 


15 


12.45 


12.60 


12.75 


12.90 


13.05 


13.121/2 


13.2C 


13.35 


13.50 


13.65 


13.80 


16 


13.28 


13.44 


13.60 


13.76 


13.92 


14.00 


14.0^ 


14.24 


14.40 


14.56 


14.72 


17 


14.11 


14.28 


14.45 


14.62 


14.79 


14.871/2 


14.96 


15.13 


15.30 


15.47 


15.64 


18 


14.94 


15.12 


15.30 


15.48 


15.66 


15.75 


15.84 


16.02 


16.20 


16.38 


16.56 


19 


15.77 


15.96 


16.15 


15.34 


16.53 


16. 621/2 


16.72 


16.91 


17.10 


17.29 


17.48 


20 


16.60 


16.80 


17.00 


17.20 


17.40 


17.50 


17. 6C 


17.80 


18.00 


18.20 


18.40 


25 


20.75 


21.00 


21.25 


21.50 


21.75 


21.871/2 


22.0c 


22.25 


22.50 


22.75 


23.00 


30 


24.90 


25.20 


25.50 


25.80 


26.10 


26.25 


26.4C 


26.70 


27.00 


27.30 


27.60 


40 


33.20 


33.60 


34.00 


34.40 


34.80 


35.00 


35.2c 


35.60 


36.00 


36.40 


36.80 


50 


41.50 


42.00 


42.50 


43.00 


43.50 


43.75 


44.0c 


44.50 


45.00 


45.50 


46.00 


60 


49.80 


50.40 


51.00 


51.60 


52.20 


52.50 


52. 8C 


53.40 


54.00 


54.60 


55.20 


70 


58.10 


58.80 


59.50 


60.20 


60.90 


61.25 


61. 6C 


62.30 


63.00 


63.70 


64.40 


80 


66.40 


67.20 


68.00 


68.80 


69.60 


70.00 


70.4C 


74.20 


72.00 


72.80 


73.60 


90 


74.70 


75.60 


76.50 


77.40 


78.30 


78.75 


79.2c 


80.10 


81.00 


81.90 


82.80 


100 


83.00 


84.00 


85.00 


86.00 


87.00 


87.50 


88.0c 


89.00 


90.00 


91.00 


92.00 


Nos 


93 ct. 


94 ct. 


95 ct. 


96 Ct. 


97 Ct. 


98 ct. 


99 ct. 


fl. 


^2. 


^3. 


2 


1.86 


1.88 


1.90 1 1.92 


1.94 


1.96 


1.98 


2. 


4. 


■ 6. 


3 


2.79 


2.82 


2.85 1 2.88 


2.91 


2.94 


2.97 


3. 


6. 


9. 


4 


3.72 


3.76 


3.80 


3.84 


3.88 


3.92 


3.66 


4. 


8. 


12. 


5 


4.65 


4.70 


4.75 


4.80 


4.85 


4.90 


4.95 


5. 


10. 


15. 


6 


5.58 


5.64 


5.70 


5.76 


5.82 


5.88 


5.94 


6. 


12. 


18. 


7 


6.51 


6.58 


6.65 


6.72 


6.79 


6.86 


6.93 


7. 


14. 


21. 


8 


7.44 


7.52 


7.60 


7.68 


7.76 


7.84 


7.92 


8. 


16. 


24. 


9 


8.37 


8.46 


8.55 


8.64 


8.73 


8.82 


8.91 


9. 


18. 


27. 


10 


9.30 


9.40 


9.50 


9.60 


9.70 


9.80 


9.90 


10. 


20. 


30. 


11 


10.23 


10.34 


10.45 


10.56 


10.67 


10.78 


10.89 


11. 


22. 


33. 


12 


11.16 


11.28 


11.40 


11.52 


11.64 


11.76 


11.88 


12. 


24. 


36. 


13 


12.09 


12.22 


12.35 


12.48 


12.61 


12.74 


12.87 


13. 


26. 


39. 


14 


13.02 


13.16 


13.30 


13.44 


13.58 


13.72 


13.86 


14. 


28. 


42. 


15 


13.95 


?-4.10 


14.25 


14.40 


14.55 


14.70 


14.85 


15. 


30. 


45. 


16 


14.88 


15.04 


15.20 


15.36 


15.52 


15.68 


15.84 


16. 


32. 


48. 


17 


15.81 


15.98 


16.15 


16.32 


16.49 


16.66 


16.83 


17. 


34. 


51. 


18 


16.74 


16.92 


17.10 


17.28 


17.46 


17.64 


17.82 


18. 


36. 


54. 


19 


17.67 


^ 17.86 


18.05 


18.24 


18.43 


18.62 


18.81 


19. 


38. 


57. 


20 


18.60 ! 18.80 


19.00 


19.20 


19.40 


19.60 


19.80 


20. 


40. 


60. 


25 


23.25 


23.50 


23.75 


24.00 


24.25 


24.50 


24.75 


25. 


50. 


75. 


30 


27.90 


29.20 


28.50 


28.80 


29.10 


29.40 


29.70 


30. 


60. 


90. 


40 


37.20 


37.60 


38.00 


38.40 


38.80 


39.20 


39.0d 


40. 


80. 


120. 


50 


46.50 


47.00 


47.50 


48.00 


48.50 


49.00 


49.50 


50. 


100. 


150. 


60 


55.80 


56.40 


57.00 


57.60 


58.20 


58.80 


59.40 


60. 


120. 


180. 


70 


65.10 


65.80 


66.50 


67.20 


67.90 


68.60 


69.30 


70. 


142. 


210. 


80 


74.40 


75.20 


76.00 


76.80 


77.60 


78.40 


79.20 


80. 


160. 


240. 


90 


83.70 


F4.60 


85.50 


86.40 


87.30 


88.20 89.10 


90. 


180. 


270. 


100 


93 00 


9! 


1 


95 


10 


90 


00 


P 


7 00 


c 


8 00 


99 00 


100. 


200. 


300. 



Weight, Stature, &c., op Man.— The mean weight, and stature of the 
human body at birth, and at every subsequent age, together with the 
expectancy of life from 20 to 70 years of age, is as follows. 



MALES. 


i 

FEMALES. 




YEARS. 


YEARS. 


Age 


Feet. 


Lbs. 


Age 


Feet. 


1 Lbs. 


Age. 


Expectancy. 


Age. 


Expec- 
tancy. 


o 


1.64 


7.06 





1.62 


6.42 


20 


4 1 ¥2 


46 


24 


2 


2.60 


25.01 


2 


2.56 


23.53 


21 


40% 


47 


2374 


4 


3.04 


31-38 


4 


3-00 


28.67 


22 


4°,, 


48 


22I/2 


6 


3.44 


38.80 


6 


3-38 


35-29 


23 


38% 


49 


22 


9 


4.00 


49-95 


9 


3-92 


47.10 


24 


50 


21V4 


II 


4.36 


59-77 


II 


4.26 


56-57 


25 


3^, 


5^ 


^°y^ 


13 


4.72 


75.81 


13 


4.60 


72.65 


26 


3774 


52 


19% 


15 


5-07 


96.40 


15 


4-92 


89.04 


27 


36V? 


53 


^%, 


17 


S.36 


116.56 


17 


5.10 


104.34 


28 


35^/4 


54 


18V4 


18 


5-44 


127-59 


18 


5-13 


112.55 


29 


35,, 


55 


17% 


20 


5-49 


132.46 


20 


5.16 


115.30 


30 


34% 


56 


^7,, 


30 


5-52 


140.38 


30 


5.18 


119.82 


31 


33% 


57 


16V4 


40 


5-52 


140.42 


40 


5.18 


121.81 


32 


^\/ 


58 


15V3 


50 


5-49 


139.96 


50 


5-04 


123.86 


33 


321/2 


59 


15,, 


60 


5-38 


136.07 


60 


4-97 


119.76 


34 


31% 


60 


HV2 


70 


5-32 


131.27 


70 


4-97 


113.60 


35 


3',, 


61 


^'^., 


80 


5-29 


127-54 


80 


4-94 


108.80 


36 


30V2 


62 


X3y2 


90 


5.29 


127-54 


90 


4.94 


10S.81 


11 


29% 
29 

28 5< 
27% 


63 
64 


13 

121/2 

IX% 

IIV4 
10% 
lol^ 










39 


65 










40 


66 


Mean. . . 


.103.66 


Mean v . . 


• 93.73 


41 

42 


25% 

25y4 


67 
68 










43 


69 


9% 










44 


70 


9V4 












45 


24% 







The weight of the male infant at birth is 7 lbs. avoirdupois ; that of the 
female is not quite 6^/2 lbs. The maximum weight (140% lbs.) of the 
male is attained at the age of 40 ; that of the female (nearly 124 lbs.) is 
not attained until 50 ; from which ages they decline afterwards ; tho 
male to 127^4 lbs,, the female to 100 lbs., nearly a stone. The full grown 
adult is 20 times as heavy as a new born infant. In the first year ho 
triples his weight, afterwards the growth proceeds in geometrical prog- 
ression, so that if 50 infants in their first year weigh 1000 lbs., they will 
in the second weigh 1210 lbs.; in the third 1331 lbs.; in the fourth 1464 lbs.; 
the term remaining very constant up to the ages of 11-12 in females ; and 
12-13 in males ; where it must be nearly doubled; afterwards it may 
be continued, and will be found very nearly correct up to the age of 
18 or 19, when the growth proceeds very slowly. At an equality of age 
the male is generally heavier than the female. Towards the age of 12 
years only, an individual of each sex, has the same weight. The male 
attains the maximum weight about the age of 40, and he begins to lose 
it very sensibly towards 60. At 80 he loses about 13.2328 lbs. ; and the 
stature is diminished 2*756 inches. Females attain their maximum weight 
about 50. The mean weight of a mature man is lOilbs., and of an aver- 
age woman 94 lbs. In old age they lose about 12 or 14 lbs. Men weigh 
most at 40, women at 50 and begin to lose weight at 60. The mean 
weight of both sexes in old age is that which they had at 19. 

When the male and female have assumed their complete development, 
they weigh almost exactly 20 times as much as at birth, while the stat- 
ure is about 31/2 times greater. 

Children lose weight during the first three days after birth ; at the age 
of a week they sensibly increase ; after 1 year they triple their weight ; 
then they require 6 years to double their weight, and 13 to quadruple it. 
In a child the head Is equal to a fifth part, and in a full grown man to 
an eighth part of the height of the individual. The human skeleton 
weighs from 9 lbs. 6 ozs. to 16 lbs., and the blood 27 or 28 lbs. A c^l^ined 
human body leave?; a residuum of only 8 ozs. All besides Is r<^st»^'^'--' ^o 
tho gaseous elements. 



Weight of Cast Iron Pipes of Different Thicknesses, from 1 inch to 22 
inches in Diameter. 1 foot in Length, 



Diam 


Thickn 


Weight. 


|Diam 


Thickn 


Weight. 


1 Diam. 


Thickn 


Weight. 


Ins. 


Ins. 


Lbs. 


Ins. 


Ins. 


Lbs. 


Ins. 


Ins. 


1 Lbs. 


1. 


.V4 


3.06 


7.1/2 


•■V2 


39.22 




.% 


104.76 




•% 


5.05 




•% 


49.92 




.% 


123.3 


1.1/4 


•V* 


3.67 




60.48 




1. 


142.16 




•% 


6. 




•Ya 


71.76 


14. 


'V2 


71.07 


i.y2 


6.89 




1. 


83.28 




.% 


89.61 




•% 


9.8 


8. 


.V2 


41.64 






108.46 


1.% 


i 


7.8 




.% 


52.68 




. /s 


127.6 




1L04 




.% 


G4.27 




1. 


147.03 


2. 


8.74 




.% 


76.12 


14.1/2 


•■% 


73.72 




12.23 




1. 


88.2 




• % 


92.66 


2.1/4 


9.65 


8.1/3 


'V2 


44.11 




*% 


112.1 




13.48 




•% 


56.16 




'-% 


131.80 


2.1/2 


10.57 




68. 




1 


151.92 




14.66 




•Vs 


80.5 


15. 


'Vi 


75.96 




19.05 




1. 


93.28 




.% 


95.72 


2.% 


11.54 


9. 


.1/2 


46.5 




.% 


115.78 




15.91 






59.92 




.% 


136.15 




20.59 




s/. 


71.7 




1. 


156.82 


3. 


12.28 




.*% 


84.7 


15.1/3 


'Vi 


78.4 




17.15 




1. 


97.98 




*% 


98.78 




•% 


22.15 


9.1/2 


.¥2 


48.98 




119.49 




4 


27.56 




.% 


62.02 




•Vs 


140.4 


3.1/4 


•■72 


18.4 




.% 


75.32 




1. 


161.82 




23.72 




.ys 


88.98 


10. 


•V2 


80.87 




• % 


29.64 




1. 


102.9 




•% 


101.82 


3.1/2 


•■72 


19.66 


10. 


- .V2" 


51.40 




i23.i4 




•% 


25.27 




.% 


65.08 




.% 


144.76 




• % 


31.2 




.% 


78.99 




1. 


166.6 


3.3/4 


'% 


20.9 




.% 


93.21 


10.1/3 


1 


83.3 




1 


26.83 




1. 


108.84 




104.82 




33.07 1 


10.1/2 


.1/2 


53.88 




126.79 


4. 


22.05 






68.14 




.Ys 


149.02 




28.28 




82.68 




1. 


171.6 




34.94 




'% 


97.44 


17. 


.1^ 


85.73 


4.1/4 


li 


23.35 




1. 


112.68 




. /4 


107.90 




29.85 


11. 


'V2 


56.34 




130.48 




•% 

:l 


36.73 




71.19 




•ys 


153.3 


4.1/2 


24.49 




.% 


86.4 




1. 


176.58 




31.4 




.% 


101.83 


17.1/^ 


.¥2 


88.23 




•% 


38.58 




1. 


117.6 




.% 


111.06 


4.34 


1 


25.7 


11. Va 


.¥2 


58.82 




134.10 




32.91 




.% 


74.28 




% 


157.59 




40.43 




.% 


90.06 




\. 


181.33 


5. 


26.94 




.% 


106.14 


18. 


% 


114.1 




.U34 




1. 


122.62 




•% 


137.84 




.%, 


42.28 


12. 


^iz 


61.26 




•% 


101.9 


5.1/2 


•% 


29.4 




.% 


77..36 




1. 


186.24 




37.44 




.% 


93.7 


10. 


.% 


120.24 




45.94 




.% 


110.48 




.% 


145.2 


c. 


31.82 




1. 


127.42 




.% 


170.47 




40.56 


12.1/2 


•V> 


63.7 




1. 


195.92 




.% 


49.6 




•78 


80.4 


20. 


•% 

•% 


126.33 




•7? 


58.96 




•% 


97.4 




152.53 


6.1/2 


3i.32 




.% 


114.72 




•% 


179.02 




:| 


43.68 




L 


132.35 




1. 


205.8 




53.3 


13. 


.V2 


66.14 


21. 


.% 


132.5 




63.18 




.% 


83.46 




159.84 


7. 


;| 


36.66 




.% 


101.08 




.% 


187.6 




46.8 




.% 


118.97 




1. 


215.52 




• /4 


56.96 




1. 


137.28 


22. 




138.6 




.% 


67.6 


13.1/2 


.>! 


68.64 




167.24 




1. 


78.39 




86.55 




.% 


196.46 


• 








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un toco c>oo u-it^M r-^-^N ooo t^o vo lO'^-t-cotow w m 



34 



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RELATIVE STRENGTH OF BODIES 

LEAD BEING i. 
Gun Metal 5.0 



TO RESIST TORSION, 



Tin 1.4 

Copper 4.3 

Yeilow Brass 4.6 



Cast Iron 9.0 

Swedish Iron g.5 



English Iron 10. i 

Blistered Steel 16.6 

Shear Steel 17.0 





CAPACITIES, 


SIZE AND WEIGHT OF COPPERS. 




Depth 




Weight 


Depth 




Weight 


Depth 




Weight 


m 


Gallons 


in 


in 


Gallons 


in 


in 


Gallons 


m 


Inches. 




pounds. 


Inches. 




pounds. 


inches. 




pounds. 


9% 


I 


iVa 


24 


15 


221/2 


2972 


29 


4^72 


12 ^i 


2 


3,, 


2472 


16 


24 


30 


30 


45 


14 


3 


AV2 


2S 


17 


255^ 


32 


36 


54 


15V2 


4 


6 


25K 


18 


27 


34 


43 


6472 


161/2 


5 


7V2 


26 


19 


281/2 


35 


48 


72,, 




6 


9 


26K 


20 


30 


36 


53 


7973 


7 


10V2 


263^ 


21 


3x72 


37 


58 


^7„ 


^9V2 


8 


12 


27 


22 


33 , 


38 


6£ 


7472 


20K 


9 


1372 


"7^ 


23 


341/2 


39 


67 


io6i| 


21 


10 


15,, 


2 772 


24 


36 


40 


71, 


2iy2 


II 


I6l^ 


27% 


25 


3772 


45 


104 


156 


22 


12 


18 


28 


26 


39 


50 


146 


219 


2214 


13 


19V2 


2872 


27 


40I/2 








235^ 


14 


21 


29 


23 


42 











WEIGHT OF SQUARE AND RCUNDCAST IRON. 






Square 


per Foot. 




Round per Foot. 


Size. 


Weight. 


Size. 


Weight. 


Size. 


Weight. 


Size. 


Weight. 


Inches 
square. 


Pounds. 


Inches 
Square. 


Pounds. 


Inches 
Diam. 


Pounds. 


Inches 
Diam. 


Pounqs. 


72 


.78 


4 


50. 


72 


.61 


4/8 


41.76 


Vb 


1.22 


4/8 


53.14 


ys 


•95 


4'A 


44.27 


H 


1.75 


4K 


56.44 


% 


1.38 


4/8 


46.97 


n 


2.39 


43/3 


59j8i 


H 


1.87 


4I/2 


49.70 




3.12 


41/2 


63.28 




2.45 


4/8 


52.50 


iH 


3.95 


4^8 


66.84 


1% 


3.10 


4K 


55-37 


1/4 


4.88 


4K 


70.50 


iK 


3.83 


4/8 


58.32 


I^ 


5-90 


4% 


74.26 


lYs 


4.64 


5 , 


6i.3S 


;^e 


703 


5 


78.12 


ifs 


5-52 


5/8 


64.46 


825 


5/8 


82.08 


6.48 


sH 


67.64 


IK 


9-57 


5'A 


86.13 


1% 


7-51 


5/8 


70.09 


1% 


10.98 


sYj 


90.28 


iVs 


8.62 


sy? 


74.24 


2 


12.50 


572 


94-53 


2 


9.81 • 


5/8 


77-65 


2H 


14. II 


5H 


98.87 


2/8 


II .08 


5% 


91.14 


^^t 


15.81 


5K 


103.32 


2K 


12.42 


sVz 


84.71 


17.62 


5/3 


107.86 


2^3 


13.84 


6 


83.^5 


^^ 


19-53 


6 


112.50 


21/2 


15-33 


6K 


95.87 


21.53 


6^ 


122.0S 


2^8 


16.91 


6I/2 
6% 


103.69 


234 


23-63 


61/2 


132.03 


2^ 


18.56 


111.82 


2% 


25-83 


(>% 


142.38 


2/3 


20.28 


1^, 


120.26 


3 


28.12 


7 


153.12 


3 


22.18 


7K 


129. 


3/8 


30.51 


73< 


164.25 


3/3 


23.96 


M 


138.05 




33- 


772 


175.78 


zH 


25.92 


147.41 


3% 


35-59 


7^ 


187.68 


3/8 . 


27.95 


8 


157.03 


3!^ 


38.28 


8 


200.12 


31/2 ^ 


30,16 


^H' 


167.05 


3f^ 


41.06 


8K 


212.56 


3/8 


32.25 


8I/2 


177.19 


3K 


43.94 


tk 


225.78 


3H 


34-51 


8% 


187.91 


3/8 


46.92 


239.25 


3/3 


36.85 


9 . 


198.79 






9 


253.12 


4 


39-27 


9K 


210. 



608 



WEIGHT OF IRON PER FOOT. 



Kowid' 



CO 

% 

3^3 

I^ 

1^8 

iK 

l78 

2 

254 

2K 

2^ 

2^ 

2^ 

3 

3K 
3^ 

zVx 

4 

4K 
4^8 
4M 
4^ 

^x 

6 

65^ 



Wg't. 



.163 
.368 

.654 
1.02 

1.47 
2.00 

2.6l 

3 31 
4.09 

4-95 

5-89 

6.91 

8.01 

9.20 

10.47 

11.82 

13.25 

14.76 

16.36 

19.79 

23.56 

25-56 

27.65 

29.82 

32.07 

36.81 

41.88 

44-54 
47.28 
50.11 
53.01 
59-o6 

65.45 
73.02 
80.03 
87.08 
95.06 
112.02 



Hqtiare" 



% 

Xj 

iK 

lYz 
1% 

1^8 

2 

2Vk 

2K 

2^ 

2K 

IVs 

z% 

:k 

A% 

k 

5^ 
6 



Wg't. 



.208 

.468 

.833 

1.30 

1.87 

2-55 

3.33 

4.2X 

5.20 

6.30 

7-50 

8.80 

10.20 

11.71 

13.33 

15.05 

16.87 

20.80 

25.20 

30.00 

32.55 
35.20 

37.96 
40.80 
46.87 
53.33 
60.20 
67.50 
75.20 

83.33 

93.20 

102.20 

112.20 



Flat. 



Size. 



i/8xK 
iKxK 
i^sxK 
i^^xK 

i)ixK 

2 XK 
2KxK 

2y2xy2 

2Kx5i 

3 xK 
3KxK 
3^xK 
3^xK 

4 xK 
4y2xK 

5 xK 

6 xK 

1 x>^ 
iMlx^s 

lV4Xr8 

lY&xYn 
iMx% 
i^x% 

2 x% 

2KX% 

2%xy8 
2%xys 

3 x^ 
3Mx^8 

4 x^ 

5 x^a 

6 X^3 

I x% 
iHx^ 
iKxK 

1^8X>^ 
1^X>^ 



W-'t. 



.833 

.937 

1.04 

1.14 
1.25 
1.45 

1.66 

1.87 

2.08 

2.29 

2.50 

2.70 

2.91 

3.12 

3.33 

3.75 

4.17 

5.00 

1.25 

3.40 

1.56 

1. 71 

1.87 

2.18 

50 

81 

12 

43 

75 



4.37 
5.00 
6.25 

7-50 
1.66 
1.87 
2.08 
2.29 
2.50 



Fl 


at. 


Flat. 


Size. ' 


Wg't. 


Size. 


i-%x3^ 


2.9X 


AV2Wx 


2 x^^ 


3.33 


5 x3X 


2^Xx54 


3.74 


5^x3/^ 


2^XM 


4.16 


6 xK 


2%XM 


4-58 


I x% 


3 x^ 


5.00 


1/8X^8 


3%xy2 


5-83 


15^X^8 


4 xy2 


6.66 


i^ax/s 


5 xy2 

6 xy2 


8.33 


iMx/a 


10.00 


iKx/a 


1 x% 


2.08 


2 x^s 


1/8X^8 


2.34 


2Kxr3 


lKx>^3 


2.60 


2^xr8 


i^sx^^s 


2.86 


2^X% 


iy2X^8 


3.12 


3 X^8 


l3^X^8 


3.64 


3%x/8 


2 X^8 


4.16 


4 x/a 


2Kxy3 


4.68 


4^x78 


2y2X^3 


5-20 


5 x/8 


2KX^3 


5-72 


5Mxr8 


3 X^8 


6.25 


6 x/s 


3y2xy8 


7.29 


I>^8XI 


4 x^ 


8.33 


iKxi 


5 X^8 


10.41 


I%XI 


6 X^8 


12.50 


iMxi 


I X3^ 


2.50 


iKxi 


1/8x3/^ 


2.81 


2 XI 


iKxK 


3.12 


2KXI 


i^sxK 


3.43 


2^X1 


iy2x3/i 


3.75 


2^X1 


iKx|i 


4.37 


3 XI 


2 X3/4 


5.00 


3Mxi 


2KX^ 


5.62 


4 XI 


2y2x3/i 


6.25 


4%xi 


2%X3/^ 


6.87 


5 XI 


3 x3/i 


8.50 


sKxi 


3y2x3/i 


8.7s 


6 XI 


4 x^ 


10.00 


6^X1 



Wg't. 

11.25 

12.50 

13.75 

15.00 
2.91 

3. 23 
3.64 
4.01 

4.37 
5.10 

5.83 
6.56 
7.29 
8.02 

8.75 
10.20 
11.66 
13.12 
14.53 
16 04 
17-50 
3-75 
4.16 

4.58 
5.00 
5-83 
6.66 

7.50 

8.33 

9.16 

10.00 

11.66 

13.33 
15.00 
16.66 

18.33 
20.00 
21.66 



WEIGHT OF FLAT STEEL PER FOOT. 





I 


iH 


i^X 


1^8 


iy2 


r% 


2 


2^X 


2y2 


2% 


3 


3K 


z% 


^A 


,852 


•958 


1.06 


1. 17 


1.27 


1.49 


1.70 


1.91 


2.13 


2.34 


2.55 


2.77 


2.99 


Ys 


1.27 


1.43 


1.59 


1.7s 


1.91 


2.23 


2.SS 


2.87 


3.20 


3.51 


3.83 


4-15 


4.47 


14 


1 70 


1. 91 


2.13 


2'34 


2.55 


2.98 


3.40 


3.83 


4.26 


4.68 


5.11 


5.53 


5-9^ 


Vz 


2.13 


2.39 


2.66 


2.92 


3.19 


3-72 


4.26 


4-79 


5.32 


S.85 


6.39 


6.92 


7-45 



MOULDERS AND PATTERN MAKERS' TABLE. 



Cast Iron being i, 



Bar Iron equal 
Steel " 

Brass " 

Copper " 
L«ad " 

39 



1.07 
1.08 
1. 16 
1. 21 

1-55 



Bar IroUi being 1, 



Cast Iron equal 


Steel 


(( 


Copper 


(( 


Brass 


11 


Lead 


11 



.95 
1.03 
1.16 

i'09 

1.48 



• White Pinet being 


i» 


Cast Iron 


equal 


13. 


Brass 




12.7 


Copper 


(( 


13.4 


Lead 




18.1 


Zinc 


(« 


ii-S 



609 



TABLES FOR ENGINEERS AND MACHINISTS. 



Size and strength of Cast Iron 
Columns. Iron i in. thick. 



st 


Height in feet. 


p 


4 1 6 1 8 i lo 1 12 1 14 


S.p 


Load in Cwts. 


2 


72 


60 


49 


40 


32 


26 


■^h 


1x9 


105 


91 


77 


t>5 


55 


3 


178 


143 


145 


128 


III 


97 


■6h 


247 


232 


214 


191 


172 


156 


4, 


326 


318 


288 


266 


242 


220 


4^2 


418 


400 


379 


354 


327 


301 


5 


522 


501 


479 


452 


427 


394 


6 


607 


592 


573 


550 


525 


497 


7 


1032 


1013 


989 


959 


924 


887 


8 


1333 


1315 


1289 


1259 


1224 


1185 


9 


1716 


1697 


1672 


1640 


1603 


1561 


lO 


2iTg 


2100 


2077 


2045 


2007 


1964 


31 


2570 


2550 


2520 


2490 


2450 


2410 


12 


3050 


3040 


3020 


2970 


2930 


2900 







Height in 


feet. 




u 


16 


18 


1 20 


1 22 1 24 


G.S 


Load in Cwts. 


2 


22 


18 


15 


13 


ir 


2^2 


47 


40 


34 


29 


25 


3 


84 


73 


64 


56 


49 


3^2 


135 


119 


106 


94 


83 


4, 


198 


178 


160 


144 


130 


4^2 


275 


251 


229 


208 


189 


5 


365 


337 


310 


28s 


262 


6 


469 


440 


413 


386 


360 


7 


848 


808 


765 


725 


686 


8 


1 142 


1097 


1052 


1005 


959 


9 


1515 


1467 


1416 


1364 


13" 


10 


1916 


1865 


1811 


175 s 


1697 


II 


235« 


2305 


2248 


2189 


2127 


12 


2830 


2780 


2730 


2670 


2600 



Capacities of Cisterns, in galls. 
Diameter from 2. to 2t^ Feet- 
Depth^ ID Inches. 



2 


f_ct 


19-S 


8 


feet 


313.33 


2y2 




30-6 


8V2 


u 


353.72 


3 




44.06 


9 




396.56 


3V2 




59.97 


9V2 




461.40 


4 




78.33 


10 




489.20 


4V2 




99.14 


II 


a 


592.40 


5, 




122.40 


12 




705.00 


5V2 




148.10 


13 


a 


827.4 


6 




176.25 


14 




959-6 


6V2 




206.85 


15 


<< 


1101.6 


7, 




239.88 


20 


t( 


1958.4 


7V2 




275.40 


25 




3059.9 



Co 



Weights of Cordwood. 

lbs. carbon. 

d of Hickory 4468 100 

Hard Maple. . . 2864 

Beech 3234 

Ash 3449 

Birch 2368 

Pitch Pine 1903 

Canada Pine. . . 1870 
Yellow Oak — 2920 

White Oak 1870 

Lombardy Pop- 
lar 1775 

Red Oak..,,.. 3255 



58 
64 
79 
49 
43 
42 
61 
81 



ARITHMETICAL SIGNS AND THEIR SIGNIFICATION. 
= Sign of Equality, and signifies as 4+12=16. 



4- 



Addition 
— " Subtraction 
X " Multiplication 
-^ *' Division 
ij " Square Root 

Square Root. 
6^ Sign of to be Squared 
73 " to be Cubed 

Powers. 



as 8-f-8=i6 the sum. 
as 12 — 4=8 the remainder, 
as 12X3=36 the product, 
as 24-^-3=8 or y^ =8. 
Evolution or Extraction 

thus 8^=164 Involution, or 
thus 3'-=27 the Raising 



of 



of 



The following table shows weight in tons required to tear asunder 
bars I inch square of the following materials. 

Oak 5^ tons. Wrought Copper. . 15 tons 

Fir kH " English Bar Iron.. 2 5 " 



Cast Iron y^ 

Wrought Iron 10 



American Iron 37 J^ 

Blistered Steel. . . . 59^ 



READY RECKONER TABLE 

For computing Wages, Rent, Board, etc. The sum will be found heading the 
columns, and tne days and weeks on the extreme left hand column. If the 
desired sum is not in the Table, double or treble two or three suitable numbers. 



TIME. 


$2.50. 


$2.75. 


$3.00. 


$3.25. 


$3.50. 


$3.75. 


$4.00. 


^4.25- 


$4.50. 


$4-75- 




•?.' 


.36 


•39 


.43 


.45 


•50 


•53 


•57 


.61 


.64 


.68 




rt2 


.72 


.78 


.86 


•93 


-..00 


1.07 


1. 14 


1. 21 


1.28 


1.36 




1.08 


1. 17 


1.29 


1.39 


1.50 


1.61 


1.71 


1.82 


1-93 


2.03 




4 


1.44 


1.56 


1.71 


1.86 


2.00 


2.14 


2.28 


2.43 


2.57 


2.71 




5 


1.80 


1-95 


2.14 


2.32 


2.50 


2.68 


2.86 


3.03 


3.21 


3-39 




6 


2.15 


2.34 


2.57 


2.78 


3-00 


3-21 


3-43 


3.64 


3.86 


4.07 


I 




2.50 


2.75 


3.0c 


3.25 


3.50 


3-75 


4.00 


4.25 


4-5° 


4.75 


.^2 




5.00 


5-50 


6.0C 


6.50 


7.00 


7-50 


8.00 


8.50 


9.00 


9-50 


?53 




7-50 


8.25 


9.0c 


9-75 


10.50 


11.25 


12.00 


12.75 


13-50 


14-25 


^l 




10.00 


11.00 


12. oc 


13.00 


14.00 


15.00 


16.00 


17.00 


18.00 


19.00 




12.50 


13-75 


I5-OC 


16.25 


17-50 


18.75 


20.00 


21.25 


22.50 


23.7s 



TIME. 


$5.00. 


$5-25- 


$5.50. 


^5.75- 


$6.00. 


$6.25. 


$6.50. 


$6.75. 


$7.00- 


$8.00. 




u 


•71 


•75 


•79 


.82 


.86 


.89 


•93 


.96 


I'OO 


1.14 




1.43 


1.50 


1.58 


1.64 


1.72 


1.78 


1.86 


1.92 


2.00 


2.2S 




W3 


2.14 


2.25 


2.37 


2.46 


2.28 


2.67 


2-79 


2.88 


3,00 


3^52 




4 


2.86 


3.00 


3.15 


3.28 


3.44 


3.56 


3.72 


3.84 


4.00 


4.26 




«; 


^'^7 


3-75 


3-94 


4.10 


4.30 


4.45 


4.65 


4.80 


5-00 


5-72 




6 


4.28 


4-50 


4.73 


4.92 


5.16 


5-34 


5-58 


5.76 


6.00 


6.86 


I 




5.00 


5-25 


5.50 


5-75 


6.00 


b.25 


6.50 


6.75 


7.00 


8.00 


«2 




10.00 


10.50 


11.00 


11.50 


12.00 


12.50 


13.00 


13.50 


14.00 


16.00 


1^ 




15.00 


15-75 


16.50 


17-25 


18.00 


18.75 


19.50 


20.25 


21.00 


24.00 


H 




20.00 


21.00 


22.00 


23.00 


24.00 


25-00 


26.00 


27.00 


28.00 


32.00 




25.00 


26.25 


27.50 


28.75 


30.00 


31-25 


32.50 


33^5o 


35.00 


40.00 



WEIGHT OF LEAD PIPE— DIFFERENT SIZES. 





AAA 


AA 


A 


B 


C 


Calib'e 


Weight 


Weight 


Weight 


Wei?;ht 


Weight 




per foot 


per foot 


per foot 


per foot 


per foot 


Inches 


lb. oz. 


lb. oz. 


lb. oz. 


lb. oz. 


lb. oz. 


y. 


I 8 


1 5 


I 2 


I c 


13 


1/ 


3 


2 


I 12 


I 4 


I 


y^ 


3 8 


2 12 


2 8 


2 


I 12 


K 


4 8 


3 8 


3 


2 4 


2 


I 


6 


4 12 


4 


3 4 


2 8 


% 


6 12 


5 12 


4 12 


3 12 


3 


9 


8 


6 4 


5 


4 4 


2 


10 12 


9 


7 


6 


5 4 



D 

Weight 
per foot 



D Light 
Weight 
per foot 



oz. lb. oz. 
10 

13 

8 



E 

Weight 
per foot 



E Light 
Weight 
per foot 



ib. 


oz. 


ib. 


oz. 





8 













II 





9 


I 








12 


I 
I 


4 
8 


I 







3 






4 





SIZE AND CAPACITIES OF CRIBS AND BOXES. 

Crib 6l^ ft. long, z% ft. broad, 3 5^ deep, 63 ^/^ bush. ^/^ peck. 
Box 4 ft. long, 3 ft. 5 in. wide, 2 ft. 8 in. deep, 36!/^ c. ft., 1 ton of coal. 
Stone or Box 4^/2 ft. long, 2^ ft. wide, 2 feet deep, 22^/^ cubic feet. 

Bex 2 ft. long, I foot 4 in. wide, 2 ft. 8 in. deep, 10.722 cu. in. i barrel. 
Box 2 ft. long, I foot 2 in. wide, i foot 2 in. deep, 5.376 cu. in. % barrel. 
Box I foot 2 in. long by 16 8-10 in. wide and 8 in. deep, i bushel. 
Box 12 X II 2-10 in., 8 in. deep, 1.075 2-10 in. or % bushel. 
Box 8x8 4-ic in. and 8 in. deep, 537 6-xo cu. in. or i peck. 
Box 8 X 8 in. and 4 2-10 in. deep, 268. 8-10 cu. in. or ^4 peck. 
Box 7 X 4 in. and 4 8-ro in. deep, 134 4-10 cu. in. % gallon. 
Box 4 X 4 in. and 4 2-10 in. deep, 67 2-10 cu. in. i quart. 

611 



DIAMETERS, CIBCUIVIEERENCES AND AREAS OF CIRCLES. 

Example. — ^Required the circumference of a circle, hoop, or ring, the 
diameter being 3 ft. 4 in. In the column of circumferences, opposite the 
indicated diameter, stands 10 ft. 5% in., the circumference required. The 
just allowance for contraction of the metal is its exact thickness, or its 
breadth, if it is bent edgeways, which must be added to the diameter. 

The millwright can at once ascertain the diameter of any wheel he may 
require, the pitch and number of teeth being given. 

Example. — If a wheel is ordered to be inade to contain 60 teeth, the 
pitch of the teeth to be 3% inches, the dimensions of the wheel may bo 
known simply as follows : — Multiply the pitch of the tooth by the num- 
ber of teeth the wheel is to contain, and the product will be the circum- 
ference of wheel thus— 

3% inches pitch of the tooth. 
10 X 6 = 60 the number of teeth. 

Eeet 19 41^ inches the circumference of the wheel. 
The diameter answering to this circumference is 6 ft. 2 in., consequently 
with one half of this number as a radius, the circumference of the wheel 
will be described. 



Dia. in 


Circum. 


Area in 


Side of 


Dia in 


Cir. in 


Area in 


Area in 


inch. 


in inch. 


sq. inch. 


rzr scL. 


inch. 


ft. in. 


Bq. inch. 


fiq. It. 


1-16 


-196 


-0030 


-0554 


4 in. 


1 01/2 


12-566 


-0879 


1-8 


-392 


-0122 


-1107 


4V8 


1 OVs 
1 1% 
1 1% 


13-364 


-0935 


3-16 


-589 


-0276 


-1661 


41/4 

4% 
4% 


14-186 


-0993 


1-4 


-785 


-0490 


-2115 


15-033 


-1052 


5-16 


-981 


-0767 


-2669 


1 21/8 

1 2V2 


15-904 


-1113 


3-8 


1-178 


-1104 


-3223 


16-800 


-1176 


7-16 


1-374 


-1503 


-3771 


1 2/0 

1 31;5 


17-720 


-1240 










4% 


18-665 


-1306 


1-2 


1-570 


-1963 


-^331 


5 in. 


1 3% 


19-635 


-1374 


9-16 


1-767 


-2485 


-4995 


SVs 


1 41/0 

1 4i^ 


20-629 


-1444 


5-9 


1-963 


-3068 


-5438 


5V4 


21-647 


-1515 


11-16 


2-159 


-3712 


-6093 


54 


1 4% 
1 5V4. 


22-690 


-1588 


3-4 


2-356 


-4417 


-6646 


23-758 


-1663 


13-16 


2-552 


-5185 


-7200 


t 


1 5% 


24-850 


-1739 


7-8 


2-748 


-6013 


-7754 


1 6 


25-967 


-1817 


15-16 


2-945 


-6903 


-8308 


5% 


1 G% 


27-108 


-1897 


1 in. 


11 


-7854 


% 


6 in. 


1 6% 


28-274 


-1979 


IVa 


-9940 


Vs & 3-32 


It 


1 71/4 
1 7% 


29-464 


-2062 


5Vs 


1-227 


1 in. 


30-679 


-2147 


1% 
1% 


1-484 


13-16 


6% 


1 8 


31-919 


-2234 


1-767 


1 5-16 


6y2 


1 83/. 
1 8% 


33-183 


-2322 


2-074 


1 7-16 


6% 
6% 


34-471 


-2412 


1% 


2-405 


1 9-16 


1 9y« 

1 ^V2 


35-784 


-2504 


lys 


2-761 


1 11-16 


eys 


37-122 


-2598 


2 in. 


GI/4 


3-141 


1% 


7 in. 


1 10 


38-484 


-2693 


i>i 


6% 


3-546 


1% 
2 m. 


7% 
7% 
7% 
7% 


1 10% 

1 103^ 

1 llVs 


39-871 


-2791 


7 


3-976 


41-282 


-2889 


2% 


i 


4-430 


2 Vs 


42-718 


-2990 


2% 
2% 
2% 

2y8 


4-908 


2 3-16 


1 11^1 


44-178 


-3092 


5-412 


2 5-16 


1 11% 


45-663 


-3196 


5-939 


2 7-16 


2 03/8 

2 03^ 


47-173 


-3299 


9 


6-491 


2 9-16 


TVs 


48-707 


-3409 


S in. 


lo'i 


7-068 


25/8 


8 in. 


iJ'l 


50-265 


-3518 


3V4 


7-669 


2% 


8V« 
8I4 


51-848 


-3629 


8-295 


2% 


III 

2 25| 


53-456 


-3741 


3% 
3% 
3% 


10% 


8-946 


3 m. 


8% 
8^/5 
8% 
8% 
8% 


55-088 


-3856 


11 


9-621 


sl^ 


66-745 


-3972 


11% 


10-320 


2 3^ 


58-426 


-4089 


1134 

12% 


11-044 


33/3 


2 3y8 


60-132 


-4209 


3% 


11-793 


3 7-16 


61-862 


-4330 



612 



DIAMETERS, CIECUMFEIIENCES AND AREAS OF CIRCLES, &G. 



Dia. in 


Cir. in 


Area in 


Area in 


Dia. in 


Cir. in 


Area in 


Area in 


ft. in. 


ft. 


in. 


sq. inch. 


sq. ft. 


ft. in. 

1 


ft. 


in. 


sq. inch. 


sq. ft. 


9 


2 


41/4 


63-617 


-4453 


1 
1 4 


4 


2V4 


201-062 


1-4074 


SVs 


2 


4% 


65-396 


-4577 


1 41/8 


4 


2% 


204-216 


1-429.5 


S^A 


2 


5 


67-200 


-4704 


1 41/4 


4 


3 


207-394 


1-4517 


9% 

^V2 


2 


6% 


69-029 


-4832 


1 43/8 


4 


3% 


210-597 


1-4741 


2 


53/4 


70-882 


-4961 


1 41/2! 4 


3% 


213-825 


1-4. C7 


9% 


2 


72-759 


-5093 


1 4%i 4 


41/4 


217-077 


i-5ir5 


fl% 


2 


74-662 


-5226 


1 4341 4 


4% 


220-303 


1-5424 


^Vs 


2 


7 


76-588 


-5361 


1 473 


4 


5 


223-654 


1-5655 


10 


2 


7% 

'^% 
8% 


78-540 


-5497 


1 5 


4 


5% 


226-980 


i-crrs 


IOV4 


2 


80-515 


-5636 


1 51/8 


4 


5% 


230-330 


1-6 i 23 


2 


82-516 


-5776 


1 5% 


4 


G% 


233-705 


1-6359 


lOiJ 


2 


§¥2 


84-540 


-5917 


1 5% 4 


6I/2 


237-104 


1-6597 


2 


SVs 


86-590 


-6061 


1 m 4 


678 


240-528 


]-6833 


103^ 


2 


9% 


88-664 


-6206 


1 C% 4 


7% 

11 


243-977 


1-7073 


2 


9% 

loys 


90-762 


-6353 


1 53/4i 4 


247-450 


1-7321 


lOYs 


2 


92-855 


-C499 


1 'oli 4 


250-947 


1-7566 


11 


2 


101/2 


95-033 


-«652 


16 4 


872 


254-469 


1-7812 


111/4 


2 


lOVs 


97-205 


-6874 


1 Ci/s 4 


11 


258-016 


1-8031 


2 


111/4 
11% 


99-402 


-6958 


1 CI/4 4 


261-587 


1-83 il 


11% 
11% 
11% 
11% 


2 


101-623 


-7143 


1 G% 4 


9% 


265-182 


1-85G2 


3 


Oi/s 


103-869 


-7290 


1 CI/2I 4 


101/8 


268-803 


1-8816 


3 


106-139 


-7429 


1 C%! 4 


1014 


272-447 


1-9071 


3 


o7« 


108-434 


-7590 


1 G3| 4 


1078 


276-117 


1-9328 


iiys 


3 


i^A 


110-753 


-7752 


1 cys 


4 


11V4 


279-811 


1-9586 




3 


1% 


113-097 


-7916 


1 7 


4 


1178 


283-529 


1-9847 


1 Va 


3 


2 


115-466 


-8082 


1 71/8 


5 





287-272 


1-9941 


1 V4 


3 


^ 


117-859 


-8250 


1 7y4 


5 


01/2 


291-039 


2-037 L 




3 


120-276 


-8419 


1 73/8 


5 


0% 


294-831 


2-0637 


3 


3V4 


122-718 


-8590 




5 


IV4 


298-648 


2-0904 


1 % 


3 


3% 


125-185 


-8762 


1 7% 


5 


1% 


302-489 


2-1172 


1 % 


3 


4 


127-676 


-8937 


1 73/4 


5 


2 


306-355 


2-1443 


1 Vs 


3 


4% 


130-192 


-9113 


1 778 


5 


2% 


310-245 


2-1716 


1 1 


3 


1 

5% 


132-732 


-9291 


1 8 


5 


Si 


314-16) 


2-1090 


1 1% 


3 


135-297 


-9470 


1 8% 


5 


318-099 


2-2265 


1 1V4 


3 


137-886 


-9G42 


1 81^ 5 


3% 


322-063 


2-2543 


1 1% 


3 


6 


140-500 


-9835 


1 83/8i 5 


4 


326-051 


2-2922 


1 iy2 


3 


6% 


143-139 


1-0019 


1 8i|! 5 


tl 


330-064 


2-3103 


1 1% 


3 


?l 


145-802 


1-0206 


1 8%| 5 


334-101 


2-3386 


1 13/4 


3 


148-489 


1-0294 


1 83/4 5 


5% 


338-163 


2-3670 


1 lys 


3 


TYa 


151-201 


1-0584 


1 878 5 


572 


342-250 


2-3956 


1 2 


3 


778 

8% 
83A 

9V2 


153-938 


1-0775 


19 5 


578 


346-361 


2-4244 


1 21/8 


3 


156-699 


1-0968 


I ti 


5 


0% 


350-497 


2-4533 


1 2V4 


3 


159-485 


1-1193 


5 


634 

7% 


354-657 


2-4824 


1 23/o 


3 


162-295 


1-1360 


1 9% 
1 91/2 


.5 


358-841 


2-5117 


1 21/2 


3 


165-130 


1-1569 


5 


71/2 


363-051 


2-5412 


1 2% 


3 


9Vs 


167-989 


1-1749 


1 9% 


5 


778 


367-284 


2-5708 


1 2% 


3 


10V4 

10% 


170-873 


1-1961 


1 9% 


5 


8I/4 


371-543 


2-600T 


1 2% 


3 


173-782 


1-2164 


1 97s 


5 


8% 


375-b26 


2-6306 


1 3 


3 


llVs 


176-715 


1-2370 


1 10 


5 


91/8 


380-133 


2-6608 


1 31/8 
1 31/4 


3 


111/2 


179-672 


1-2577 


1 10V3 


5 


t 


384-465 


2-6691 


3 


llVs 


182-654 


1-2785 


1 101/4 


5 


388-822 


2-7016 


1 33/3 


4 


01/4 

0% 


185-661 


1-2996 


1 10% 


5 


1014 
10% 


393-203 


2-7224 


1 31/2 
1 3% 
1 334 


4 


188-692 


1-3208 


1 101^ 


5 


397-608 


2-7632 


4 


1 


191-748 


1-3422 


1 10% 5 
1 103/4 5 


11 


402-038 


2-7980 


4 


1% 


194-828 


1-3337 


111/2 


406-493 


2-8054 


1 ^% 


4 


I'/a 


197-933 


1-3855 


1 10V& 


5 


llvS 


410-972 


2-. G58 



fil3 



DIAMETERS, CIRCUMFERENCES AND AREAS OF CIRCLES, &C. 



814 



Dia. in 


Cir. in 


Area in 


Area in 


D 


a. in 


Cir. in 


Area in 


Area in 


ft. ft. 


ft. 


in. 


sq. inch. 


sq. ft. 


ft 


. in. 


it. in. 


sq. inch. 


Bq. ft. 


1 11 


6 


01/4 


415-4TG 


2-8903 


3 





9 


5 


1017-87 


7-0688 


1 ni/g 


6 


0% 


420-001 


2-9100 


3 


01/4 


9 


578 


1032-06 


7-167L 


1 111/4 


6 


1 


421-557 


2-9518 


3 


01/2 


9 


c% 


1046-35 


7-2664 


1 11% 6 

1 ll<4l 6 


1% 


429-135 


2-9937 


3 


03/4 


9 


71/2 


1060-73 


7-3662 


1% 


433-737 


3-0129 


3 


1 


9 


81/4 


1075-21 


7-4661 


1 11%! 6 


2l^ 


438-363 


3-0261 


3 


IV4 


9 


9 


1089-79 


7-568 L 


1 1134 


6 


2% 


443-014 


3-0722 


3 


iy2 


9 


9% 


1104-46 


7-6691 


1 1178 


6 


3 


447-690 


3-1081 


3 


1% 


9 


101/2 


1119-24 


7-7791 


2 


G 


fi 


452-390 


3-1418 


3 


2 


9 


11% 

Oi/s 


1131-12 


7-8681 


2 01/4 


6 


461-864 


3-2075 


3 


21/4 '10 


1149-09 


7-9791 


2 OV2 


6 


61/2 


471^36 


3-2731 


3 


214:10 


0% 


1164-16 


8-0846 


2 034 


6 


481-106 


3-3410 


3 


23/4 


10 


1% 


1179-32 


8-1891 


2 1 


6 


490-875 


3-4081 


3 


3 


10 


21/2 


1194-59 


8-2951 


2 11/4; 6 


'^% 


500-741 


3-4775 


3 


31/4 


10 


31/4 


1200-95 


8^026 


2 IVo 6 


8V8 

8% 


510-706 


3-5468 


3 


31/0 10 


4 


1225-42 


8-5091 


2 1% 


G 


520-760 


3-6101 


3 


3% 


10 


4% 


1240-L8 


8-6171 


2 2 


G 


9% 
10% 


530-930 


3-6870 


3 


4 


10 


5% 


1256-64 


8-7263 


2 21/4 


6 


5il-189 


3-7583 


3 


41/4 


10 


c% 


1272-39 


8-8361 


2 21/2 


G 


111/4 


551-547 


3-8302 


3 


41/2 10 
43410 


7V4 


12S8-25 


8-9462 


2 23/4 


7 





562-002 


3-9042 


3 


8 


1304-20 


9-0561 


2 3 


7 


03/4 


572-556 


3-9761 


3 


5 


10 


8% 


1320-25 


9-1686 


2 3I/; 


7 


1 


583-208 


4-0500 


3 


5V4 

51/2 


10 


9% 


1336-40 


9-2112 


2 31/2 


7 


593-958 


4-1241 


3 


10 


10% 
11% 


1352-65 


9-3C61 


2 s3^ 


7 


SVs 


604-807 


4-2000 


3 


5% 


10 


1369-00 


9-5061 


2 4 


7 


syg 


615-753 


4-2760 


3 


6 


10 


11% 


1385-44 


9-6212 


2 41/4 
2 41/2 


7 


r4 


626-798 


4-3521 


3 


6V4 


u 


2% 


1401-98 


9-7364 


7 


637-941 


4-4302 


3 


6I/2 


11 


1418-62 


9-8518 


2 43/. 


7 


649-182 


4-5083 


3 


634 


11 


1435-36 


9-9671 


2 5 


7 


7 


660-521 


4-5861 


3 


7 


11 


3 


1452-20 


10-084 


2 51/4 
2 51^ 


7 


8% 

^V2 


671-958 


4-6665 


3 


lY"^ 


11 


1 


1469-14 


10-202 


7 


683-494 


4-7467 


3 


11 


1486-17 


10-320 


2 53/4 


7 


695-123 


4-8274 


3 


73^ 


11 


5% 


1503-30 


10-439 


2 6 


7 


101/4 


706-860 


4-9081 


3 


8 


11 


6V4 


1530-53 


10-559 


2 c4 


7 


11 


718-690 


4-9901 


3 


8I/4 


11 


7 


1537-86 


10-679 


7 


113/4 


730-618 


5-0731 


3 


8% 


11 


7% 

81/2 

914 

10% 

10% 


1555-28 


10-^00 


2 C3/4 


8 


0% 

It 


742-644 


5-1573 


3 


8% 


11 


1572-81 


10-922 


2 7 


8 


754-769 


5-2278 


3 


9 


11 


1590-43 


11-044 


2 71/4 


8 


766-992 


5-3264 


3 


91/4 


11 


1608-15 


11-167 


2 71/2 


8 


779-313 


5-4112 


3 


^Y2 


u 


1625-76 


n-291 


2 73/4 


8 


791-732 


5-4982 


3 


9% 


11 


1643-89 


11-415 


2 8 


8 


4V2 


804-240 


5-5850 


3 


10 


12 


01/2 


1661-90 


11-531 


2 8I/4 


8 


il 


816-865 


5-6729 


3 


101/4 
101/2 


12 


1V4 


1608-02 


11-666 


2 81/. 
2 83^ 


8 


829-578 


5-7601 


3 


12 


2 


1698-23 


11-793 


8 


eVs 


842-390 


5-8491 


3 


10% 


12 


s% 


1716-54 


11-920 


2 9 


8 


75^ 


855-300 


5-9398 


3 


11 


12 


3% 


1734-94 


12-048 


2 91/4 


8 


8% 
9V4 


868-308 


6-0291 


3 


11V4 


12 


4% 


1753-45 


12-176 


2 91/2 
2 934 


8 


881-415 


6-1201 


3 


iiy2 


12 


51/4 


1772-05 


12-305 


8 


10 


894-619 


6-2129 


3 


11% 


12 


6 


1790-76 


12-435 


2 10 


8 


1034 

iiy2 


907-922 


6-3051 







12 


634 

7% 


1809-56 


12-566 


2 101/4 
2 10i| 
2 103^ 


8 


921-323 


6-3981 




01/4 


12 


1828-46 


12-697 


9 


0% 
1% 


934-822 


6^911 




01/2 
0% 


12 


81/8 


1847-45 


12-829 


9 


948-419 


6-5863 




12 


91/8 


1866-55 


12-962 


2 11 


9 


1% 
2% 

3i| 


962-115 


6-6815 




1 


12 


9% 


1885-74 


13-095 


2 111/4 
2 IIV2 


9 


975-908 


6-7772 




1V4 
lyl 


12 


10% 

11% 

0% 


1905-03 


13-229 


9 


989-800 


6-8738 




12 


1924-42 


13-364 


2 11% 


9 


1003-79 


6-9701 


4 


13 


1943-91 


13-499 



DIAMETERS, CIKC U MFEKENCES AND AKEAS OF CIRCLES. 



Dia. in 


Cii 


. in 


Area in 


Area in 


Dia. in 


Cir 


. in 


Area in 


Area in 


it. in. 


ft. 


in. 


sq. inch. 


sq. ft. 

1 


ft 


in. 


ft. 


in. 


sq. inch. 


sq. ft. 


4 2 


13 


1 


1963-50 


13-635 


5 


4 


16 


9 


3216-99 


22-333 


4 21/4 


13 


I'/s 


1983-18 


13-772 


5 


t^i 


16 


9% 


3242-17 


22-515 


t t 


13 


2% 


2002-96 


13-909 


5 


16 


10% 


3267-46 


22-621 


13 


3% 


2022-84 


14-047 


5 


43^16 


11% 


3292-83 


22-866 


4 3 


13 


4V! 


2042-82 


14-186 


5 


5 17 


OVs 


3318-31 


23-043 


4 31/4 


13 


5 


2062-90 


14-325 


5 


6V4 17 


0% 


3343-88 


23-221 


-- 31/2 


13 


5% 


2083-07 


14-465 


5 


51/2117 

53/4|l7 


1% 


3369-56 


23-330 


4 33/: 


13 


2103-35 


14-606 


5 


2^1 


3395-33 


23-573 


4 4 


13 


■3% 
8% 


2123-72 


14-748 


5 


6 !l7 


3% 


3421-20 


23-758 


4 41/4 


13 


21-44-19 


14-890 


5 


61/4! 17 


4% 


3447-16 


23-938 


4 41^113 


s% 


2164-75 


15-033 


5 


Ci/oilT 


4y8 


3473-23 


24-119 


4 434 13 


9% 


2185-42 


15-176 


5 


03/4:17 


5% 


3499-39 


24-SOl 


4 5 13 


lOVo 


2206-18 


15-320 


5 


7 


1^7 


61/2 


3525-26 


24-^83 


4 51/4 13 


111/4 


2227-05 


15-465 


5 


Vi^ 


117 


71/4 


3552-01 


24-C66 


4 51/2 14 





2248-01 


15-611 


5 




il7 


8 


3578-47 


24-ero 


4 53| 


11 


oys 


2269-06 


15-757 


5 


7% 


|17 


8% 


3605-03 


25-034 


4 G 




1% 

2% 

3 A 


2290-22 


1.5-904 


5. 


8 


!l7 


s% 


3631-68 


25-220 


4 GV4 




2311-48 


16-051 


5 


8V4 

83/4 


il7 


10% 
11% 


3658-44 


25-405 


4 GI/2 




2332-83 


16-200 


5 


'17 


368^29 


25-C02 


4 G3/4 




4 


2354-28 


16-349 


5 


17 


11% 

lyt 


3712-24 


25-779 


4 7 




4% 


2357-83 


19-498 


5 


9 


ii8 


3739-28 


25-C64 


4 TV4 




514 


2397-48 


16-649 


5 


CV4'18 


3766-43 


26-15.5 


4 71/2 11 


6% 


2419-22 


16-800 


5 


91/2:18 


2V4 


3793-67 


26-344 


4 73/3 


1^ 


2441-07 


16-951 


5 


S3^jl8 


3% 


3821-02 


26-534 


4 8 


U 


'i 

9% 


2463-01 


17-104 


5 


10 


18 


3% 
4% 


3848-46 


26-725 


4 rV4 


14 


2485-05 


17-227 


5 


1CV4 


18 


3875-99 


26-916 


4 f;i/2 


14 


2507-19 


17-411 


5 


101/2; 18 


5% 
61/4 


3903-63 


27-108 


4 83^ 


14 


10V4 


2529-42 


17-565 


5 


l03^;l8 


3931-36 


27-301 


4 9 


14 


11 


2551-76 


17-720 


5 


11 


18 


7 


3959-20 


27-494 


4 OV4 


14 


llVs 


2574-19 


17-876 


5 


111/4 


18 


7% 


3987-13 


27-C88 


4 01/2 


15 


0% 

1% 


2596-72 


.18-033 


5 


111/9 


18 


8% 


4015-16 


27-883 


4 93/4 


15 


2619-35 


18-189 


5 


11% 


18 


s% 


4043-28 


28-078 


4 10 


15 


2V4 

2% 


2642-08 


18-347 


G 





18 


lOVs 


4071-51 


28-274 


4 IOV4 


15 


2664-91 


18-506 


6 


0V4 


18 


10% 

11% 
0V2 


4099-83 


28-471 


4 101/2 


15 


3% 


2687-83 


18-665 


6 


0V2 


18 


4128-25 


28-663 


4 1034 


15 


4y2 


2710-85 


18-825 


6 


1% 


19 


4156-77 


28-866 


4 11 


15 


51/4 


2733-97 


18-995 


6 


1 


19 


1V4 


4185-39 


29-065 


4 IIV4 


15 


61^ 


2757-19 


19-147 


6 


1V4 


19 


21/8 


4214-11 


29-264 


4 llVo 


15 


eVs 


2780-51 


19-309 


6 


iy2 


19 


2% 
3% 


4242-S2 


29-466 


4 11% 


15 




2803-92 


19-471 


6 


1% 


19 


4271-83 


29-665 


5 


15 


^1 


2827-44 


19-635 


6 


2 


19 


41/2 


4300-85 


29-867 


5 01/4 
5 01/2 


15 


2851-05 


19-798 


6 


21/4 


19 


51/4 


4329-95 


30-069 


15 


10 


2874-76 


19-963 


6 


2V2 


19 


6 


4359-16 


30-271 


5 03^ 


15 


1034 
11% 


2898-56 


20-128 


6 


2% 


19 


6% 


4388-47 


30-475 


5 1 


15 


2922-47 


20-294 


6 


3 


19 


7% 


4417-87 


30-679 


5 IV4 


16 


03/8 
1% 


2946-47 


20^61 


6 


S1/4 


19 


Si/^ 


4447-37 


30-884 


6 IV2 


16 


2970-57 


20-629 


6 


31/2 


19 


4476-97 


30-090 


5 1% 


16 


1% 


2994-77 


20-797 


6 


3% 


19 


syg 


4506-67 


31 -296 


5 2 


16 


234 

3% 

41/4 


3019-07 


20-965 


6 


4 


19 


10% 


4536-47 


31-503 


5 2V4 


16 


3043-47 


20-135 


6 


4V4 


19 


111/2 

01^ 


4566-36 


31-710 


5 21/2 


16 


3067-96 


20-305 


6 


4i| 


20 


4596-35 


31-919 


5 234 


16 


5% 


3092-56 


21-476 


6 


43/4 


20 


11/8 


4626-44 


32-144 


5 3 


16 


5% 
6I/4 


3117-25 


21-647 


6 


5 


20 


iy8 


4656-63 


32-337 


5 31/4 


16 


3142-04 


21-819 


6 


5V4 


20 


2% 


4686-f;2 


32-548 


5 31/2 


16 


7l^ 


3166-92 


21-992 


6 


51/2 


20 


ti 


4717-30 


32-759 


5 33/4 


16 


8V4 


3191-91 


22-166 . 


6 


53/ 


20 


4747-79 


32-970 



61.5 



DIAM., &c. OF CIRCLES, CONTENTS IN GALS., ABEA IN FEET. 



Diam, 


Circ. 


Area in ft. 


Gallons. 


Diam. 


Circ. 


Area in ft. 


Gallons. 


Ft. 


In. 


Ft. In. 




Iftindpth 


Ft. 


In. 


Ft. In. 




1 ft. in dpth 






3 1% 
3 4% 


.7854 


5.8735 


5 


8 


17 9% 


25.2199 


188.6045 




1 


.9217 


6.8928 


5 


9 


18 0% 


25.9672 


194.1930 




2 


3 8 


1.0690 


7.9944 


5 


10 


18 37/8 


26.7251 


199.8610 




3 


3 11 


1.2271 


9.1765 


5 


11 


18 71/8 


27.4943 


205.6133 




4 
5 
6 

7 
8 


4 21/8 
4 6% 


1.3962 
1.5761 


10.4413 
11.7866 


6 


2 


?o ^Y? 


29.0867 


223.9472 




4 8i| 

4 11% 

5 2% 


1.7671 
1.9689 
2.1816 


13.2150 
14.7241 
16.3148 


6 
6 
6 


S 
6 
9 


19 71/2 

20 47/8 

21 23^ 


30.6796 
33.1831 
35.7847 


229.4342 
24 -.1564 
267.6122 




9 


5 5% 


2.4052 


17.9870 


7 




21 11% 


38.4846 


287.8032 




10 


5 9 


2.6398 


19.7414 


7 


S 


22 914 


41.2825 


308.7270 




11 


6 21/4 


2.8852 


21.4830 


7 


6 


^0 Xi^/A 


44.1787 


330.3859 












7 


9.24 4% 


47.1730 


352.7665 


2 




6 3% 


3.1416 


23.4940 


8 




25 11/2 


50.2656 


375.9062 


2 


1 


6 61/2 


3.4087 


25.4916 


8 


3 


25 11 


53.4562 


399.7668 


2 


2 


6 9% 


3.6869 


27.5720 


8 


6 


i26 8% 
27 63/4 


56.7451 


424.3625 


2 


3 


7 03/4 

7 IOV4 

8 4i| 
8 7% 
8 103^ 


3.9760 


29.7340 


8 


9 


60.1321 


449.2118 


2 
2 
2 
2 
2 


4 

5 
6 

7 
8 


4.2760 
4.5869 
4.9087 
5.2413 
5.5850 


32.6976 
34.3027 
36.7092 
39.1964 
41.7668 


9 
9 
9 
9 


8 
C 
9 


28 31/4 

29 0% 

29 lOVg 

30 7V2 


63.6174 

67.2007 
70.8823 
74.6620 


475.7563 
502.5530 
530.0861 
558.3522 


2 


9 


6.9395 


44.4179 


10 




31 5 


78.5400 


587.3534 


2 


10 


6.3049 


47.1505 


10 


3 


32 23^ 
32 113^ 


82.5160 


617.0876 


2 


11 


9 lys 


6.6813 


49.9654 


10 


6 


86.5903 


647.5568 












10 


9 


33 91/4 


90.7627 


678.2797 


3 




9 5 


7.0686 


52.8618 


11 




34 G% 

35 41/8 

36 11/2 


95.0334 


710.6977 


3 


1 


9 81/4 


7.4666 


55.8382 


U 


3 


99.4021 


743.3G86 
776.7746 


3 


2 


9 11% 

10 21^ 


7.8757 


68.8976 


11 


G 


103.8691 


3 


3 


8.2957 


62.0386 


11 


9 


36 107/8 


108.4342 


810.9143 


3 
3 
3 
3 
3 


4 
6 
G 
7 
8 


10 5% 

10 83^ 

10 iiys 

11 3 
11 GVs 


8.7265 

9.1683 

9.6211 

10.0846 

10.5591 


65.2602 
68.5193 
73.1504 
75.4166 
78.9652 


12 
12 
12 
12 


I 

9 


37 834 

38 53^ 

39 31/4 

40 0% 


113.0976 
117.8590 

122.7187 
127.6765 


848.1890 
881.3966 
917.7395 
954.8159 


3 


9 


11 93/8 

12 514 
12 3% 


11.0446 


82.5959 


13 




40 10 


132.7326 


992.6274 


3 


10 


11.5409 


86.3074 


13 


3 


41 71/2 


137.8867 


1031.1719 


3 


11 


12.0481 


90.1004 


13 


6 


42 47/8 

43 21/4 


143.1391 


1070.4514 












13 


9 


148.4896 


1108.0645 


4 




12 63^ 

12 9% 


12.5664 


93.9754 


14 




43 1134 

44 9l^ 


153.9384 


1151.2129 


4 


1 


13.0952 


97.9310 


14 


3 


159.4852 


1192.6940 


4 


2 


13 1 


13.6353 


101.9701 


14 


c 


45 6% 


165.1303 


1234.9104 


4 


3 


13 41/= 
13 7I/? 

13 IOV2 

14 1% 
14 45^ 
14 77/8 


14.1862 


103.0300 


14 


9 


46 4 


170.8735 


1277.8615 


4 
4 
4 
4 
4 


4 
5 
6 

7 
8 


14.7479 
15.3206 
15.9043 
16.4986 
17.1041 


110.2907 
114.5735 
118.9386 
123.3830 
127.9112 


15 
15 
15 
15 


9 


47 11/2 
47 107/8 


176.7150 
182.6545 
188.6923 
194.8282 


1321.5454 
1365.9634 
1407.5165 
1457.0032 


4 


9 


14 11 


17.7205 


132.5209 


16 




50 314 


201.0624 


1503.6250 


4 


10 


15 21/8 
15 51/4 


18.3476 


137.2105 


16 


3 


51 01/2 


207.3946 


1550.9797 


4 


11 


18.9858 


142.0582 


16^ 


6 


51 10 


213.8251 


1599.0696 












16 


9 


52 7% 


220.3537 


1647.893( 


5 
5 
5 
5 


1 

2 
3 


15 8I/2 

15 11% 

16 23^ 
16 53/4 


19.6350 
20.2947 
20.9656 
21.6475 


146.8384 
151.7718 
156.7891 
161.8886 


17 
17 
17 
17 


3 
6 
9 


53 47/. 

54 2i| 

54 11% 

55 91/8 


226.9806 
233.7055 
240.5287 
247.4500 


1697.4516 
1747.7431 

1798.7698 
1850.5301 


5 


4 


16 9 


22.3400 


167.0674 


18 




56 6I/2 


254.4696 


1903.0254 


5 


5 


17 01/8 
17 31/4 


23.0437 


172.3300 


18 


3 


57 4 


261.5872 


1956.2537 


5 


G 


23.7583 


177.6740 


18 


C 


58 1% 


268.8031 


2010.2171 


5 


7 


17 G% 


24.4835 


183.0973 

6 


18 
1(> 


9 


58 103^ 


276.1171 


20G4.9140 



SCANTLING REDUCED TO ONE INCH BOAED MEASURE. 
SCANTLING AND TIMBER MEASURE 

REDUCED TO ONE INCH BOARD MEASURE. 

EXPLANATION.— To ascertain the number of Feet of Scantling or Tim- 
ber, say 18 Feet Long and 2 by 3 Inches. Find 2 by 3 in the top 
columns, and 18 in the left hand column, and under 2 by 3 and against 
18 is 9 feet. 

If the Scantling is longer than contained in the Table, add two lengths 
together. If shorter, take part off some length. 



0) 










THICKNESS 


AND WIDTH 


IN 


INCHES. 










o 

^ 


22 


2.S 


1 2A 


t 26 


2. 


6 


2.7 


2.8 2.9 

8. 9. 


3.3 

4.6 


3.4 3.6| 


3.6, 3.7 

9. lo.e 


3.8 

;i2." 


3.9 

13.6 


4.4 


6 


2. 


3. 


4. 


5. 


6 


7. 


6. 


7.6 


8. 


7 


2.4 


3.( 


> 4.^ 


I 5.10 


7. 


8. 2 


9.4 


10.6 


5.3 


7. 


8.9 


10.6 12.C 


5 14. 


15.9 


9.4 


8 


2.8 


4. 


5.4 


t 6. 8 


8. 


9. 4110.8 


12. 


6. 


8. 


10. 


12. 114. 


16. 


18. 


10. 


9 


3. 


4.( 


) 6. 


7. 6 


9. 


10. 6 


12. 


13.6 


6.9 


8. 


11.3 


13.6il5.i 


)18. 


20.3 


12. 


10 


3.4 


5. 


6.^ 


5 8. 4110. 


11. 8 


13.5 


15. 


7.6l 


10. 


12.6 


15. !17.( 


5 20. 


22.6 


13.4 


11 


3.8 


5.( 


5 7/ 


t 9. 2111. 


12.10 


14.8 


16.6 


8.3i 


11. 


13.9 


16.6!l9.i 


5 22. 


24.9 


14.8 


12 


4. 


6. 


8. 


10. 112. 


14. 


16. 


18. 


9. 1 


12. 


15. 


18. |21. 


24. 


27. 


16. 


13 


4.4 


6.( 


5 S.i 


^il0.10|l3. 


15. 2 


17.4 


19.6 


9.9i 


1.3. 


16.3 


19.6'22.< 


)26. 


29.3 


17.4 


14 


4.8 


7. 


9/ 


HI. 8114. 


16. 4 


18.8 


21. 


10.6 


14. 


17.6 


21. !24.( 


5 28. 


31.6 


18.8 


15 


5. 


7.( 


3 10. 


12. 6' 15. 


17. 6 


20. 


22.6 


11.3 


15. 


18.9 


22.626.: 


5 30. 


33.91 20.0 


16 


5.4 


8. 


10.{ 


? 13. 4 116. 


18. 8 


21.4 


24. 


12. 


16. 


20. 


24. 128. 


|32. 


36. 1 21.4 


17 


5.8 


8. 


3 1L^ 


114. 2 


17. 


19.10 


22.8 


25.6 


12.9 


17. 


2L3 


25.6'29.< 


);34. 


38.3 22.8 


18 


6. 


9. 


12. 


15. 


18. 


21. 


24. 


27. 


13.6 


18. 


22.6 


27. I31.( 


3:36. 


40.6! 24. 


19 


6.4 


9. 


5 12. 


B 15.10 


19. 


22. 2 


25.4 


28.6 


14.3 


19. 


23.9 


28.6 33.: 


5 38. 


42.9 


24.4 


20 


6.8 


10. 


13.^ 


116. 8 


20. 


23. 4 


26.8 


30. 


15. 


20. 


25. 


30. !35. 


40. 


45. 


26.8 


21 


7. 


10. 


6 14. 


17. 6 


2L 


24. 6 


28. 


3L6 


15.9 


21. 


26.3 


31.6 36. f 


)42. 


47.3 


28. 


22 


7.4 


11. 


14. 


=!18. 4 


22. 


25. 8 


29.^ 


33. 


16.6 


22. 


27.6 


33. I38.( 


5 44. 


49.6} 29.4 


23 


7.8 


11. 


6 15. 


il9. 2 


23. 


26.10 


30.8 


34.6 


17.3 


23. 


28.9 


34.6 40.: 


5 46. 


51.91 30.8 


24 


8. 


12. 


16. 


20. 


24. 


28. 


32. 


36. 


18. 1 


24. 


30. 


36. 42. 


48. 


54. 32. 


25 


8.4 


12. 


6 16. 


8 20.10 


25. 


29. 2 


33.4 


37.6 


18.9! 


25. 


31.3 


37.0 43. i 


)50. 


56.31 33.4 


30 


10. 


15. 


20. 


25. 


30. 


35. 


40. 


45. 


22.6! 


30. 


37.6 


45. i52.( 


5 60. 


67.6 


i 40. 


34 


11.4 


17. 


22. 


5 28. 4 


34. 


39. 3 


45.4 


51. 


25. 6 1 


34. 


42.6 


51. !59.( 


>|68. 


76.6 


45.4 


40 


13.4|20. 


26. 


8 33. 4 


40. 


46. 8 


53.4 


160. 


30.0! 


40. 


50. 


60. |70. 


180. 


90. 


153. 


9. 


THICKNESS AND WIDTH IN 


INCHES. 


S 


6.4 

10. 


46 ' 

12. 1 


i.7 
4. j 


4-.8 

16. 


4.9 

18. 


6.6 


6.6 


5.7 


5.8 


|6.9 


6.6 


6.7 1 


6.8 


6.9 6.10 


6 


12. 6 


15. . 


L7. 6 


20. 


22.6 


18. 


21. 


24. 


27. i 30. 


7 


11.8 


14. 1 


6.4 


18.8 


21. 


14. 7 


17.6* 


^0. 5 


23.4 


26.3 


21. 


24.6 


28. 


31.6! 35. 


8 


13.4 


16. 1 


8.8 


21.4 


24. 


16. 8 


20. t 


23. 4 


26.8 


30. 


24. 


28. 


32. 


36. 


40. 


9 


15. 


18. S 


>1. 


24. 


27. 


18. 9 


22.6 


26. 3 


30. 


33.9 


27. 


31.6 


36. 


40.6 


45. 


10 


16.8 


20. ^ 


53.4 


26.8 


30. 


20.10 


25. 129. 2 


33.4 


37.6 


30. 


35.. 


40. 


45. 


50. 


11 


18.4 


22. ^ 


>5.8 


29.4 


33. 


22.11 


27.6132. 1 


30.8 


41.3 


33. 


38.6 


44. 


49.6 


55. 


12 


20. 


24. ^ 


18. 


32. 


36. 


25. 


30. 135. 


40. 


45. 


36. 


42. 


48. 


54. 


60. 


13 


21.8 


26. : 


50.4 


34.8 


39. 


27. 1 


32.6 37.11 


43.4 


48.9 


39. 


45.6 


52. 


58.6 


65. 


14 


23.4 


28. [ 


52.8 


37.4 


42. 


29. 2 


35. 


40.101 46.8 


52.6 


42. 


49. 


56. 


63. 


70. 


15 


25. 


30. : 


55. 


40. 


45. 


31. 3 


37.6 


43. 9 


50. 


56.3 


45. 


52.6 


60. 


67.6 


75. 


16 


26.8 


32. [ 


57.4 


42.8 


48. 


33. 4 


40. 


46. 8 


53.4 


60. 


48. 


56. 


64. 


72. 


80. 


17 


28.4 


34. : 


59.8 


45.4 


51. 


35. 5 


42.6^ 


49. 7 


56.8 


63.9 


51. 


59.6 


68. 


76.6 


85. 


18 


30. 


36. ^ 


12. 


48. 


54. 


37. 6 


45. 


52. 6 


60. 


67,6 


54. 


63. 


72. 


81. 


90. 


19 


31.8 


38. ^ 


14.4 


50.8 


57. 


39. 7 


47.6 55. 5 


63.4 


71.3 


57. 


66.6 


76. i 85.6| 


95. 


20 


33.4 


40. ^ 


t6.8 


53.4 


60. 


41. 8 


50. . 


58. 4 


66.8 


75. 


60. 


70. 


80. 


90. 


100. 


21 


35. 


42. ^ 


t9. 


56. 


63. 


43. 9 


52.6 ( 


31. 3 


70. 


78.9 


63. 


73.6 


84. 


94.6 


105. 


22 


368 


44. I 


51.4 


58.8 


66. 


45.10 


55. ( 


34. 2 


73.4 


82.6 


66. 


77. 


88. 


99. 


110. 


23 


38.4 


46. . 


53.8 


61.4 


69. 


47.11 


57.6 ( 


37. 1 


76.8 


86.3 


69. 


80.6 


92. 


103.6 


115. 


24 


40. 


48. . 


58. 


64. 


72. 


50. 


60. ' 


ro. 


80. 


90.0 


72. 


84. 


96. 


108. 


120. 


25 


41.8 


50. , 


58.4 


66.8 


75. 


52. 1 


62.6' 


r2.ii 


83.4 


93.9 


75. 


87.6: 


100. 


112.6 


125. 


30 


50. 


60. ' 


JO. 


80. 


90. 


62. 6 


75. i 


^7. 6 


100. 


112.6 


90. 


105. : 


120. 


135. 


150. 


34 


56.8 


68. 


79.4: 


90.8 


102. 


70.10 


85. 


d9. 2 


113.4 


127.6 


102. 


119. : 


L36. 


153. 


170. 


40l 


66.8 


8 


0. 1 


}3.4] 


L06.8 


15 


iO. 


s: 


5. 4 


IC 


0. 1 


L16.8 


133.4 


150 




12 


0. 


140. ] 


160. 


1 


80. 1 


200. 



617 



4i 








THICKNESS AND WIDTH IX INCHES. 










6.11 


6.12 


7.7 


7.8 


7.9 


7.10 


7.11 


7.12 


8.8 


8.9 


8.10 


8.11 


8.12 


6 


33. 


36. 


24. 6 


28. 


31.6 


35. 


38. 6 


42. 


32. 


36. 


40. 


44. 


48. 


7 


38.6 


42. 


28. 7 


32.8 


36.9 


40.10 


41.11 


49. 


37.4 


42. 


46.8 


51.4 


66. 


« 


44. 


48. 


32. 8 


37.4 


42. 


46. 8 


51. 4 


56. 


42.8 


48. 


53.4 


68.8 


64. 


9 


49.6 


54. 


36. 9 


42. 


47.3 


52. 6 


57. 9 


63. 


48. 


54. 


60. 


66. 


72. 


10 


55. 


60. 


40.10 


46.8 


52.6 


58. 4 


64. 2 


70. 


53.4 


60. 


66.8 


73.4 


80. 


11 


60.6 


66. 


40.11 


51.4 


57.9 


64. 2 


70. 7 


77. 


58.8 


66. 


73.4 


80.8 


88. 


^?, 


66. 


72. 


49. 


56. 


63. 


70. 


77. 


84. 


64. 


72. 


80. 


88. 


96. 


18 


71.6 


78. 


53. 1 


60.8 


68.3 


75.101 83. 5 


91. 


69.4 


78. 


86.8 


95.4 


104. 


14 


77. 


84. 


57. 2 


65.4 


73.6 81. 8 


89.101 98. 


74.8 


84. 


93.4 


102.8 


112. 


15 


82.6 


90. 


61. 3 


70. 


78.9 


87. 6 


96. 3 


105. 


80. 


90. 


100. 


110. 


120. 


16 


88. 


96. 


64. 4 


74.8 


84. 


93. 4 


102. 8 


112. 


85.4 


96. 


106.8 


117.4 


128. 


17 


93.6 


102. 


69. 5 


79.4 


89.3 


99. 2 


109. 1 


119. 


90.8 


102. 


113.4 


124.8 


136. 


18 


99. 


108. 


73. 6 


84. 


94.6 


105. 


115. 6 


126. 


96. 


108. 


120. 


132. 


144. 


19 


104.6 


114. 


77. 7 


88.8 


99.9 


110.10 


121.11 


133. 


101.4 


114. 


126.8 


139.4 


152. 


20 


110. 


120. 


81. 8 


93.4 


105. 


116. 8 


128. 41140. 


106.8 


120. 


133.4 


146.8 


160. 


21 


115.6 


126. 


85. 9 


98. 


110.3 


122. 6 


134. 9 


147. 


112. 


126. 


140. 


154. 


168. 


22 


121. 


132. 


89.10 


102.8 


115.6 


128. 5 


141. 2 


154. 


117.4 


132. 


146.8 


161.41 176. 


23 


126.6 


138. 


93.11 


107.4 


120.9 


134. 2 


147. 7 


161. 


122.8 138. 


153.4 


168.8 


134. 


241 


132. 


144. 


98. 


112. 


126. 


140. 


154. 


168. 


128. |144. 


160. 


176. 


192. 



-(J 


9.9 


9.10 


9.11 


9.12 


lO.lOj 10.11|10.12 


11.11 


11.12 


12.12 


12.13 


12.14 


6 


40.6 


45. 


49.6 


54. 


50.0 


65. 


60. 


60. 6 


66. 


72. 


78. 


84. 


7 


47.3 


52.6 


57.9 


63. 


58.4 


64. 2 


70. 


70. 7 


77. 


84. 


91. 


98. 


8 


54. 


60. 


66. 


72. 


66.8 


73. 4 


80. 


80. 8 


88. 


96. 


104. 


112. 


9 


60.9 


67.6 


74.3i 81. 


75. 


86. 6 


90. 


99. 9 


99. 


108. 


117. 


126. 


10 


67.6 


75. 


82.6! SO. 


83.4 


91. 8 


100. 


100.10 


110. 


120. 


130. 


140. 


11 


74.3 


82.6 


90.9 


99. 


91.8 


100.10 


110. 


110.11 


121. 


132. 


143. 


154. 


12 


81. 


90. 


99. 


108. 


100. 


110. 


120. 


121. 


132. 


144. 


156. 


168. 


13 


87.9 


97.6 


107.3 


117. 


108.4 


119. 2 


130. 


131. 1 


143. 


156. 


169. 


182. 


14 


94.6 


105. 


115.1 


126. 


116.8 


128. 4 


140. 


141. 2 


154. 


168. 


182. 


196. 


15 


101.3 


112.6 


123.91135. 


125. 


137. 6 


150. 


151. 3 


165. 


1.80 


195. 


210. 


16 


108. 


120. 


132. |l44. 


133.4 


146. 8 


160. 


161. 4 


176. 


1S2. 


208. 


224. 


17 


114.9 


127.6 


140.3 153. 


141.8 


155.10 


170. 


171. 5 


187. 


204. 


221. 


238. 


18 


121.6 


135. 


148.6 


162. 


150. 


165. 


180. 


181. 6 


1S8. 


216. 


234. 


252. 


19 


128.3 


142.6 


156.9 


171. 


158.4 


174. 2 


191. 


191. 7 


209. 


228. • 


247. 


266. 


20 


135. 


150. 


165. 


180. 


166.8 


183. 4 


200. 


201. 8 


220. 


240. 


260. 


280. 


21 


141.9 


157-6 


173.3,189. 


175. 


192. 6 


210. 


211. 9 


231. 


252. 


273. 


294. 


22 


148.6 


165. 


181.6198. 


183.4 


201. 8 


220. 


221.10 


242. 


-264. 


286. 


308. 


23 


155.3 


172.6 


189. 9 1 207. 


191.9 


210.10 


230. 


231.11 


253. 


276. 


299. 


322. 


24 

mam 


162. Il80. 1198. 1216. 


200. 


220. 


240. 


242. 


264. 


188. 


312. 


336. 



6 


12.15|12.16 


13.13 


13.14 


13.16 


13.16 14.14 


14.15 


14.16 


15.15 


15.16 


90. 


96. 


' 83. 6 


91. 


97.6 


104. 


98. 


105. 


112. 


112.6 


120. 


7 105. 


112. 


98. 7 


106. 2 


113.9 


121.3 


114.4 


122.6 


130.3 


131.3 


140. 


8 135. 


128. 


112. 8 


121. 4 


130. 


138.8 


130.8 


140. 


149.4 


150. 


160. 


9 


135. 


144. 


126. 9 


136. 6 


146.3 


156. 


147. 


157.6 


168. 


168.9 


180. 


10 


150. 


160. 


140.10 


151. 8 


162.6 


173.4 


163.4 


175. 


186.8 


187.6 


200. 


11 


165. 


176. 


154.11 


166.10 


178.9 


190.8 


179.8 


192.6 


205.4 


206.3 


220. 


12 


180. 


192. 


169. 


182. 


195. 


208. 


196. 


210. 


224. 


225. 


240. 


13 


195. 


208. 


183. 1 


197. 2 


211.3 


225.4 


212.4 


227.6 


242.8 


243.9 


260. 


14 


210. 


224. 


197. 2 


212. 4 


227.6 


242.8 


228.8 


245. 


261.4 


282.6 


280. 


15 


225. 


240. 


211. 3 


227. 6 


243.9 


260. 


245. 


262.6 


280. 


281.3 


300. 


16 


240. 


256. 


225. 4 


242. 8 


260. 


277.4 


261.4 


280. 


298.8 


300. 


320. 


17 


255. 


272. 


239. 5 


257.10 


276.3 


294.8 


277.8 


297.6 


317.4 


318.9 


340. 


18 


270. 


288. 


243. 6 


273. 


292.6 


312. 


290. 


314. 


336. 


337.6 


360. 


19 


385. 


304. 


257. 7 


288. 2 


308.9 


329.4 


310.4 


332.6 


354.8 


356.3 


380. 


20 


300. 


320. 


271. 8 


303. 4 


325. 


346.8 


326.8 


350. 


373.4 


375. 


400. 


21 


315. 


336. 


285. 9 


318. 6 


341.3 


364. 


343. 


367.6 


392. 


393.9 


420. 


22 


330. 


352. 


299.10 


333. 8 


357.6 


381.4 


359.4 


385. 


410.8 


412.6 


440. 


23 


345. 


368. 


313.11 


348.10 


373.9 


398.8 


375.8 


402.6 


429.4 


431.3 


460. 


24 


369. 


384. 


338. 


364. 


390. 


416, 


392. 


420. 


448. 


450. 


480. 



618 



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w N ro mo 1^00 ON CnOO 00 b^O « m rf- "rf-oO roOO ro N w «- O 
OOOOOOOO'-'Nro"^ mo ,t^oo 0^00 O "-i n ro"^m 



622 



TiMK Required for Digestion of different Articles of Food, 
BEING Observations made by Dr. Beaumont, Surgeon in the 
United States Army, on the Canadian, St. Martin, through 
AN Orifice in his Stomach, caused by a gunshot wound. 



H.M. 

Apples, sweet and mellow 1 50 

sour and mellow 2 

sour and hard 2 50 

Barley, boiled 2 

Beans, boiled 2 30 

Beans and Green Corn, boiled. 3 45 

Beef, roasted ]-are 3 

roasted dry 3 30 

Steak, broiled 3 

boiled 2 45 

boiled,witli mustard, etc. 3 30 

tendon, boiled. 5 30 

tendon, fried 4 

old salted, boiled 4 15 

Beets, boiled 3 45 

Bread, Corn, baked 3 15 

Wheat, baked, fresh 3 30 

Butter, melted 3 30 

Cabbage, crude 2 30 

crude, vinegar 2 

crude, vin'r, boil'd. J f qa 

Carrots, boiled 3 15 

Cartilage, boiled 4 15 

Cheese, old and strong 3 30 

Chickens, fricasseed 2 45 

Custard, baked 2 45 

4 



Ducks, roasted . 



4 30 



Dumplings, Apple, boiled 3 

Eggs, boiled hard 3 30 

boiled soft 3 

fried 3 30 

uncooked 2 

whipped, raw 1 30 

Fish, Cod or Flounder, fried.. 3 30 
Cod, cured, boiled. . ..... 2 

Salmon, salt'd and boil'd 4 

Trout, boiled or fried 1 30 

Fowls, boiled or roasted 4 

Goose, roasted 3 

Gelatine, boiled 2 30 



H. 

Heart, Animal, fried 4 

Lamb, boiled 2 

Liver, Beef's, boiled 2 

Meat and Vegetables, hashed.. 2 

Milk, boiled or fresh j ^ 

Mutton, roasted 3 

broiled or boiled 3 

Oysters, raw 2 

roasted 3 

stewed 3 

Parsnips, boiled 2 

Pigs, Sucking, roasted 2 

Feet, soured, boiled 1 

Pork, fat and lean, roasted 5 

recently salted, boiled. . .. 4 
'' '' fried,.... 4 

" " broiled.. 3 

'* " raw 3 

Potatoes, boiled 3 

baked 3 

roasted 2 

Rice, boiled 1 



Sausage, Pork, broiled 3 

Soui), Barley 1 

Beef and Vegetables 4 

Chicken 3 

Mutton or Oyster 3 

Sponge-cake, baked 2 

Suet, Beef, boiled 5 

Mutton, boiled 4 

Tapioca, boiled 2 

Tripe, soured l 

Tmkey,roasted{^;jW^y-;;;J 

boiled 2 

Turnips, boiled 3 

Veal, roasted 4 

fried 4 

Brains, boiled 1 

Venison Steak, broiled 1 



M. 

30 

30 

15 
15 

55 
15 
30 
30 
30 
00 
15 
30 
15 
15 

30 
20 
30 

45 
20 
30 



Comparative Value of Various Foods as Productive of Dyna- 
mic Force, when Oxidized in the Body. 



Cabbage 1. 

Carrots 1.2 

Egg, white of 1.4 

Milk 1.5 

Apples 1.5 

Ale 1.8 

Fish 1.9 

Potatoes 2.4 



Porter 2.6IRice 



Veal, lean 2.8 

Mackerel 3.8 

Ham, lean 4. 

Bread, crumbs 5.1 

Egg, hard boiled 5.4 

Egg, yolk 7.9 

Sugar 8- 

Isinglass 8.7 



8.9 



Pea meal 9. 

Wheat flour 9.1 

Arrowroot 9.3 

Oat meal 9.3 

Cheese 10. i 

Cocoa 16.3 

Butter 17.3 

Fat of beef 21-6 

Cod liver oil 21.7 



Safe Load in Structures, including Weight of Structure. 

In cast-iron columns = 1/4 breaking weight. 

Wrought-iron structures = ¥4 '' '* 

In cast-iron girders for tanks = % ^' " 

In cast-iron for bridges and floors = % " " 

In timber = 1-10 " " 

Stone and bricks = Va <* '* 

623 ^' 



Weight of Water at its Common Temperature. 



1 


cubic inch 


=: 


-03617 


lb. 


12 


« 


inches 


:^ 


-434 


a 


1 


a 


foot 





62-5 


lbs. 


1 


a 


a 


= 


6-25 


Imperial gallons. 


1 


it 


it 


= 


7-50 


U. S. Gallons. 


1-8 


a 


feet 


= 


112-00 


lbs. 


35.84 


a 


<•' 


= 


2240-00 


i( 


1 


Cylindrical inch 


= 


-02842 


a 


12 




" inches 


= 


•341 


i( 


1 




" foot 


— - 


491 


n 


1 




t( a 


= 


5 


Imperial gallon^. 


1 






= 


6 


U. S. gallons. 


2-282 




" feet 


= 


112 


lbs. 


45-64 




a (( 


= 


2240 




11-2 


Imperial gallons 


= 


112 




224 


Imperial gallons 


= 


2240 




13-44 


United States gallons 


= 


112 




268-8 


United States gallons 


= 


2240 





M)^e.— 5 Imperial gallons equal 6 United States gallons. Hence to 
convert Imperial gallons into United States gallons add one-fifth to the 
Imperial ; and to convert United States gallons into Imperial gallons de- 
duct one-sixth from the United States. 

A cubic foot of rain water, which weighs 62% lbs., presses at 30 feet 
deep 13 lbs. per square inch, and at 300 feet is 1,300 lbs. At 36 feet the 
pressure per square foot is a ton, and at 108 feet nearly 3 tons. 
The following Tables show the different values of the 
British Imperial and the United States Measures. 



U. S. measure for British (Im.) measure. 

■wine, spirits, &c. galls, qts. pts. gills 

42 gals. = 1 tierce, = 34 3 1 3 
63 =1 hogsh. = 52 1 1 3 

126 = 1 pipe, = 104 3 1 3 

252 = 1 tun, = 209 3 1 2 

To convert Imperial Gallons into 



U. S, measure for British (Im.) measure. 

ale and beer. galls, qts. pts. gills 

9 gals. = 1 firkin, = 9 11 

36 =1 barrel, = 36 2 3 

54 =1 hogsh. = 54 3 1 1 

100 = 1 butt, = 109 3 3 

United States Wine Gallons multi- 



ply the Imperial by 1*2. To convert U. S. Gallons into Imperial multi- 
ply the U. States Wine gallons by -833. 51 U. S. Ale Gallons equal 60 Im- 
perial Gallons, therefore to convert one into the other add or deduct l-60th. 
Specific Gravities and Weights of Metals, Woods, Liquids, &c. 
Engineers^ and Contractors' Pocket Book. 



METALS. 






Names. 


Weight, 
wat6r 
being 1000. 


Number of 
cubic ins. 
in a ]b. 


Weight of a 
cubic inch 
in lbs. 


Platina 

Pure gold 

Mercury 

Ijcad 


19500 

19258 

13560 

11352 

10474 

9823 

8788 

8910 

7824 

8396 

7264 

7700 

7833 

7816 

7291 

7190 


1.417 

1.435 
2.038 
2.435 
2.638 
2.814 
3.146 
3.103 
3.533 
3.293 
3.806 
3.592 
3.530 
3.537 
3.790 
3.845 


.7053 

.6965 

.4904 

.4105 

..3788 

.3552 

.3178 

.3225 

.3036 

.3037 

.263 

.279 

.2833 

.2827 

.2636 

.26 


Pure silver 

Bismuth 

Copper, cast — 

sheet . . 

Brass, cast 

— sheet 

Iron, cast 

— bar 

Steel, soft 

— hard 

Tin, cast 

Zinc, cast 




STONES, EARTHS, ETC. 



Marble, average 
Granite, ditto. . . 
Purbeck stone . . 
Portland ditto.. 

Bristol ditto 

Millstone 

Paving stone.... 
Craigleith ditto. 

Grindstone 

Chalk. British. . 

Brick 

Coal, Scotch 

— Newcastle 

— Staffordsh'e 

— Cannel 





c3 


<4-( 


o 


«*-! += 


O +9 


o 


o o 


. <o . 




ight 

ic f 

bs. 




^^'"^ 


O^r-, 




^tM 


^g.5 


2720 


170.00 


13 


2651 


165.68 


13Vo 


2601 


162.56 


13% 


2570 


160.62 


14 


2554 


159.62 


14 


2484 


155.25 


14V. 


2415 


150.93 


14% 


2362 


147.62 


15 


2143 


1.33.93 


^l 


2781 


173.81 


2000 


12.5.00 


17 


1300 


81.15 


271/2 


1270 


79.37 


28V4 


1240 


77.50 


29 


1238 


77.37 


29 



624 



Specific Gravities, &c. of Materials Coxtinued. 



Names, 



Lignum vitae — 
Box, French 

— Dutch 

Ebony, Indian... 

— American 
Oak, just felled. 

— seasoned,. 
Bog oak of Irel' d 
Mahogany,Sp'sL 

— bay wood 

Medlar tree 

Logwood 

Olive tree 

Beech 

Ash 

Alder 

Apple-tree 

Plum-tree 

Maple 

Teak 

Cherry-tree 

Elm 

Walnut 

Red pine 

Yellow do 

Pear tree 

Sycamore, chest- 
nut, and lime 
tree, each 

Willow • 

Poplar, white Sp. 

— common.. 

Cedar. 

White pine 

Larch 

Cork 



o 
o 
o 

^ S ^ 



1331 

1328 

912 

1209 

1331 

1113 

7-13 

1046 

1063 

637 

944 

913 

927 

852 

845 

800 

793 

755 

752 

750 

715 

673 

671 

657 

652 

650 



604 
585 
529 
383 
561 
551 
530 
240 



o o 

4J O 



83.31 
83.00 
58.00 
75.56 
83.18 
69.56 
46.43 
65.37 
66.43 
39.81 
59.00 
57.06 
57.93 
53.25 
52.81 
50.00 
49.56 
47.18 
47.00 
46.87 
44.68 
42.06 
41.93 
47.06 
40.76 
40.62 



37.75 
36.50 
33.06 
23.93 
35.06 
34.43 
33.02 
15.00 



0+3 

pTJ^ o 
*2i CJ.S 



27 

381/2 

291/2 

27 

323/4 

48V4 

341/4 
333/4 

561/4 

38 

391/4 

381/^ 

42 

421/2 

44% 

451/4 

471/4 

471/2 

48 

50 

531/4 

531/2 

541/2 

55 

55 



591/4 
6II/4 

67% 
93 
64 
65 
68 
149 



Names. 



Acid, sulphuric... 

— nitric 

— muriatic 

— fluoric 

— citric 

— acetic 

W^ater from Baltic 

— from the Dead 

Sea 

— from the Med- 

iterranean . 

— from the Irish 

Channel 

— ice 

— distilled 

Oils, expressed 

linseed 

sweet almond 

whale 

hempseed 

Olive 

Oils, essential 

cinnamon.. .. 

lavender 

turpentine. . . . 

amber 

Alcohol of com- 
merce, at 60° 
Fahrenheit 
Alcohol, absolute... 
Ether, nitric 

— muriatic 

Proof spirit 

Tar 

Vinegar, distilled.. 



fee 
.S 

St 

^^ . 

1850 
1271 
1200 
1060 
1034 
1062 
1015 
1240 

1029 

1028 

1001 
1000 

940 

932- 
923 
926 
915 

1043 

894 
870 

868 
825 



797 
908 
729 
922 
1015 
1009 




10.3 

10.2 

10.1 
10.0 

9.4 

9.3 
9.2 
9.3 

9.2 

10.4 
8.9 

8.7 
8.7 
8.2 



7.9 
9.1 
7.3 
9.2 
10.1 
10.1 



ExPAJS'siON OF Liquids ix Volume from 32° to 212° Fahrenheit. 
1000 parts of water become 1046 

*' oil *' 1080 

" mercury " 1018 

*' spirits of wine *' 1110 

air " 1373 

The heat that would raise 1 lb. of water 1° would raise a pound of air 
3°.7 ; 1 lb. air = about 11 cubic feet. 

One pound of steam will raise 3657 cubic feet of air 10°, and cause it to 
expand from 32° to 42°, about 3733 cubic feet. 

Permanent Loads on Bridges, &c. 
For rough calculations the weight of the bridge itself may be assumed 
to be (in wrought iron bridges) : 

For 30 feet spans, single line 560 lbs. per foot run. 

"60 " '* 672 '' " 

« 100 ** ** 1,008 " ** 

" 15Q « " . 1.^44 '* ** 

"200 " -^ '.....! 

Dense crowds average 120 lbs. per square foot. 
For flooring, 168 to 224 lbs. per square foot, exclusive of the weight of 
the flooring, is generally allowed. 

In storehouses, from 224 to 450 lbs. per square foot. 
40 625 



1,680 



Strength op the Teeth of Cast Iron Wheels at a given Velocity. 



Pitch 


Thickness 
of teeth 


Breadth 
of teeth 


Strength of teeth 


in horse power at 


of teeth 


3 feet per 


4 feet per 


6 feet per 


8 feet per 


in inches. 


in inches. 


in inches. 


second. 


second. 


second. 


second. 


3.99 


1.9 


7.G 


20.57 


27.43 


41.14 


54.85 


3.78 


1.8 


7.2 


17.49 


23.32 


34.98 


46.64 


3.57 


1.7 


6.8 


14.73 


19.65 


29.46 


39.28 


3.36 


1.6 


6.4 


12.28 


16.38 


24.56 


32.74 


3-15 


1.5 


6. 


10.12 


13.50 


20.24 


26.98 


2.94 


1.4 


5.6 


8.22 


10.07 


16.44 


21.92 


2.73 


1.3 


5.2 


6.58 


8.78 


13.16 


17.54 


2.52 


1.2 


4.8 


5.18 


6.91 


10..36 


13.81 


2.31 


1.1 


4.4 


3.99 


5.32 


7.98 


10.64 


2.1 


1.0 


4. 


3.00 


4.00 


6.00 


8.00 


1.89 


.9 


3.6 


2.18 


2.91 


4.36 


5.81 


3.68 


.8 


3.2 


1.53 


2.04 


3.06 


3.08 


1.47 


.7 


2.8 


1.027 


1.37 


2.04 


2.72 


1.26 


.6 


2.4 


.64 


.86 


1.38 


1.84 


1.05 


.5 


2. 


.375 


.50 


.75 


1.00 



Teeth of Wheels.— Multiply one-fourth of the square of the pitch 
in inches by the breadth of the teeth in inches ; the product is the horses' 
power tliat the teeth will transmit when the pitch line passes through 
4 ft. per se'cond. 

In quick speeds or fractional pitches, it may be more convenient to 
take the following rule : — Multiply the square root of the pitch in inches 
by the breadth of the teeth in inches ; the product is the horses' power at 
16 ft. per second. 

A general rule to ascertain the length of the teeth is, to take % of the 
pitch for the distance from the root to the pitch line, and 1/4 of the pitch 
for the distance from the pitch line to the top. 

When wheels drive pinions, let no pinion have less than 8 teeth ; rath- 
er 11 or 12 if convenient. 

When x>inion drive wheels, let no pinion have less than 6 teeth : rather 
8 or 9. 

The number of teeth in a wheel should be prime to the luimber of 
teeth in its pinion. 

To increase or diminish velocity in a given proportion, and with the 
least quantity of wheel-work, let the number of teeth|pn each pinion be 
to the number of teeth on its wheel as 1 : 3 59. Even to save space and 
expense, never let the ratio exceed 1 : 6.— Buchanan. 

HicKs's IliiLE for Calculating the Strength of Shafts.— 
Multiply the horses' power by the assumed number (300), and divide the 
product by tlie revolutions per minute ; the cube root of the quotient will 
be the diameter required. 

Heating Power of Peat as Compared with Wood. 

100 lbs. turfy peat, air dry, average 95 lbs. pine wood. 

'* tibrous " " '' 108 '' " 

*' earthy " << << ...104 " " 

" pitchy " « " Ill a " 

Comparison of Heat by Bulk. 
100 cubic feet of turfy peat = 33 cubic feet pine wood in logs. 
" " fibrous *' = 90 " *' <' 

" *' earthy " = 145 *' " '* 

" " pitchy " = 184 '' *' " 

Peat, coal, or coke = 25 to 35 of the peat by weight. 
'* '\ " = 30 to 40 per cent, by volume. 

Turf is 30 feet deep in upper marshes and it grows 30 inches in a cen- 
tury. In Hanover it grows 8 feet in 60 years. There are in many bogs 3 
separated strata or layers of large trees separated by 10 or 12 feet of turf 
and heath. A carbonizing process gives them the appearance of being 
burnt. The bogs of Ireland cover 2,830,000 acres to the depth of 5, 12 
and even 30 feet ; the bogs are ascribed to the prevalence of shallow 
lakes, which promote the growth of mosses and aquatic plants. 

626 



Blowing Enginijs. 
Capacity of air vessels = 20 times the capacity of the blowing cylinder if 
the cylinder is single-acting. 
" " = 10 times of double-acting. 

Velocity of air in the passages should not exceed 35 feet per second. 
Density of blast for iron furnaces, from 2^4 to 3 lbs. per square inch. 

Each smith's forge requires 150 cube feet of air per minute. Density 
of smith's torge blast 1/4 lt>- P^" square inch. Each ton per hour melted 
in cupola requires 3,500 cube feet per minute. Each finery forge requires 
100,000 cube feet per minute for each ton refined. Each blast furnace '^i) 
cube feet per minute for each cubs yard capacity of furnace. Moles worth, 
JStanufactiLre of Pig Iron — Coke or Anthracite Coal — 18 to 20 tons of air 
are required for each ton. 

Charcoal — 17 to 18 tons air are required for each ton. 1 ton of air at 
34° == 29,751, and at G0° = 31,366 cubic feet. 

Pressure. — The pressure ordinarily required for smelting purposes is 
equal to a column of mercury from 3 to 7 inches. 

Pipes. — Their area, leading to the reservoir, should be '2 that of the 
blast cylinder, and the velocity of the air should not exceed 35 feet per 
second. 

A ton of pig iron requires for its reduction from the ore 310,000 cubic 
feet of air, or 5 '3 cubic feet of air for each lb. of carbon consumed. Pres- 
sure, -7 lb. per square inch. 

An ordinary eccentric fan, 4 ft. diameter, with 5 blades 10 ins. wide 
and 14 ins. length, set 1 9-16 ins. eccentric, with an inlet opening of 17'5 
ins. diameter, and an outlet of 12 ins. square, making 870 revolutions per 
minute, will supply air to 40 tuyeres, each of 1% ins. diameter, and at a 
l)ressure per square inch of '5 inch of mercury. 

An ordinary eccentric fan blower, 50 ins. diam., running at 1000 revo- 
lutions per minute, will give a pressure of 15 ins. of water, and require 
for its operation a power of 12 horses. Area tuyere discharge 500 square 
ins. — Uaswell. 

Properties of Fuel. 



Kind of Fuel. 



Bituminous Coal 

Anthracite 

Coke 

Coke, ISat'l Virginia. . . 

Coke, Cumberland 

Charcoal 

Dry Wood 

Wood, 20 per ct. water, 

Turf, dry (peat) 

Turf, 20 per ct. water. 

Illuminatine gas 

Oil, wax, tallow 

Alcohol 



l^-d 







c3 =: 




-+^ ;^ 


Lbs. of w 
evaporat 
per pou 


S 


Cubic fee 
air requi 
for 1 lb. 
coal. 


7 to 9 


80 


265 


8 to 10 


92 


282 


8 to 10 


86 


245 


8 to 9 


80 


260 


8 to 10 


80 


250 


5 to 6 


96 


265 


4 to 5 


44 


147 


4 


34 


115 


6 


51 


165 


5 


40 


132 


13.8 


.. 


194 


14 


77 


200 


9.56 


58 


151 



o 



^.2 



50 
54 
31 
48 
32 
24 
20 
25 
28 
30 
0.37 
59 
52 



.2^ 
I- 



44 

40 

72 

48 

70 
104 
100 
100 

80 

75 
29800 

37 

42 



Memoranda Concerning Coal and Iron. 

First notice of stone coal is B. C. 371. 

The coal fields of England were the first practically developed. 

First record of stone coal used in England was A. D. 820. 

Records of regular mining in England first made in 1180. 

Coal first used in London m 1240. 

First tax laid on coal in England in 1379. 

Tax was repealed in 1831, having been taxed 400 years. 

First patent for making iron with pit coal was granted to Simeon 
Sturtevant, in 1612, but was not successful. 

Iron first made in a blast furnace with pit coal with success by a Mr. 
Darby, of Colebrook Dale, England, in 1713. 

627 



On Coal, Steam Heating, Etc. 

In 1747 iron was made in England with pit coal, suitable for the man- 
ufacture of cannon. 

In 1788 the production of iron with pit coal in England was 48,300 tons; 
with charcoal, 13,000 tons. 

In 1864 the production of iron in Great Britain was 5,000,000 tons. 

Wooden rails in mines were used in 1777. 

Cast-iron rails in mines were used in 1790. 

Wrought-iron raile in mines were used in 1815. 

Coal gas first made use of practically in 1798. 

American Coal Fields. — First coal fields worked in America were 
the bituminous fields at Kichmond, Va., discovered in 1750. This coal 
was used at Westham, on the James River, to make shot and shell dur- 
ing the War of Independence. 

The first use of Anthracite coal was in 1768-69. 

First used for smithing purposes in 1790. 

First used to burn in a common grate in 1808. 

First successful use of Anthracite coal for the smelting of iron was in 
1839, at the Pioneer Furnace, at Potts ville. Pa. It had been tried on the 
Lehigh in 1826, but was unsuccessful. 

The great shaft of the Philadelpliia and Reading Iron Company has 
been sunk to a depth of 1,569 ft. from the surface to the great mammoth 
coal vein which attains a thickness of 25 feet, in that distance passing 
through no less than 15 coal seams, of which 6 are w^orkable and have an 
average thickness together of 64 feet. Even then there are a number of 
coal seams underlying these. 

Ventilation. 

Each person requires at least from 3 to 4 cubic feet of air per minute. 
Ordinary windows allow about 8 cubic feet a minute to pass- Sleeping 
apartments require 1000 cubic feet of space to each occupant. An ordi- 
nary gas flame requires as much air as 9 persons. 
Warming by Steam. 

Wlien the external temperature is 10° below freezing point, in order 
to maintain a temperature of 60° ; or, «.,..., 

One superficial foot of steam pipe for each 6 superficial feet of glass in 

the windows ; or, . ^ ^ ^ ■ -4? 

One superficial foot of steam pipe for every 6 cube of air escaping for 
ventilation per minute ; or, ^« . ^ ^ ^ n ^ 

One superficial foot of steam pipe for every 120 feet of wall, roof, or 
ceiling : or, , . . ^ . 

One souare foot of steam pipe to 80 cubic feet of space ', ^ ^ 

One cube foot of boiler is required for every 2,000 cube feet of space 

One horse-power boiler is sufficient for 50,000 cube feet of space. Steam 

should be about 212°.— Molesioorth. ^ . . , ^ • ^ .. , ^ 

As usually estimated, 1 square foot of pipe is amply sufficient to heat 

75 to 80 cubic feet of air in exterior rooms, and 100 feet m interior rooms. 

Thickness of Boiler Iron, and Pressure Allowed by United 

States Laws. 
Pressure equivalent to the Standard for a Boiler 42 inches Diameter and 

1/4 inch Thick. 



Wire 


Thick- 


Diameter in Inches. 


Guage 


ness in 
16ths. 


34 ins. 


36 ins. 


38 ins. 


40 ins. 


42 ins. 


44 ins. 


46 ins. 


No. 




Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


1 


5 


169.9 


160.4 


152. 


144.4 


137.5 


131.2 


125.5 


2 


P 


158.5 


149.7 


141.8 


134.7 


128.3 


122.5 


117.2 


3 


147.2 


139.1 


131.8 


125.1 


119.2 


113.7 


108.8 


4 


135.9 


128.3 


121.6 


115.5 


110. 


105. 


100.4 


5 


32/3 


124.5 


117.6 


111.4 


105.9 


100.8 


96.2 


92.1 


6 


113.2 


106.9 


101.3 


69.2 


91.7 


87.5 


83.T 


7 


^ 


101.9 


96.2 


91.2 


86.6 


82.5 


78.7 


75.3 










628 











NoTcs ox Strength of Boilers. 

Boiler Plates and Bolts. — The tensile strength of iron plates and 
bolts ranges from 42,500 to 62,000 lbs. Mean tensile strength of copper 
plates, 3;;;,000 lbs. up to 120° ; temperature at 220° = 32,000 lbs. ; at 550° = 
25,000 lbs. 

Bursting or Collajjslng Pressures. — Iron plates should be based upon 
a strength 2-5 that of ultimate strength of the metal ; for use in salt 
water, at 1/2 that of its ultimata strength. 

Kesistance to collapse much less than to bursting. 

Strength of Stay Bolts. — Of iron, for use in salt water, should be taken 
at 1-7 ; fresh Vater, 1-6 ; copper, 1-5 of ultimate tensile strength. 

Stay-bolts, when screwed and riveted, are 1/3 stronger than when screw- 
ed alone. 

RELATrv'E Strength of Riveted Joints per Square inch of Sin- 
gle Plate. — Single-lapped, machine riveted, rivets 3 diameters, centre to 
centre, 25,000 lbs. ; hand riveted, 24,000 lbs. ; staggered riveting, and equi- 
distant from centres, 30,500 lbs. ; abut joints, hand riveted— rivets not 
*' stagqered,'' and equidistant from centres— single cover or strip, 30,000 
lbs. ; rivets set '• square,'^ single cover or strip, 42,000 lbs. ; double covers 
or strips, 55,000 lbs. 

To Find Requisite Quantity of Water for a Boiler. 

Addl5 to the pressure of steam per square inch, divide sum by 18, 
multiply the quotient by .24 ; product is quantity in U. S. gallons per 
minute for each horse-power. 

To FIND Height of a Colu:mn of Water. 
To Supply a Steam Boiler against any Pressure of Steam required. 
Multiply pressure in pounds upon a square inch of boiler by 2.5 ; pro- 
duct will be height in feet above the surface of the water in boiler. 
Cold Water and Feed Pumps. 
The cold-water pump usually = diameter of cylinder x 0.3 when stroke 
= % stroke of engine. 

The cold-water pump usually = diameter of cylinder x 0.42 when 
stroke = 1/4 stroke of engine. 

Velocity of water in pump passages should not exceed 500 feet per 
minute. Pump valves should not be of less area than 1/4 area of the 
pump. 

Feed Pumps for High Pressure Engines. 
Diameter = 1-11 diameter of cylinder when pump's stroke = stroke of 
the engine. 

Diameter = % diameter of cylinder wheni^ stroke of the engine. 
Diameter =% diameter of cylinder when 1/4 stroke of the engine. 

Feed Pumps for Condensing Fnglnes. 
Diameter = 1-11 diameter of cylinder when 14 stroke of the engine. 
Diameter = % diameter of cylinder when V4 stroke of the engine. 
Depreciation of Machinery, etc. 
Per annum on first cost. 



Depreciation. 



Engines .* 6 per cent. 

Boilers 10 " 



Machines 

Mill work and Gearing. 
Bands and belts 



Wear and 
Tear. 



3 per cent. 
3 

3V> '' 

45 " " 



Total. 



9 per cent. 
13 " 
11 

45 



Iron Turning Tools. 

Surface-bored should be at the rate of 78.54 feet per minute. 

Surface turned " '' 157.08 " 

Form of Iron-Cutting Tools. 
To form and place any tool to cut any surface, let the end be so form- 
ed and placed as to make the least possible angle with the surface to be 
cut, and whatever degree of acuteness may be considered requisite ; let 
the keenness be given by hollowing out the surface on which the shavings 
slide. 

629 



Table for Foretelling the Weather through the Lujcattoxs 

OF the MOOJf. 
(Dr. Herschell and Adam Clarke.) 



If the New Moon, the First 
Quarter, the Full Moon or 
the Last Quarter, enters— 


In Summer. 


In Winter. 


Between midnight and 2 ) 

A.M j 

Bet 2 and 4 A. M 


Fair. | 

Cold, fr't showers. 

Rain. 

Wind and rain. 

Changeable. | 

Frequent shoAvers. 

Very rainy. 

Changeable. 

Fair. 

Fair if wind N, ( 
W., rainy if S. { 
or S. E. ( 

Do. 

Fair. 


Hard frost, unless wind 

isS. orE. 
Snowy and stormy. 
Rain. 


*' 4 and 6 A. M 


*' 6 and 8 A.M 


Stormy. 

Cold rain if wind is W., 

snow if E. 
Cold and high wind. 
Snow and rain 


<' 8 and 10 A.M | 

'• 10 and 12 A. M 


At 12 M. and 2 P M 


Bet. 2 and 4 P. M 


Fair and mild. 


** 4 and 6 P. M 


Fair. 


** 6 and 8 P. M J 

" 8 and 10 P. M 

" 10 and midnight 


Fair and frosty if wind 
is N. or W., rain or 
snow if S. or S. E. 

Do. 

Fair and frosty. 



Observations.— 1. The nearer the time of the moon's change, first 
quarter, full, and last quarter, is to mid-nighf, thefairer the weather dur- 
ing 7 following davs. Range for this is from 10 at night till 2 next morn- 
ing. 2. The nearer to mid-day the phases of the moon happen, the more 
foul or wet weather during the 7 days following. 3. The moon's change 
entering from 4 to 10 of the afternoon, may expect fair weather. 

Force of the Wind. 



Miles 


Feet 


Feet 


per 


per 


per 


Hour. 


Minute. 


Second. 


1 


88 


1.47 


2 


176 


2.93 


3 


2G4 


4.4 


4 


352 


5.87 


5 


440 


7.33 


10 


880 


14.67 


15. 


1,320 


22. 


20 


1,760 


29.3 


25 


2,200 


36.G , 


30 


2,640 


44.0 


35 


3,080 


51.3 


40 


3,520 


58.6 


45 


3,960 


66.0 


50 


4,400 


73.3 


60 


5;280 


88.0 


70 


6,160 


102.7 


80 


7,040 


117.3 


100 


8,800 


146-6 



Force in 
pounds per 
square foot. 



.005 
.020 
.044 
.079) 
0.123 I 
0.492 ) 
1.107 ( 
1.970 ( 
3.067 ( 
4.429 ) 
6.027 f 
7.870 
9.900 
12.304 
17.733 ) 
24.153 f 
31.490 
49.200 



Description. 



Hardly perceptible 
Just perceptible. 

Gentle breeze. 

Pleasant breeze. 

Brisk gale. 

High wind. 

Very high wind. 
Storm. 
Great storm. 

Hurricane. 



Loss OF Light by Use of Shades.— 7^. //. Storer. 



Glass, etc. 



American Enamelled. . 

Crown 

Crystal plate 

English 

Porcelain Transpar'cy. 



Th'k- 

ness. 


Loss.! 


Ins. 


PrCt. 


1-16 


51.23 


1-8 


13.08 


1-8 


8.61 


1-8 


6.15 


1-3 


97.68 1 



Glass, etc 



Window, d'ble, Eng. . . 
" " Ger.... 
" single, Ger.. . 
" " ground 
*' green 



Th'k- 

ness. 



Tiis. 

1-8 

1-8 

1-16 

1-16 

1-16 



Loss. 



PrCt. 

9.39 
13. 

4.27 
65.75 
81.95 



630 



BY VA- 



The Mile, as Measured 
Rious Nations. 

The English mile is 1760 

The Scotch *• 3984 

The Irish '' 2240 

The German '* 8106 

The Dutch and Prussian 

mile is 6480 

The Italian mile is 1766 

The Vienna post mile is. . 8296 

The Swiss mile is 9153 

The Swedish and Danish 

mile is 7341.5 

The Arabian mile is 2143 

The Roman mile is. . 1628 or 2025 
TheWerst *' 1167 or 1337 

The Tuscan " 1808 

The Turkish •' 1826 

The Flemish " 6869 



yds. 



British Miscellaneous Meas- 
ures FOR various Purposes. 
A load of unhewn tim- 
ber 40 cubic ft. 

A load of squared tim- 
ber 50 " 

A load of inch boards. . 600 sq. ft. 
A load of two-inch 

planks 300 " 

A hundred of deals 120 in num. 

A hundred of nails 120 '' 

A thousand of bricks. . . 1200 " 

A load of bricks 500 " 

A load of lime 32 bushels. 

A load of sand 36 " 

A sack of potatoes, or 

coals 224 lbs. 

A bushel of salt or flour 56 ' ' 

A bushel of wheat 60 " 

A bushel of barley 50 '* 

A bushel of oats 40 *' 

The British league, or three times our geographical mile of 60 to a 
degree, or 2025 yards, is 6075 yards. The Brabant league is 6096 yards. 
The Danish and Hamburg league 8244 yards, the German league 8101, the 
long German ditto, 10126 yards, the short do. 6859, the Portuguese league 
is 6760 yards, the Spanish 7416 yards, the Swedish 11700 yards. All of 
them parts of a degree, but made before the length of a degree was ac- 
curately determined. 

To Test Quality of Steel. 
Good tool steel, with a white heat, will fall to pieces ; with bright 
red heat will crumble under the hammer ; with middling heat may be 
drawn to a needle-point. 

To test hardening qualities, draw under a low heat to a gradually taper- 
ed square point and plunge into cold water ; if broken point will scratch 
glass, the quality is good. 

To test tenacity, a hardened piece will be driven into cast-iron by a 
hardened hammer— if poor, will be crumbled. Excellence will be in 
proportion to tenacity in hard state. Soft steel of good quality gives a 
curved line fracture and uniform gray texture. Tool steel should be dull 
silver color, uniform, entirely free from sparkling qualities. 

Aquafortis, applied to the surface of steel, produces a black spot ; on 
iron the metal remains clean. The slightest vein of iron or steel can be 
readily detected by this method. 

Steel Springs. 

Hule 1st— To find elasticity of a given steel-plate spring : Breadth of 

plate in inches multiplied by cube of the thickness in 1-16 inch, and by 

number of plates ; divide cube of span in inches by product so found, 

and multiply by 1.66. Result, equal elasticity in l-16th of an inch per 

ton of load. , .. .. , , i • 

Bule 2d— To find span due to a given elasticity, and number and size 
of plate : Multiplv elasticity in sixteenths per ton. by breadth of plate in 
inches and divide" by cube of the thickness in inches, and by the number 
of plates ; divide by 1.6G, and find cube root of the quotient. Result, 
equal span in inches. . , ^. .^ 

P.ule 3d— To find number of plates due to a given elasticity, span, 
and size of plates : Multiply the cube of the span in inches by 1.66 ; mul- 
tiply the elasticitv in sixteenths bv the breadth of the plate m inches, 
and by the cube of the thickness in sixteenths ; divide the former pro- 
duct by the latter. The quotient is the number of plates. 

jl-iile 4:tli— To find the working strength of a given steel-plate spring : - 
Multiply the breadth of plate in inches by the square of the thickness in 
sixteenths, and by the number of plates ; multiply also the working 
span in inches by 11.3 ; divide the former product by the latter. Result, 
equal working strength in tons burden. , 

Rule 5th— To find span due to a given strength and number, and size 
of plate ; Multiply the breadth of plate in inches by the square of the 

631 



On Metals, Stair-cases, Paints. 
thickness in sixteentlis, and by the number of plates ; multiply, also, the 
strength in tons by 11.3, divide the former product by the latter. Kesult 
equal working span in inches. 

Mule 6th— To tind the number of plates due to a given strength, span, 
and size of plate : Multiply the strength in tons by span in inches, and 
divide by IJ .3 ; multiply also the breadth of plate in inches by the square 
of the thickness in sixteenths ; divide the former product by the latter. 
Result, equal number of plates. 

The span is that due to the form of the spring loaded. Extra thick 
plates must be replaced by an equivalent number of plates of the ruling 
thickness, before applying the rule. To find this, multiply the number of 
extra plates by the square of their thickness, and divide by the square of 
the ruling thickness ; conversely, the number of plates of the ruling 
thickness to be removed for a given number of extra plates, may be found 
in the same way. 

Lineal Expansion of Metals. 
Produced by raising their temperature from 32^^ to 212° Fahrenheit. 

Gold 1 part in 682 

Bismuth '* 719 



Zinc 1 part in 322 

Platinum '' 351 

Tin (pure) " 403 

T'in (impure) " 600 

Silver " 524 

Copper '< 581 

Brass '• 584 

Falmouth tin <* 462 

English brass rod * ' 528 

Brass ^vire *' 517 



Iron *' 812 

Antimony '* 923 

Palladium *' 1000 

Platinum ... *' 1100 

Flint glass " 1248 

Soft rolled iron " 819 

Prism of cast iron < ' 901 

Reflector metal " 517 

Refined silver " 528 



Blistered steel ♦< 870 

Width of Height of Widtli of Height of 

Tread. Riser. Tread- Riser. 

6 inches 8^^ inches. 1 10 inches 6^^ inches. 



7 '' 8 " 111 *' 6 

8 '* 71/2 " 112 " 51/2 

9 " 7 '* I 13 '< 5 

Painting. 
1 gal. priming color will cover 50 superficial yards. 
1 '• white zinc " 50 '' "• 







white paint 
lead color 




44 

50 






black paint 
stone color 


(I 


50 
44 






yellow paint 
blue color 


it 


44 

45 






; ^reen paint 
Dright emer. green 


it 


45 
25 


X 




bronze green 




45 



One pound of paint will cover about 4 superficial yards the first coat, 
and about 6 yds. each additional coat. One pound of putty for stopping 
every 20 yds. One gallon of tar, and 1 lb. pitch, will cover l2 yds. super- 
ficial the first coat, and 17 yds. each additional coat. 

Paints, &c. — In addition to the very ample information to be found 
under the Painters Department, the following, transcribed from the 
Ordnance Manual, are given. 

Boiled Oil.— Raw oil— 1.3 parts, copperas— 3*15 parts, litharge— 6*3 
parts, Put the litharge and copperas in a cloth bag and suspend in the 
middle of the kettle. Boil the oil 4^4 hours over a slow fire, then let it 
stand and deposit the sediment. 

Dryings. — Mixture of copperas and litharge taken from the boiled 
oil 60 parts. Spirits turpentine 56 parts, boiled oil 2 parts. 

PiTTTY. — Spanish whiting, pulverized 81-6 parts, boiled oil 20*4 parts. 
Make into a stiff paste, if not intended for immediate use raw oil should 
be used. 

C32 



PalntSj^Inks, Dyes, Etc. 
White Pai>'t. 

Inside work. Outside work. 

White lead, ground in oil 80 80. 

Boiledoil 14.5 9. 

Raw oil 9. 

Spirits turpentine 8 4. 

New wood-work requires 1 lb. to the square yard for three coats. 

Lead Color.— White lead ground in oil 75 parts, lamp black 1 part, 
boiled linseed oil 23 parts, litharge 0-5 parts, Japan Tarnish 0-5 parts, 
spirits turpentine 2-5 parts. Lamp black and litharge are ground sepa- 
rately with oil, then stirred into the white lead and oil. 

Black Paint.— Lamp black 28 parts, litharge 1 part, Japan varnish 
1 part, boiled linseed oil 73 parts, spirits turpentine 1 part. 

Gray or Stone Color for Buildings.— White lead in oil 78 parts, 
boiled oil 9*5 parts, raw oil 9'5 parts, spirits turpentine 3 parts, Turkey 
umber 0.5 parts, lamp black 0.25 parts. One square yard of new brick- 
work requires for 2 coats 1.1 lb., for 3 coats 1.5 lb. 

Paint for Tarpaulins.— 1st. Olive, Liquid olive color 100 parts, 
beeswax 6 parts, spts. turi)entine 6 parts. Dissolve the beeswax in spts. 
turpentine, with a gentle heat, and mix the paint warm. 2d. Add 12 ozs. 
beeswax to 1 gal, linseed oil, boil it two hours ; prime the cloth with the 
mixture, and use it in the place of boiled oil for mixing the paint. 
CREAii Color. {For Buildings.) 

1st coat. 2d coat. 

White lead, in oil 66.66 70. 

French yellow 3.33 3.33 

Japan varnish 1.33 „.- 

Rawoil '28.00 24.o 

Spirits turpentine 2.25 . . . . ... ..... .... J-fo 

One square yard of new brick-work requires for nrst coat, 0.75 ios. ; 
for second, 0.3 lbs. , , .^, «,t, i- , 

Cheap Paint for Sheds and Fences.— Melted pitch 6 lbs., Imseed 

oil 1 pt., brick dust, or yellow ochre, 1 lb. 
To the above we add the following valuable items : — 

To Waterproof Awnings.— Lnmerse lirst in solution containing 
20 per cent, of soap, and repeat the process in a copper solution of equal 
strength, then wash and dry. 

Aniline Inks. — 1. Violet. Dissolve 1 part of aniline violet blue in 
300 parts of water. A beautiful ink. 2. Blue Ink. Dissolve 1 part of soluble 
Paris blue in 250 parts of water. 3. Bed Ink. Dissolve 1 part soluble 
fuchsin in 200 parts boiling water. 

India or Chinese Ink.— Calcined lamp black 100 parts. Boghead 
shale black, in impalpable powder, 50 parts ; Indigo carmine in cakes, 10 
parts ; Carmine lake, 5 parts ; Gum arable (best quality) 10 parts ; Puri- 
fied ox-gaU 20 parts; Alcoholic ext. of musk, 5 parts; Dissolve the gum in 
50 to 60 parts of pure water, and filter through a cloth. The indigo, car- 
mine, lake, lamp black, and shale black are mixed with the liquid and 
the whole ground on a slab with a muller like ordinary colors, but much 
longer. Now add the ox-gall and ext. of musk slowly, grinding well in. 
Next dry in the air away from dust, mould into cakes and dry again. 
When quite firm, compress into bronze moulds with any desired design, 
wrap up in tin foil and again in gilt paper. A splendid article. 

To Dye, Stiffen and Bleach Felt Hats.— Felt hats are dyed by 
repeated immersion, drawing and dipping in a hot watery solution of 
logwood 38 parts, green vitriol 3 parts, verdigris 2 parts ; repeat the im- 
mersions and drawing with exposure to the air 13 or 14 times, or until the 
color suits, each step in the process lasting from 10 to 15 minutes. Ani- 
line colors may be advantageously used instead of the above. For a 
stiffening, dissolve borax 10 parts, carbonate of potash 3 parts, in hot 
water, then add shellac 50 parts, and boil until all is dissolved ; apply 
with a sponge or a brush, or by immersing the hat when it is cold, and 
dip at once in very dilute sulphuric or acetic acid to neutralize the alkali 
and fix the shellac. Felt hats can be bleached by the use, of sulphuric 
acid gas. 

633 



SUGGESTIONS TO ARTISANS, &C. 

Laundry Secrets.— A spoonful of ox-gall to a gallon of water will 
set the colors of almost any goods soaked in it previous to washing. A 
tea-cup of lye in a pail of water will improve the color of black goods. 
Nankin should lie in lye before being washed ; it sets the color. A strong 
tea of common hay will preserve the color of French linens. Vinegar in 
the rinsing water for pink or green calicoes will brighten them. Soda 
answers the same end for both purple and blue. To bleach cotton cloth, 
lake one large spoonful of sal-soda, one pound of chloride of lime, for 
thirty yards ; dissolve in clean soft water, rinse the cloth thoroughly in 
cold soft water in order that the cloth may not rot. The above amount 
-, of cloth, with the bleaching compound, may be whitened in from ten to 
fifteen minutes. 

Suggestions to Artisans.— Never consider time wasted that is 
spent in learning rudiments. In acquiring a knowledge of any art or 
handicraft the greatest difficulty is experienced at the beginning, be- 
cause our work then possesses little or nothing of interest. Our first 
lessons in drawing, or music, or with tools, are very simple ; indeed so 
simple are they that we are disposed to undervalue their importance. 
The temptation is to skip a few pages and begin further on in the book. 
But such a course is fatal to success. To learn principles thoroughly 
is to succeed. Be content to learn one thing at a time, Avhether it be to 
push a plane square and true, or draw a straight line- Whatever you 
learn, learn it absolutely, without possible question. This will enable 
you to advance steadily, step by step, year after year, and some day 
you will wonder why you have been enabled to distance the geniuses 
who once seemed so far in advance of you. 

Set your heart upon what you have in hand. Valuable knowledge 
is acquired only by intense devotion. You must give your entire mind 
to whatever you undertake, otherwise you fail, or succeed in differently, 
which is but little better than failure. 

Learn, therefore, to estimate properly the value of what is called 
leisure time. There is entirely too much of this in the world. Do not 
mistake our meaning. Rest is necessary and play is well in its place, 
but young men who hope to do something in life must not expect to play 
one third of their time. 

While you resolve to acquire a thorough knowledge of your art, be 
equally as anxious to know something beyond it. A craftsman ought to 
be ashamed fof himself who |knows nothing but the use of his tools. 
Having the time to acquire it, be careful to properly estimate the value 
of knowledge. Remember of what use it will be to you in ten thousand 
instances as you go along in life and be as conscientious in learning 
rudiments here as elsewhere. Learn to spell correctly, to write a good 
plain hand, and to punctuate your sentences. 

Do not dress beyond your means ; never spend your last dollar, unless 
for food to keep yourself or some one else from starving. You will 
always feel better to keep a little money in your pocket. At the earliest 
possible opportunity save up a few dollars and place the amount in a 
savings bank. It will serve as a magnet to attract other money that 
might be foolishly spent. 

Just as soon as you can command the means, buy a piece of ground. 
Do not wait until you have saved enough to pay all '^down, but begin by 
paying one third or one quarter. Do not be afraid to go in debt for land, 
for it increases in value. 

Marry as soon as you are able to support a wife and can find a good 
woman who is willing to accept you. — The American Builder. 

In commending the above advice the editor would en terpose a salutary 
caution regarding the deposit of money in Savings Banks, while many 
successful business men, and other possessed of exuberant imagination say 
that there is no such word as fail, it is palpably manifest that the collapse 
of no less than eleven Savings Banks in New York and its vicinity during 
the past few months, has furnished ruinous proof to thousands of de- 
positors that the contrary is the truth. In making deposits then, be 
sure that your savings are put in a safe place and that the integrity of 
the men to whom you intrust them is beyond question. 

(-?.4 ' 



Miscellaneous Rules, &c., for Engineers, Mill-owners, 
Mechanics, &c. 

Gearing a Compound Lathe. — The term Compound ox double (j ear- 
ed^ as applied to the screw-ciittiiig gear of a lathe means that there exists, 
between the gear wheel which is fastened to and revolves with the lathe 
spindle and the feed screw, two gear wheels of different diameters and 
revolving side by side, at the same nnmber of revolutions, by reason of 
being fixed upon the same sleeve or axis. The object of this arrangement 
is to make, between the speed at which the lathe mandril or spindle will 
run, and the speed or revolution at which the feed screw will run, a great- 
er amount of difference than is possible in a single geared lathe, and thus 
to be able to cut threads of a coarser pitch than could be cut in the latter. 
This is usually accomplished by providing two intermediate wheels of 
different diameters, both being held by a feather in a sleeve revolving 
upon an adjustable pin for the purpose. 

It is obvious that the smallest of these compounded or coupled wheels 
will gear into and with the wheel or gear on the feed screw ; and that 
the changes of gear may be made upon the gear runnhig on the lathe 
mandril and that running on the feed screw, without disturbing the pair 
of intermediate (and compounded) gears referred to. In many cases, 
however, only the wheel upon the feed screw need be changed, since a 
wide range of pitch may be obtained by changing that wheel only. 

To find the number of teeth in the wheel required to be placed on the 
feed screw, we have the following rule : 

Divide the pitch to be cut by the pitch of the feed screw, and the pro- 
duct will be the proportional number. Then multiply the number of 
teeth on the lathe mandril gear by the number of teeth on the smallest 
gear of the compounded pair, and the product by the proportional num- 
ber, and divide the last product by the number of teeth in the largest 
wheel of the compounded pair, and the product is the number of teeth 
for the wheel on the feed screw. 

Suppose, for example, the gear on the lathe mandril contains 40 teeth 
running into the largest of the compounded gears which contains 50 teeth, 
and that the small gear of the compounded pair contains 15 teeth ; what 
wheel will be required for the feed screw — its pitch beiug 2, and the 
thread requiring to be cut being 20 ? 

Pitch Pitch of Proportional 

required. feed screw. number. 

20 -r 2 = 10 

Then— 

Mandril Small com- Proportional Large com- 
gear teeth. pound gear. number. pound gear. 

40 X 15 X 10 -^ 50 = 120 = the number of 
teeth required upon the wheel for the feed screw. In the above example, 
however, all the necessary wheels except one are given ; and since it is 
often required to find the necessary sizes of two of the wheels, the follow- 
ing rule may be used : 

Divide the number of threads you wish to cut by the pitch of the feed 
screw, and multiply the quotient by the number of teeth on one of the 
driving wheels, and the product by the number of teeth on the other of 
the driving wheels ; then any divisor that leaves no remainder to the last 
product is the number of teeth for one of the wheels driven, and the 
quotient is the number of teeth for the other wheel driven. 

[In this rule the term *' wheel driven " means a wheel which has mo- 
tion imparted to it, while its teeth do not drive or revolve any other 
wheel ; hence the large wheel of the compounded pair is one of the 

C35 



636 



KULES FOR MACHINISTS, MILLERS, &C, 



wheels driven, while the wheel on the feed screw is the other of the 
wheels driven.] 

Example.— It is required to cut 20 threads to the inch, the pitch of the 
feed screw being 2, one of the driving wheels contains 40 teeth and the 
other 15 : 



Pitch required 
to be cut. 

20 



Pitch of 
feed Bcrew. 

~ 2 



Teeth in one 
driving wheel. 

40 



Teeth in other 
driving wheel. 

15 rz 



GOOO. 



Then, 6000 -f 50 = 120 ; and hence one of the gears will require to con- 
tain 50 and the other 120 teeth ; if we have not two of such wheels, we 
may divide by some other number instead of 50. 

Thus : 6000 -^ 60 = 100 ; and the wheels will require to have, re- 
spectively, 60 and 100 teeth. 

If there are no wheels on the lathe we proceed as follows : 

Divide the pitch required by the pitch of the feed screw ; the quotient 
is the proportion between the*^ revolutions of the first driving gear and 
the feed screw gear. 

Example. Required the gears to cut a pitch of 20, the feed screw pitch 
being 4 ; here 20 -r 4 == 5 ; that is to say, the feed screw must revolve 
five times as slowly as the first driving gear ; we now find two numbers 
which, multiplied together, make five : as 2^ X 2 = 5 ; hence one pair 
of wheels must be geared 2J to 1 and the other pair 2 to 1, the small 
wheel of each pair being used as drivers, because the thread required is 
finer than the feed screw. Rose's Complete Practical Machinist^ H. 
Carey Baird & Co., Philadelphia. 

HIPPED KOOFS, MILL HOPPERS, &C. 

To find the various Angles and proper Dimensions of Materials ivhere- 
by to construct any figure whose form is the Frustrum of a proper or 
inverted Pyramid, as Hipped Roofs, Mill Hoppers^ &c. 




A B C D represents the desired size of plan for a roof, E T represents the 
height ; draw the line A E to meet the apex or ridge E K on plan ; from 
E, at right angles with C E and equal to the designed height draw the 
line E T then the line T C, equal the length of the struts or corners of the 
roof ; from C, with the distance C F, draw the arc T H, continue the 
diagonal C E until it cuts the arc E H, through which, and parallel with 
the apex E K, draw the line I L, which determines the required breadth 
for each side of the roof : from C, meeting the line I L, draw the line C 
G, or proper angle for the end of each board by which the roof might re- 
quire to be covered, and the angle at T is what the boards require to be 
made in the direction of their thickness, when the corners or angles re- 
quire to be mitred. 

To Compute the Number of Revolutions of a Pinion or Driven 
WHEN THE Number op Revolutions of Driver and the Diaivieter 
OR THE Number of Teeth op Driver and Driven are given. 
— Multiply the number of revolutions of driver by its number of teeth 



EULES FOR MACHINISTS, MILLERS, &C. 



G37 



or its diameter, and divide the product by the number of teeth or the 
diameter of the driver. 

PnopoBTioisr OF Circles. — To assist machinists in enlarging or reducing 
machinery wheels without changing their respective velocitfes. 

O 




First, lay off two circles, D F and G I, the size of the largest wheels 
which you wish to change to a large or small machine, with the central 
point H of the smaller circle G I on the periphery of the largest circle D 
F : then describe two lines Q C and S A tangent to the circles as shown 
in diagram, then draw the hue R B through their centres ; now if you 
wish to reduce the machine outline a circle of the size you wish to re- 
duce it to ; if, say, one-half, have the centre K one-half the distance 
from E to P and lay off the circle J L, and on its periphery N as a cen- 
tre lay off a circle M O with their peripheries touching the tangent lines 
Q C and S A, as shown in diagram. This will make the circle J L one- 
half the size of the circle D F, and the circle M O one-half the size of the 
circle G I ; leavmg J L and M O in the same proportion to each other 
asDFandGI. 

To reduce one-third, have the centre K one-third the distance itom E 
to P ; ii one-fourth, have the centre K one-fourth the distance from E to 



GoS RULES FOR MACHINISTS, MILLERS, &C. 

P, &c. This reckoning may be applied beyond the centre E for enlarging 
machine wheels, and will enable the mechanic to make the alteration 
without changing their respective velocities. 

To Compute the Diameter of a Pinion when the Diameter of 
THE Driver, and the number of Teeth in Driver and Driven ark 
GIVEN. — Multiply the diameter of driver by the number of teeth in the 
pinion and divide the product by the number of teeth in the driver, and 
the quotient will be the diameter of pinion. 

To Compute the Number of Revolutions of a Driver, when 
the revolutions of Driven and Teeth or Diameter of Driver 
AND Driven are given. — Multiplj^ the number of teeth or the diameter 
of driven by its revolutions and divide the product hy the number of 
teeth or the diameter of driver. 

To Compute the Number of Teeth in eacpi Wheel for a Train 
OF Spur Wheels, each to have a given Velocity. — Multiply the 
number of revolutions of the driving wheel by its number of teeth, and 
divide the product by the number of revolutions each wheel is to make 
to ascertain the number of teeth required for each. 




To find the Circu:mfeiience of any Diameter.— From the centre 
B describe the circle A C G, with the desired diameter ; next j)lace the 
corner of the square at the centre B, and describe the lines B D and B F ; 
then draw the chord D F ; three times the diameter added to the dis- 
tance from the centre of the chord D E F to the middle of the subtending 
arc D G F, will be circumference desired. 

To FIND THE Circumference of a Circle, or of a pulley.— 
Multiply the diameter by 3-1416, or as 7 is to 22 so is the diameter to the 
circumference. 

The areas of circles are to each other as the squares of their diameters, 
and a circle contains a greater area than any other plain figure bounded 
by an equal outline. 

To Compute the area of a circle. — Multiply the circumference by 
one quarter of the diameter ; or multiply the square of the diameter by 
•7854 ; or multiply the square of the circumference by '07958 ; or multi- 
ply half the circumference by half the diameter ; or multiiDly the square 
of half the diameter by 3*14i6 

to find the circumference of an ellipse. 

A'uZe.— Multiply half the sum of the two diameters by 3-1416, and the 
product will be the circumference. 

Example. — Suppose the longer diameter 6 inches and the shorter di- 
ameter 4 inches, then 6 added to 4 equal 10, divided by 2 equal 5. multi- 
plied by 8'141(> eqiinl 15-70S0 inrliefs riroumferonf^o. 



DIRECTIONS TO MILL-MEN, &C. 639 

Power and Capacity of Saw Mills, Saw filing, &c.— As a rule it 
is admitted by mill-men that for 10,000 ft. per day about 20 horse-power 
is required ; for 20,000 ft., 30 horse-power ; and for 30,000 ft. 40 horse- 
power. To secure these results it is indispensable that the operator should 
make sure of having a good mill and intelligent first class workmen to 
run it. In hanging the saw, see that the mandril fits accurately in the 
boxes, so that it will run without heating. When flat collars are used, 
the steadying pins should be made with a shoulder, as where any other 
form of pin is used it often happens that a burr or bunch is raised at the 
corner where the pin enters the collar. Both saw and collar should be 
tested with a straight edge ; it frequently happens in turning collars that 
through the lightness or springing of the tool, irregularities in the grain of 
the iron, &c., the work may not be perfectly true, and in this case the 
utmost care should be taken to ascertain and correct the deficiency, if 
any exists, by applying, before the mandril is taken from the lathe, a fine 
file of just the proper spring, against the face of the collars in order to 
remove any uneven surfaces that may have been left upon them. If they 
are not perfectly true, apply a pair that are so, independent of the man- 
dril collars, and so rigid that screwing up the collars cannot act upon or 
impair the saw. 

The saw being tested and found correct, place it on the mandril and 
tighten up the collars by hand, slowly revolving the saw at the same time, 
and if it proves to be truthfuUy hung, screw it home with a wrench tight, 
and test again with straight edge to see if all is right, revolving the saw 
and observe closely whether it runs true or not. For large saws a high 
authority recommends collars that have a perfect bearing of about J in. 
on the outer rim, the other part clear, as they hold tighter than a solid, 
flat-faced collar, because they are more apt to come fair against the saw. 

To correct saws out of round, hold a piece of grindstone or cobblestone 
against the points of the teeth while the saw revolves, this will grind 
down the most prominent teeth ; or the longest teeth may be marked with 
red chalk while the saw is in motion, and afterwards filed down. 

The following figures will afford valuable aid to the operator. In fig. 
1 the teeth represented by the dotted Imes show the teeth as the saw 
leaves the factory ; the lines at B,C, and D show the condition to which 
they are frequently reduced by bad filing. These defective teeth contain 
no chamber for the circulation of saw dust, and teeth filed with sharp, 
square corners at the bottom frequently break, as shown at A, tooth C. 
This kind of filing is most destructive to both saw and files, and requires 
at least double the power necessary to operate a saw with teeth of the 
proper shape. For good work it is absolutely essential to file back to the 
periphery line, and the best work will be done, the least labor expended, 
and less power will be required to operate, when the shape of the teeth 
is made to conform to the patterns illustrated by Figs. 2 and 3, which 
also represent the forms best adapted for sawing soft and hard wood re- 
spectively. In filing circular saws, an immense saving will be effected by 
filing from the face or under side, instead of from the top, or upper part 
of the tooth, as in the former case the full diameter of the saw is retained 
to a much greater extent. 

Fig. 4, at A, represents a tooth that requires gummmg, or chambering 
out in proper shape, as shown at D. This leaves free scope for the dust, 
without too much crowding, and the useless consumption of power. A 
good gummer is an article that no sawyer can afford to dispense with, it 
saves much valuable time and heavy outlay for files, besides doing more 
rapid and much better work. A good swage or upset is equally import- 
ant for the purpose of bringing the teeth of the saw to a sharp, keen edge, 



640 



DIAGRAMS FOR SAW FILING. 




''WTiexx 'your TootbL. ^"wrtiit^ CliaasUjerlng* 
B C 




DIAGRAMS TO ILLUSTRATE SAW-FILING. 



DIRECTIONS TO 3nLL-31EN, &C. 



641 



bringing up corners and vacancies occasioned by wear, and spreading tlie 
points, so as to ease the body of the saw in i^assing through the log. 
Fig. 5, at A, B, C, D, and E, exhibits the different set required for saw 
teetli as effected by the swage ; the dotted lines show the undercut, and 
Fig. 6 shows the old and new style tooth. Fig. 7, at C, represents the cou- 




FiG. 7. 
dition the tooth should be in for work. Point B shoAvs a tooth that is 
dull, and a great many teeth are broken, as shown at D, from this very 
cause. The tooth of a 24 inch circular saw passes through the log 2000 
times per minute, 120,000 times per hoar, or 1,200,000 times per day, im- 
pelled by a tremendous force through knots. &c., and if not kept sharp 




Fig. 8. RIGHT-HAND SAW. 



642 



DIRECTIONS TO MILL-MEN, «fcC. 



the severe strain is bound to break the teeth. If the teeth were kept 
properly set and well filed the work would be performed m better shape 
with half the power. Eigs. 8 and 9 represent right and left hand saws, 
and a very slight inspection of the cuts will enable any person to observe 
a most important distinction in ordering circular saws. In operating the 
mill, avoid the use of short bearings for the mandril, and short, *tight 
belts, these, together with the mandril crowding against the collar, are 
apt to cause heating. Along, free belt, with long "bearings, and a saw 
cutting freely, will give the best results in every case. 




Fig. 9. LEFT-HAND SAW. 

The improved pattern of saw teeth, &c., outlined above, is the form 
originated and commended by the celebrated saw manufacturing firm of 
Henry Disston & Sons, of Philadelphia, and is the result of the anxious 
study, experience, and careful labor of many years. The high standing 
of the firm, together with the excellent reputation of their goods, fur- 
nish a sufficient guarantee that every improvement introduced by them 
will be found based on correct principles. 

Saw Mill.— Tzoo Vei'tical Saios o/34 in. Stroke, Lathes, &g. Cvlinder 
10 ins. diam. by 4 ft. Stroke. Pressure 90 to 100 lbs. per square in., full 
stroke. Revolutions, 25 per minute. Boilers, three plain cylindrical, 30 
ins. in diam. by 20 ft. in length. 

Note. This engine has cut of yellow pine, 30 ft. by 18 ins. in one minute, 
Engineers & Contractors Pocket-Book. 

For further information on Saw mills, see page 87. 

Weight of Lumber per Thousand (M.) Feet Board Measure. 



Pine and hemlock 

Norway and yellow pine. 

Oak and Walnut 

Ash and Maple 



Dry. 



2,500 lbs. 

3,000 '' 

4,000 " 

3,500 " 



Partly 

Seasoned. 

2,700 lbs. 

4,000 " 

5,000 '' 

4,000 '' 



Green. 



3,000 lbs. 
5,000 " 



SECTIONAL VIEW OF A FLOUR MILL. 



G43 




SECTIO:NrAL YIEW OF A COMPLETE FLOUR MILL. 

The above cut, from the Mill Stone, published by the well known mill 
furnishm^ firm of Nordyke & Marmon Co., of Indianapolis, Ind., affords 
a sectional view of a complete flour mill with a three run outfit, two rims 
for wheat, and one run for com. 

The New Process of Milling, High-ground and Patent Flour, 
ETC.— In considering this important subject, John W. Hopkins writes to 
the Mill Stone as follows :— The new process means a first-class steam 
engine, grinding the flour and heating the mill on a cent's worth of coal 
to the bushel of wheat, taking the wheat from the car on the side line 
:ind ^ip'-er tnnchina' it bv manual labor until the flour barrels are taken 



644 NEAV PROCESS OF MILLING, &C. 

from the packer, instead of the shovelling and sweating which was and 
still is in vogtie in some places. 

Where water power is used instead of steam, the new process means 
the use of turbine wheels, giving over 80 per cent, of the full power of 
the water, instead of the old breast wheel giving only 50 ; the boss going 
into a nice warm mill on a frosty winter morning and finding every thing 
going right, instead of going into an ice-bound mill of the old breast- 
wheel style, with a couple of half starved youths trying to cut her loose 
and knock her to pieces at the same time. 

The new process means nicely turned iron shafting and pulleys, with 
belt gearing, in place of wooden shafts and cog gearing, with two or 
three old millwrights slashing around with sledge hammers to keep them 
wedged, and assisted occasionally by two or three millers making frantic 
efforts to start the break downs. It also means closely jointed old stock 
burrs, and plenty of them — 36 inches in diameter for middlings, and 
from 42 to 48 inches for wheat, according to the hardness or softness of 
the wlieat — all in perfect balance and true smooth face, and the lands 
thereof to be from one-third to one-fourth of the whole surface of the 
burrs, instead of one-half as in by-gone times. It does not, however, 
mean any particular patent dress, the common equalizing dress is good 
enough ; but it does mean that the furrows shall be smooth and straight 
in all directions, not less than two indies broad and deep enough at the 
eye to bury the largest grain of Avheat, and about the fourth of that at 
the skirt, the draft of the feather edge to be one inch to the foot in diam- 
eter of the burr, and all furrows of the same kind to bear the same rela- 
tion to the centre and circumference, and also that the miller shall have 
the j)ower and means to alter the speed of any run without affecting the 
remainder, i. e. speed to be altered instead of draft. 

To mill under the new process means that the chop shall roll Instead of 
slide between the burrs, or, in other words, the substitution of a system 
of granulation in x^lace of grinding. 

We know a millwright wlio was lately called to reconstruct the bolting 
machinery of a considerable merchant mill. Upon mentioning the word 
purifier, the head miller in charge of the mill gave a jump as. if he had 
received a mild stroke from a galvanic battery. '*! want," saj's he, 
" nothing but fine cloths, and plenty of them, Nos. 12, 14 and 1()," to 
which I would only say that it must follow, as a matter of course, that if 
you grind so close as to grind a fourth of the bran into powder, it will 
require fine cloths to take it out, and even they will fail to do it perfectly, 
whereas if the grinding is properly done, XX, 10, and 12, will be the 
thing. 

We come now to ihe middlings — the large imrticles which have with- 
stood the action of the burrs most, and which have at the same time the 
highest specific gravity and the greatest bulk. They must be separated 
from the very light, dead fine brown dust (which is principally pulverized 
bran, insoluble in the acids of the stomach), the first would not go 
through tlie superfine cloths, on account of their bulk, neither would the 
latter, on account of their lightness. They must, however, not only be 
separated, but also graded, and while this is almost impossible of accom- 
plishment with cloths alone, it is rendered comparatively easy by the use 
of cloths and blast combined, and therefore the necessity of the purifier. 
I do not refer to any particular make or patent in the way of purifiers, 
as there are several good ones in the market, and any number of poor 
ones, but whatever kind is used should have capacity enough, and do 
their work well. 

The old process or system that required a man to jump on the burrs 
every twenty-four or twentv-six hours and slash them all over v/itli a 



VALUABLE ADVICE TO MILLERS. 645 

pick so as to make tliem cat up 15 bushels of wheat an hour, and make 
24 bushels of flour to the 100 bushels of wheat, is fast becoming obsolete. 

The idea of making such flour either for home consumption, or to ship 
to foreigners, is plaj^ed out ; the foreigners, in particular, have stopped 
bujang such flour, and want the wheat instead to grind for themselves. 
Instead of this old-time system it is now required of the miller that the 
face of the burrs shall be smooth and true, and if any high places develop 
themselves they must be gently touched by the hand of a master either 
with pick, diamond, or emery wheel, and not more than six bushels an 
hour should be ground on a pair of burrs, and this should be ground 
cool or not at all. Moreover, it should be ground high enough to take 
off abroad, clean bran, and to make one half middlings, and finally last, 
though not least, the substitution of the new process, as herein delineated 
in outline, means to realize 20 cents per bushel more out of the Avheat 
than by the old style, and a showing of a good and satisfactory balance 
on the right side of the ledger at the end of the year. At least such is the 
new process or high-grinding system, as I understand it. 

Fast and Slow Grinding. Valuable Advice to Millers. On 
this all important subject, J. M. Truax, a i^ractical miller, whites to the 
Mill Stone as follows :— '" The quantity to be ground must depend upon 
the texture or density of the stone, the draft, the number and depth of 
furrows, and the grinding without heating. No more grinding should bt. 
done than can be" done without heating. The heating is the stopping 
spot. The quantity that every mill ought to grind is that quantity that 
can be ground and not heat, whether it is 5, 10, or 20 bushels per hour. 
If every miller will observe this as his guide, he will do the best work 
that he is able to do. 

In speaking of heating, I mean to say that the grain should not be so 
heated by pressure or rubbing, as will start the juice or essential oils of 
the grain. If the grain oil is started by friction, that friction i^roduces 
heat, and that heat dries and evaporates the grain juice, and the virtue 
of the flour is impaired. Any amount of cooling will not repair the dam- 
age done by heating. The steam that rises from the hot running mill is 
the vapor from out of the essential oils of the grain, and is lost in the 
bread. To recommend the grinding of 10, 15 or 25 bushels of wheat per 
hour, is bad advice, imprudent. Millers differ in the selection of stones, 
and differ about their dress, and the motion of their mill. One will have 
one kind and way, and another another kind and way ; but whatever 
way thej^ select, when they go to grinding, their quantity per hour should 
be that which they can grind and not heat, whether it is 3, 5, 10 or 20 
bushels per hour. Do not impair the substance for the bulk per hour. 
Blood heat is as high as can be warranted without impairing the i^roduct. 
It may be an ambition to grind fast, but an old adage is " haste nialces 
waste." If millers are ambitious, let that ambition be applied to the 
making of a i)erfect running mill. Select the very best burrs, and put ii* 
a thoroughly common sense dress ; a dress that will granulate the Avhole 
kernel as nearly as possible. Keep the stones as far apart as possible, and 
keep the texture or grain of the stones clean. Let this be the miller's 
ambition. But stop adding to quantity when the mill is at blood heat, 
and as much less heat as they are able to, and let the bread makers and 
eaters have in the flour all the virtue that mother earth has produced. 

One of the great evils in milling is low grinding, and its evil effects are 
only second to those produced by fast grinding. Wheat is composed of 
two parts — an inner and an outer part. The^ inner part is meaty, and 
the outer is a shuck, or skin, or hull ; the meaty is iDulverizable, while 
the hull or covering is a leather-like substance, and has thickness, which 
thickness en nalB the meshes of No. 14 or 15 bolting cloth. Now, the 



646 BALANCING OF MILLSTONES. 

question arises, how sliail the miller grind this compound kernel and 
clean this leather-like covering, and granulate the inner meat to a prop- 
er fineness for bread purposes, and not over rub or grind to dust a part 
of the hull ? This is the question. And how is wdieat being ground all 
over the world to-day ? I need not answer, for all know that heavy- 
grinding has been the order. The lands or face of one burr rubs the 
other, or nearly so. So much so that that portion of the bran that is 
caught between the face of the mill near the skirt is more than twice 
overground, and this overgrinding or rubbing the bran makes a brown 
dust, and blackens the flour. It is like brown paint, and bolts with the 
Hour and goes into the bread. 

This is a mistake, and should be avoided. Bran may make bread, bnt 
not the bread millers feel proud of. And to avoid this, millers must run 
a lighter mill. Heavy grinding is a-n evil. It not only powders a portion 
of the bran and blackens the flour ; but grinds at the same time a portion 
of the kernel to dust ; also destroying its juicy substance ; and at the 
same time the fine ground dust is rubbed into the texture of the stone, 
and the face of the stone becomes glazed and smooth, and of course dull. 
. Millers, so dress your mill as will enable you to grind the inner i)art 
of the kernel to flour, and avoid making brown paint dust from the bran. 
A miller that runs a heavy mill is likely to look for a medicine to doctor 
his flour. Medicine for flour is a i^oor substitute for a good dress and 
clean stones. Bread eaters much prefer the full life of the cereals, not a 
doctored article. Grain once killed by overgrinding and heating will not 
be brought to life by the best medicines. All the flour-doctors in the 
world can not repair the life that is first produced in natural growth. 
They may help a deadened flour, but a whole reparation is impossible. 
Throw away the drugs ! Let us have a pure flour." 

Balancing Millstones,— To examine the conditions relative to 
balancing, and to trace the effects produced by an unbalanced runner, to 
their cause, we refer to the adjoining figure in which R, R, re])resent3 
a section of the runner-stone ; B, B, a section of the nether stationary or 
bed-stone, S, the mill-spindle provided at the upper end with a steel 
pivot P, upon which the runner-stone is suspended, so as to admit of free 
oscillation. The distance from the face F, F, of the runner-stone to the 
pivot P, is found in practice to be from 5 to 8 inches, according to the 
size of the stone. Since the thickness of the runner-stone varies from 12 
to 20 inches, this would bring the centre of gravity of the runner-stono 
below the point of suspension P, a condition favorable to stability, or, in 
other words, the millstone, when disturbed, will oscillate until equilibri- 
um is restored. It will not be so easily upset. In order that the runner- 
stone may be in " balance," or the distance between the face F, F, of the 
runner-stone and the face of F', F', of the bed-stone, be equal, when the 
latter is perfectly horizontal, and former freely suspended ; the weight of 
the portion of the runner on one side of tlie line, A, A, drawn through 
*the point of suspension P, and perpendicular to the faces F', F,' must bo 
equal to the corresponding half on the other side of the same line. Should 
this not be the case, the deficiency is easily made up by cutting a cavity 
at the light side, near the circumference, and filling it with an amount of 
lead sufficient to establish a proper equilibrium. 

Mill stones when balanced while at rest are usually found, when run- 
ning, not to retain an equal distance between the face ; one side will drag 
— bear harder on the meal subjected to its action, consequently a mill- 
stone in this condition will grind unevenly. It is said to be out of " run- 
ning balance." 

From the very nature of the construction of the French millstone (the 
kinrl n.«ed nt present most exclusively), being an assemblage of blocks, 



BALANCING OF MILL STONES. 



647 



called *' burr blocks," of various sizes, and ou an average about 5 inches 
thick, the remainder of the body of the mill stone being made up of 
spawls, all cemented together with plaster of Paris ; it is evident that 
the material can not easily be distributed sj^mmetrically as to weight. 
To illustrate — conceive a line E, E, drawn through the pivot P, and par- 
allel to the face F, F. We will also suppose a section 6 inches thick cut 
out of the center of the mill stone. Such section from a mill stone 4 feet 
in diameter would weigh about 260 pounds, taking the weight of the 
plaster at 90 pounds per cubic foot, and that of the burr block at 160 
I)ounds. 




Now it may happen that in the construction of the millstone, 45 pounds 
may be x)laced to the right of the center line A, A, and beloAV the hori- 
zontal line E, E ; 35 pounds may come above this line on the same side 
of A, A ; 55 pounds and 25 pounds may chance to be on the opposite, 
below and above E, E, respectively. The sum of the weights on the right 
of A, A, is equal to the sum of the weights on the left, viz. : 80 pounds. 
The standing balance still obtains. The center of gravity r/, and r/' of 
each half of our section taken separatelj^, however, will not be in or. at 
equal distances from the line E, E, with the material thus distributed ; 
but will fall above on the right to r/", and below on the left to r/'" ; a line 
joinmg these centers of gravity will take the direction iST, N. INow when 
a mill stone so constructed is rotated about its axis A, A, the center of 
gravity ^"' will rise, and g" tend to fall. The line N, N, would become 
nearer horizontal as the speed increases, the line E, E, becomes inclined 
and the face F, F, untrue. The mill stone is out of " running balance," 

The amount of pressure produced in our example assumed, we com- 
pute as follows : We draw a line through the center of gravity (/" par- 
allel to the face F, F, until it meets the perpendicular line A, A ; we sim- 
ilarly draw a line through c/'\ We will also suppose the centers of grav- 
ity (/" and r/"' to be removed J of an inch from their proper place ou the 
line E, E. 'The centrifugal forco would be given, by the known expres- 
sion ^^^ where m, represents the mass, or the weight divided ]^v iV.c 



648 



BALANCING OF MILL STONES. 



80 



g2 V, is the velocity in 
'" and in a stone 4 feet in diameter at 



force of gravity, in our case for J of the section 

this instance, for the i)oint g" or g 

175 revolutions per minute, 18 feet per second, about ; r represents the 

radius, equal to P, rr = 1 ft. in our case. Hence substituting these values 

80 18 18 

is the formula, we obtain g^ j^ = 810 lbs. for the centrifugal force. The 
part of this force which is effective in producing the pressure at X equals 
810. Cosine of the angle EP x == 734 pounds nearly. The force acts with 
the lever arms g g" i inch and PX = 25 inches. We have, therefore, for 
the total i;)ressure at the point X ^^ X 2 = 14.68 pounds ; an amount 

frequently present in mill stones in actual use, producing, by this unequal 
pressure, a flour or meal less advantageous to the miller, both as regards 
quality and quantity. 

What is required, therefore, to adjust the " Running Balance " with- 
out disturbing the " Standing Balance " is to add or remove the same 
weight from each side. Thus, if we add 10 pounds to the part weighing 
25 pounds, and the same amount to the part weighing 45 pounds, we have 
not disturbed the standing balance, while Ave have made the weights of 
the parts above and below the line E, E, equal respectively. 

To balance in an actual case, we proceed as follows : First, x^ut the run- 
ner-stone in good standmg-balance, having leveled the bed-stone, and 
trammed the spindle previously. We then raise the stone, place two 
strips of wood between the faces, start the runner and turn off the back 
true with the face with a chisel, having first arranged a firm rest. We 
then remove the strips, run the stone at its proper speed, and mark the 
high side by brin.sjing a i^encil against it. The high side requires, as we 
have seen, an addition of weight at the top, close to the circumference, 
and the opposite low point at the bottom, near the circumference 
and the face. By means of two long leather straps, we tie several bars of 
lead at these lolaces, repeating the operatioii until the proper amount of 
weight is found, which is then securely fixed to the stone, making a pro- 
per allowance for any plaster removed from the stone, or any waste in- 
curred in melting the lead. 




Several patent balances which facilitate the operation have been intro- 
duced. A more common one consists of a cast iron box, wiiich is insert- 
ed in the stone at the circumference, and in which a weight can be raised 
or lowered by means of a screw. All that is required in this case is 'to 
find the high point in the manner described ; raise the weight at this 
point, and lower it at the opposite low point, thus taking weight from the 
upper half of the stone and adding it to the lower half and the reverse. 

It is not to be supposed that if a mill stone is put in good running bal- 
ance, that it will remain in this condition for any length of time. But, 
mi the contrary, its balance will change from the effects of the weather ; 
\hat is, by an unequal absorption of moisture, due to an unequal distribu- 



PORTABLE GRIST MILL. 



649 



tion of the plaster forming the back, and from an unequal wear of the 
face as well. It is, therefore, expedient to frequently examine the balance 
and adjust the same. V, Bachman in Mill Stone. 

The art of balancing mill stones is greatly simplified by an ingenious 
arrangement used by the ISTordj^ke & Marmon Co., of Indianapolis, Ind., 
who imbed 5 cast iron boxes, like the one rex3resented in the right hand 
cut, in the body of the runner stone. Thej^ are placed in the runner 
with the lid of the box a little below the i^laster back with the rounding 
part in contact with the band. The left hand figure illustrates the inner 
adjustable box, and screw for adjusting the same when in the stone. It 
Avill be noticed it has two parts, divided by a i)artition. The cover to this 
inner box, shown in the central figure, is secured with a screw, and fits 
down upon the box and close over the division, so that either side may be 
used wlien the weight is wanted at a point between any two of the bal- 
ance boxes. These balance boxes gives the miller full control of the run- 
ner ; a wrench is the only tool required, and the requisite weights, when 
once placed in the box, are not liable to derangement like those ordiuar- 
ilv used. 




THE NORDYKE & MARMON PORTABLE GRIST MILL. 

The above illustration represents a Portable Grist Mill made by the ex- 
tensive mill furnishing firm of Nordyke, Marmon & Co., Indianapolis, 
Ind. It is constructed of the best French burr, is self-oiling, self -feeding, 
adjustable-balanced, and is well calculated to render efficient service to 
farmers, saw-mill owners, &c-., as it dispenses with skilled attendance, is 
well adapted to any kind of suitable pow^er, and is capable of grinding 20 



G50 



MILL STOXE DKESS, &C, 



bnsliels of corn per hour. The great variety and immense number of first 
class water and steam mills erected by this iirm all over the fertile regions 
of the West and South, form a sufficient attestation of their abilities and 
resources as flouring mill contractors, engineers, and mechanical experts. 
In addition to their regular mill furnishing business, v/hich has expanded 
to vast proportions since its establishment in 1851, this firm publish the 
Mill Stone (terms $1 per annum), a monthly journal of paramount utility 
to every miller, farmer, and mechanic. Of this periodical, suffice it to 
say, that one of the articles transferred to these pages and credited to the 
3Iill Stone, has been pronounced by a practical man belonging to the craft, 
to be worth of itself $10 to any miller. The articles are pregnant with 
interest to every miller and will doubtless be read and studied with the 
attention which they deserve. 

Number of Meshes in Bolting Cloth. — The following Table exhibits 
the number of meshes contained in each number of cloth from No. 0000 
to No. 16, of Dufour & Co.'s Anchor Brand of Bolting cloth : 



No. COOO contains 400 

" 676 

" 1,024 

" 1,7G4 

'' ......2,704 

3,000 

•' 4,096 

" 4,624 

" 5,1«4 

'' 6,400 





000 




00 









1 




2 




o 




O 




4 




5 




6 



No. 



7 contains 7,744 

•' 8,464 

' 10,000 

' 12,100 

' 14,400 

'' 16,900 

' 19,600 



8 



10 

11 

12 
13 
14 
15 
16 



.22,500 
,25,600 
28,900 



Mill Stone Dress. — On this subject a practical miller writes to the 
3Iill Stone as follows : *' In the first place the burr must be brought to a 
perfectly true face, and then lay off the furrows with a straight edge, IJ 
inches wide at the eye, and IJ inches wide at the skirt. Let'the flare be 
on the feather edge, and just as many quarters as may be thought best, 
and which will depend somewhat on the speed. I generally give a four 
foot burr from 13 to 16 leading furrows, stepping them off with a pair of 
compasses on the outside edge of burr, from 9 to 12 inches apart, and 



BH 




■ 


^^Hj 




h| 


^^^^^B^l 




^^^^ 



then dividing the spaces between them into quarters. The accompanying 
draft of the dress that I use will give a very good idea of my plan. I have 
been using this dress for years, and find it gives better satisfaction in 
quality of flour than any other dress I ever used. It grhids cooler and 
longer than the old style of dress, and it will grind wet or damp wheat 
better, because there is less friction about it and there is more room for 
the meal to get out from under the burrs, and therefore the meal must be 
better." 



SPEED, CAPACITY, AC, OF MILL STONES. 



G51 



Estimate of the Speed, Potteij, Capacity and Dress of Mill- 
stones AS practiced in Great Britain for grinding Wheat where 
KO Exhaust or Cojibined Blast and Exhaust are used. The Miller. 









Average capa- 












city per hour 




Draught from 


Diameter of 


Revolutions 


Horse poAvcr. 


of grin din jj in 


Usual dress. 


fore edge of 


Millstone. 


per Minute. 




bush, tlirough 
the journey. 




furrow. 


Feet. Inches. 










Inches. 


2 6 


200 


2^ 


2% 


. 7.3 


2^ 


2 10 


180 


2% 


234 


8.3 


. 21/2 


3 


170 


. 3 


3 


9.3 


2^ 


3 2 


ICO 


314 


3V4 


9.3 


234 


3 4 


150 


3^ 


oV^ 


10.3 




3 6 


140 


3% 


3% 


10.3 


3 


3 8 


130 


3ys 


3% 


10.3 


3 


3 10 


125 


3'/8 


Nearly 4 


11.3 


3 


4 


120 


4 


4 


10.4 


3 


4 2 


115 


4% 


4V4 


1).4 


3 


4 4 


110 


'IV4 


4y2 


11.4 


31/4 


4 G 


105 


4V2 


5 


12.4 


31/2 


4 8 


100 


4% 


G 


12.4 


3% 


4 10 


95 


5 


GVa 


12.4 


4 


5 


90 


G 


7 


12.4 


^Yz 



In reference to the foregoing Table, The Miller quotes the opmion of a 
Scotch engineer and millwright whose experience entitles him. to rank as 
an authority, to the effect that there should Jbe only four standard diame- 
ters of millstones, viz. : 3 ft. 3 ft. 6 ins. 4 ft. 4 ft. 6 ins. for 
which the speed should be 170 revolutions for the 3 ft., lo5, 135, and 
115 for the other sizes respectively, and he estimates that all their sizes 
would each absorb 6 indicated horse power to grind 4 bushels of wheat 
per hour ; in other words, the smallest stone at its high rate of speed, with 
equal duty, would require as much power to propel it as would be taken 
by the largest stone with its low rate of speed. The same authority ex- 
presses a conviction, based on a mature experience of 30 years, that «a vast 
improvement could be effected on the system presented in the above 
Table by taking the 4 foot stone, running at 135, as the standard for 
universal use in grinding wheat. It is recommended further that all mills 
should be so constructed that the velociUj of the stones could be varied at 
pleasure, when in operation, either by running each pair by conical jnil- 
leys or drums, or by a separate engine, as the state of the Aveather, or tl: ^ 
different varieties of wheat, may demand. 
Concerning the blast and exhaust the Miller remarks : 
" It is stated by some parties favorable to the combined Blast and Ex- 
haust that, by the adoption of that system, a saving of i)ower is effected, 
and that eight bushels of Avheat can he ground by s/x-horse ])ower. Tlie 
l)Ower, however, being unlimited, the quantity ground can be yicreased 
almost indefinitely, in the above proportion, according to the weigiit of 
the millstone, sixteen bushels per hour often being ground on this sys-j- 
tem. The application of the Exhaust, drawing the air through the eye of 
the running millstone, does not produce a greater current than that of at- 
mospheric pressure, the millstones grind somewhat faster, and there is a 
corresponding amount of economic power, the millstones working more 
freely. Many advantages in this respect result from the adoption of 
the simple Exhaust, having for its object the removal only of the stive 
from the millstone case." 



652 



SPEED AND PITCH OF BOLT, &C. 



To Remove Glaze from Millstones.— Take the burrs, clean all the 
flour off with a broom and wash them with first rate vinegar. This will 
leave the stones free from glaze. The better way is to wash the stones at 
night and leave them to dry until morning. A miller who has used the 
method for 25 years, recommends to take up the stones while warm, 
and wash them with a mixture of one half pail of soft water and one 
quart sharp vinegar, applied with a woollen cloth. LeffeVs Neios. 

Speed ai^d Pitch of Bolt, — An experienced miller writes on this 
subject as follows : 

Many years of practical experience in custom milling and in grinding 
all kinds of wheat, hard and soft, wet and dry, has convinced me that 
the best speed to give a bolt cloth to accomplish the mo&t and best work, 
is 200 feet per minute. The reel should have J to g- inch pitch per foot 
and should be kept as full as its capacity requires. Reels when working 
on hard wheat should have more pitch than when working on soft wheat. 
More millers get into trouble with their bolts by running them too fast 
than by any other cause. The faster you run the cloth after you get up 
to 200 feet jier minute, the less it will bolt and you can give it speed 
enough to carry all the flour, middlings and bran together out of the tail 
end of the reeL LeffeVs News. 




THE HOLMES AND BLANCHARD PORTABLE MILL. 

The abm^e illustration represents an excellent type of a geared Portable 
Grinding Mill manufactured by the well kno\^^l mill furnishing firm of 
Holmes"& Blanchard, Boston, *^Mass. They also manufacture the same 
class of mill, at less cost, with vertical pulley. The stones are made in 
one entire piece from the best French burrs, and are well adapted for 
flouring wheat, grinding corn, grain, feed, plaster, salt, coffee, spices, &c. 
The makers claim that the capacity of their mills, of which they build a 
great variety, can be increased to almost any extent, by an increase of 
power or speed, or they can be worked with light i^ower by diminishing 
the speed and quantity of work. Their mills, now numbermg many huu- 



CALCULATIONS FOR BELTS, &C. 



65: 



dreds of every size and class, are highly spoken of by the purchasers, 
and the writer can bear witness to the utility of one AYliich rendered ex- 
cellent service to a large community on his own premises in New Bruns- 
wick, Canada, until its career of usefulness was terminated by a fire 
which destroyed the mill building with all its contents. 

The followmg Table exhibits the proper speed, power required, perform- 
ance, &c., of the Holmes & Blanchard Portable Mills. 



DIAM- 
ETER 
OF 
STONES 


BEST SPEED 

PER MINUTE. 


BUSHELS CORN 
GROUND PER HOUR. 


H. P. 
re- 
quired. 


SIZE OF . 
PULLEYS, 


Steam 
or wa'r 
power. 


Animal 
Power. 


Fine. 


Coarse. 


Crack- 
ed. 


Dia. 
Inches. 


Face. 
Inches 


42 inches. 


275 




20 


30 


200 


15 


28 


10 


36 " 


300 




15 


22 


150 


10 


24 


10 


33 '* 


325 




12 


18 


150 


8 


20 


« 


30 


325 




10 


16 


150 


6 


20 8 


26 


325 




8 


14 


125 


5 


16 


6 


24 " 


350 


200 


1 « 


12 


100 


4 


16 


6 


20 " 


350 


275 


i 


8 40 


3 


14 


5 


18 •* 


350 


275 


3 


6 


30 


2 


14 


5 


16 


350 


275 


1 2 


4 


30 


I'A 


14 


5 



To FixD THE Length of a Dkiving Belt before the Pulleys 
ARE IN Position. — Add the circumference of the two pulleys, divide the 
product by two, and add the quotient thus obtained to double the distance 
between the centres of the two shafts, which will give the length of belt 
required. For a cross belt, add the circumference of the two pulleys, mul- 
tiply the product by three, and divide by two ; the quotient added to double 
the distance between centres of both shafts will give the length required. 
Horse-power of a belt equals velocity in feet per minute multiplied by 
the width, the sum divided by 1000. 

One inch single belt, moving at 1000 ft. per minute = 1 horse power. 

Double belts about 700 ft. per minute, per one in. in width =1 horse 
power. 

For double belts of great length, over large pulleys, allow about 500 ft. 
per minute per inch of width per horse-power. 

Power should be communicated through the lower running side of a 
belt, the upper side to carry the slack. 

Average breaking weights of a belt, 3-lG x 1 inch wide. Leather, 
350 lbs ; 3 ply rubber, 600 lbs. The strength of a belt increases as its 
width. The co-efficient of safety for a laced belt is leather r= 1-16 break- 
ing weight, rubber = 1-3 do. 

To Determine where to cut Bell holes in Floors. — Measure 
the distance in inches from centre of driving shaft to under side of floor, 
on the upper side make a mark over the centre of shaft. Now measure 
the distance from centre of shaft on machine to be driven to floor, making 
a mark on the floor immediately beneath the centre, then measure the 
distance between the two marks. Transfer these figures to a board or 
paper, draw off the driving and the driven pulleys^ after finding their 
diameters at the distance from each other and the floor line previously 



654 CALCULATIONS FOR BELTS, &C. 

obtained, and draw the lines representing the belt cutting the floor lines 
which will show where the belt passes through the floor. The drawing, 
can be made to a scale to reduce it to convenient dimensions, maintaining 
the proportions. The holes may now be marked off on the floor and cut 
with a certainty of being correct. In making the drawing it is best to do 
it full size on the floor if room can be had, and allowance must be made 
for the thickness of flooring. 

Working value of Puli^eys.— Pulleys covered with leather, iron 
pulleys polished, and mahogany pulleys polished, rank for working 
value as 36, 24, and 25 per cent, respective!}^, wood and iron uncovered be- 
ing almost identical. The smoother a pulley is turned the greater will be 
the power imparted by it, and the better will be the hold of the belt. A 
pulley which is slightly higher in the middle of its width exerts the 
greatest power in retaining the belt from slipping off as well as making 
it last longer by imparting the greatest tension to the middle, or strong- 
est part of the belt, to the manifest relief of the edges or weakest part. To 
obtain the best results from belts it is necessarj^, in lacing or cementing 
the ends, that the latter should be cut exactly square across, and the 
junction should be equally true, otherwise the belt will be strained and 
torn on the tightest side, besides being rendered liable to run off the pul- 
ley at any time. 

Belts connecting pulleys perpendicular to each other should be kept 
tight, and sliould me made of firm, Avell stretched leather, in order to 
work to the best advantage. 

To COMPUTE THE HORS«:-POWER OF A BELT, ITS VELOCITY AND THE 
NUMBER OF SQUARE INCHES IN CONTACT WITH THE SMALLEST PULLEY 

BEING KNOWN. — Divide the number of square inches of belt in contact 
with the pulley by 2, multiply this quotient by the velocity of the belt in 
feet per minute, and this amount divided by 36,000 and the quotient will 
be the number of horse-power. 

To COMPUTE THE WIDTH OF BeLTS REQUIRED FOR TRANSMITTING 

VARIOUS NUMBERS OF HORSE-POWER.— Multiply 36,000 by the number of 
horse-power, divide the product by the number of feet the belt is to run 
per minute, divide the quotient by the number of feet or parts of a foot 
in length of belt contact with the smaller pulley ; divide the last quotient 
by 6, and the result will be the desired width of the belt in inches.* 

To Prevent Accidents from Shafting. — These may be rendered 
impossible by loose sleeves formed of tin or zinc fitted to the" shafting, and 
lined with cloth or leather to prevent noise. 

To Grind Burrs into Face with Water. — Make the face of the 
stone absolutely true, then bosom each stone slightly and grind them in 
water at a low speed. Let the speed be high enough, however, to bring 
the water to the lands.' To grind in face tlie spindle should be slightly 
loose in the bush and the running stone made to oscillate 1-16 of an inch 
or more. This will prevent the burrs from creasing each other, and will 
leave a perfect face. The bosom of the mill should be two brans at the 
eye and one bran at the skirt ; just enough to prevent centre riding. A 
wedge face from eye to skirt, is faulty for the manufacture of pure flour. 
The bran should lie horizontally throughout its passage through the mill. 
The furrows serve as squashing surfaces. Where there are furrows, no 
bosoming is demanded. LeffeVs News. 

To Prevent Burrs Heating. — Dress from centre to circumference, 
leaving no bosom. Draw a line across the centre, each way, dividing a 
four foot burr into 16 squares or divisions, and other sizes, more or less, 

* Note The above estimate is based on the rule of allowing each square 
inch of belting in contact with the pulley to raise half a pound 1 ft. high in 1 
minute and the raising of 36,000 lbs. same height in same time as a horse- 
power. 



INSTRUCTIONS TO MILLERS, &0. 000 

in the same proportion, -with all straight furrows. Let the draft be J the 
diameter of the rock. Lay off the lands and furrows i inch each observ- 
ing to dress smooth. Sink the furrow at the eye 5 inch deep for corn, 
and run out to 1% at the periphery ; for wheat ts at the eye, and J at the 
periphery. When thus furnished, crack the lands in straight lines, square 
with the draft of cross lines, so as to make the lands face in the runner 
and bed direct. 

Simple Alarm for Mill Hoppers. — Take a piece of spring steel 
about 4 in. wide, and bend one end of it so as to form a foot by which to 
screw It to the bottom of the shoe, the balance of the spring passing up 
through and into the hopper, and bent over at its upper end so as to form a 
pendant to which rivet a small bell. As soon as the grain in the hopper 
gets below the bell, it will commence to ring and thus notify the attend- 
ant. LeffeVs News. 

Te]viperature of Oat Meal Kiln. Grinding of Oatmeal . — In 
response to a request from a correspondent, Mr. Gray, an experienced 
miller, says, "There is no given temperature in drying oats ; it is the 
plate you bring to the necessary heat, not the house. Oats are not all 
the same grade, some kinds are thinner in the hull than others. I always 
preferred a cast iron plate in place of tile, as you get more heat. I do not 
think a perforated cylinder will make sweet meal, that is still the great 
want in t)ie country, the meal is stCAved in the drying, and has not a fine 
taste. The good old plan to find out when your kiln floor is ready to re- 
ceive the oats is just to spit on the plate and if it raises the bead you can 
at once load your kiln six inches deej) with the oats. The cold oats will 
cool it down a little when the miller must look to his furnace and keep 
up the same heat he started with — not any hotter. It will soon begin to 
steam, and in about half an hour skim off the oats with the hand down 
to the plate, and he will see whether it is hot or cold; when the oats are 
dry, say two inches on the bottom, that will be perhaps over an hour, 
take the wooden shovel and clean off its breadth around three squares of 
the kiln by throwing them over on the oats. Then turn the oats over to 
the one end (not the sides) neatly turning them on top from the bottom. 
This takes some practice. When done your kiln head will be same as at 
beginning. It will steam again after about an hour ; when the steam is 
off, turn it over again but reverse the end (turn back). Don't let the fur- 
nace get too hot now, keep its temperature down rather. In about an 
hour more the miller will ffnd his oats dry. He must now open his fur- 
nace doors and cool down, let the oats lay on the kiln 20 minutes even 
after they are dry. He will find that this will give them a sweet taste . 
Never dry with seeds as it imparts to the meal a tar taste. I have tried 
a good many kinds of millstones for oat meal, and I find in my long ex- 
perience that four foot porous burrs driven 120 revolutions, with a three 
toed rynd loose on the spindle and resting in 3 dents in the runner, are the 
best. I think the 20 inch vertical burrs will make the oat meal too floury, 
as oat meal don't take so much friction, the stones being kept so high — 
more so than in making flour." LeffeVs Neivs. 

Note.—^'Leffel's Milling and Mechanical News," from which the above 
items are transcribed, is a monthly journal (terms 50 cents per annum), pub- 
lished by James Leifel& Co., manufacturers of the celebrated Leifel Turbine 
Wheel, Springfield, Ohio. The paper is edited with consummate ability, and 
it is safe to say that very many of the items contained in it are singly well 
worth the whole year's subscription tenfold. 

The Indianapolis Mechanical Journal (monthly, 50 cents per annum), J. H. 
Kerrick, publisher. Indianapolis, Ind., is a most useful periodical to every 
one who either operates or wishes to procure machinery, and the Western 
Manufacturer (monthly, $2 per annum), Coyne & Co., publishers (and Patent 
Agents) Chicago, Ills., 'is unexcelled on the subject of statistics and general 
information of interest to manufacturers. 



656 



HARRISON S GRINDING MILL, 




HAURiSON b IMPROVED STANDARD GRINDING MILL. 

The above illustration represents Ji new improved light standard 20 
inch grindin,^ mill as constructed by Edward Harrison, of New Haven, 
Conn. It weighs 600 lbs. and the manufacturer claims for it a grinding 
capacity (with from 6 to 20 horse-power) of from 6 to 40 bushels per hour, 
and that with 1200 revolutions per minute, it has a grinding surface 
equal to J more than a common 48 inch run with 175 turns per minute. 
He claims that the high speed adds a large grinding surface to the burrs, 
that the grain is exploded into meal, bran, &c., as soon as it touches the 
burrs, that the vertical position of the stones permits easy delivery of the 
meal and cool grinding, and that there is not only no possibility of the 
runner following up the bed face and grinding itself out of true, but that, 
on the contrary, the runners are self-facing (the bed being stationery, the 
runner rigid, no pivot, bale and driver being used) and grind themselves 
so true that with but little additional labor they will run to within the 
thousandth part of an inch without touching. 

The mill in its complete form, combining grinder, scourer, and bolter, 
(the last two are shown in the next cut) ik a decided novelty, and when 
contrasted with other mills, presents many startling points of diiierence. 
Briefly described, the bolter, or mill-case is a cylinder about 10 it. long 
by 3 ft. in diam., made of staves and held together by a band and iron 
heads, into one of which the grinder is fitted, Avhicli is merely a 20 hich 
pair of burrs, set vertically, with the runner turning on the" inside, its 
spindle passing horizontally through the bed stone in a journal about 10 
in^^. in length. The scourer jind bolter is connected to the grinder bv in- 
gen!<Mis machinery. On the top of the case a ventilator runs the entire 
lengtii, having an opening of about 20 superficial square feet, which is 



HORSE POWER OF STREAMS. 



657 



consfructed for cooling the "bolter quickly, the opening being covered Avith 
a fibrous cloth material which permits the air to escape freely, causing a 
low and even temperature, while detaining the fine flour dust. A dis- 
charge spout runs the whole length of the case. The silk bolter occupies 
nearly the entire space in the cylinder, and is fully protected from hot 




substances passing into it from the grinder by a wire screen. The mid- 
dlings cloth is attached to the finer silk, on the reel, continuously, and 
around it the middlings chamber is formed the full circumference of the 
reel-head, through which passages connect to the delivery spout, in the 
middle of the cylinder head at the tail of the mill, while sweeps are at- 
tached to the reel of the bolter for scraping the flour up to the discharge 
opening. 

Horse Power of Streams. — Taking Watt's estimate that the average 
power of a horse is sufficient to raise 33,000 lbs. 1 foot in vertical height 
per minute (by means of compound pulleys) a waterfall has one horse 
power for every 33,000 lbs. of water flowing in the stream per minute, for 
each foot of fall. To compute the power of a stream, therefore, multi- 



658 HORSE POWER OF STREAMS. 

ply the area of its cross section in feet by the velocity in feet per minute, 
and we have the number of cubic feet flowing along the stream per min- 
ute. Multiply this by 62j, the number of pounds in a cubic foot of 
water, and this by the vertical fall in feet, and we have the foot-pounds 
per minute of the fall ; dividing by 33,000 gives us the horse-power. 

For example : a stream flows tlirough a flume 10 feet wide, and the 
depth of the water is 4 feet ; the area of the cross section will be 40 feet. 
The velocity is 150 feet per minute — 40 x 150 = 6000 = the cubic feet of 
water flowing per minute. 6000 x 62i = 375,000 = the pounds of water 
flowing per minute. The fall is 10 leet ; 10 x 375,000 = 3,750,000 = 
the foot pounds of the waterfall. Divide 3,750,000 by 33,000 and we have 
11333 as the horse-power of the fall. 

Rule.— Divide the continued product of the width, the depth, the 
velocity of the water per minute, the height of the fall, and the weight of 
a cubic foot of water (02Ubs.) by 33,000. 

Example.— The flume of a mill is 10 feet wide, the water is 3 ioet 
deep, the velocity is 100 feet per minute, and the fall 11 feet. What is 
the horse-power of the fall ? 

Operation.— (10 x 3 x 100 x 11 X 62i) -^ 33,000 = 62-J horse-power. 

*' Almost every man has about him in his daily walk sufficient appara- 
tus for a tolerably accurate estimate of the quantity of water flowing in 
any stream. A walking stick, a jack-knife, and a watch, provided the 
walking-stick is just three feet long, are all the tools necessary for the 
purpose. 

" Take a section of the stream as uniform in breadth and depth as pos- 
sible, and measure off upon its bank some definite length, say from ojie 
to four hundred feet, according to the rapidity of the water ; 'set a stake 
close to the water at each end of this section, then throw into the water, 
opposite the upper stake, a green twig or limb of a tree or other object of 
such specific gravity as to nearly but not quite sink, and of such size that one 
portion shall remain at the surface while another portion nearly touches 
bottom, the object being to get the average speed of the water. The re- 
sistance caused by the bed and banks of the stream necessitate some 
care in this part of the experiment. 




" Note accurately the time the object is passing from stake to stale, 
and repeat the operation several times and at as many points towards the 
opposite shore ; the sum of the several times divided by the number of 
points at which the speed was taken, gives the average speed of the 
water. 

" Now measure the depth at several equidistant points across the 
stream, as a, b, c, d, e, f, (the diagram showing a cross section of the 
stream). The sum of these depths divided by the number of points at 
which the depth was measured gives the average depth ; this average 
depth multiplied by the breadth of the stream gives the area of the cross 
section ; this area, multiplied by the length of the section, gives the cubic 
contents of the body of water embraced in the section. Thus we have 
the quantity and its velocity, which are elements necessary to show the 
value of a stream for manufacturing purposes, provided it has sufficient 
fall anywhere to render it available. 

" Allowing 62 pounds for each cubic foot of Avater, a supply of 1,000 



PERFORMANCE &C. OF A HORSE, 



G59 



cubic feet per minute, and a fall of 10 feet, we have 1,000 x 62 = 62,000 
pounds ; 62,000 X 10 = 620,000 pounds momentum, which last divided by 
33, 000=18. 7-horse power, one-filth of which being deducted for friction 
and loss, would leave in this case about 15-horse power." The Millstone. 

Water-wheels lose from 10 to 50 per cent, of the power, and the actual 
power of the steam engine is less than that indicated by the horse-power, 
owing to a loss by friction, the amount of which depends on the i^erfec- 
tion of the machinery, arrangement, &;c. For horse-power of steam-en- 
gines, consult page 370. 

Performance, &c., of a Horse — A horse will travel 400 yds. in 4J 
minutes at a icalk, 400 yds. in 2 minutes at a irot^ and 400 yds. in i minute, 
at a gallop. The usual work of a horse is taken at 22,500 lbs. raised 1 
foot per minute, for 8 hours per day. A horse will carnj 250 lbs. 25 miles 
per day of 8 hours. An average draught-horse will draw 1,600 lbs. 23 
miles per day on a level road, weight of wagon included. Tlie average 
weight of a horse is 1,000 lbs. ; his strength is equal to that of 5 men. In 
a horse mill moving at 3 feet per second, track 25 feet diameter, he exerts 
with the machine the power of 4J horses. The greatest amount a horse 
can pull in a horizontal line is 900 lbs. ; but he can only do this momen- 
tarily, in continued exertion, probably half of this is the' limit. He attains 
his growth in 5 years, will live 25, average, 16 years. A horse will live 
25 days on water, without solid food, 17 days without eating or drinking, 
but only 5 days on solid food, without drinking. 

Table exhibiting the Performanc:e: of a Horse at different 

RATES of speed ON RAILROADS, CANALS, TURNPDiES, &C., DRAWING 

Force 83J lbs. 







Useful effect for 1 day in tons, drawn 1 mile* 




Duration of 
day's work 






Speed per hour. 


On canal- 


On a railroad- 


On a turn- 


Miles. 


—hours. 


tons. 


tons. 


pike—tons. 


21/2 


H^ 


520 


115 


14 


3 


8 


243 


92 


12 


SVa 


6 


154 


82 


10 


4 


4^ 


102 


72 


9 


5 


2T"a 


52 


57 


7.3 


6 


2 


30 


48 


6 


7 


J51 


19 


41 


5 


8 


12.8 


36 


4.5 


9 


A 


9. 


32 


4. 


10 


% 


G.5 


28.8 


3.6 



Gain in Fuel and Initial Pressure of Steam Required when 
Acting Expansively, Compared with Non-Expansion or 
Full Stroke. 



Point 
of • 
Cutting 
Off. 



Stroke. 



Gain 

in 
Fuel. 



Per cent. 
11.7 
22.4 
32. 
41. 



Initial PuEssunE 
Required. 



Cutting 
Off. 



Stroke. 
1.01 
1.03 
1.09 
1.18 



Full 
Stroke. 



Stroke. 
1. ' 
1. 
1. 
1. 



Point 

of 

Cutting 

Off. 



Stroke. 



Gain 


Initial Pressuee 
Required. 


in 
Fuel. 


Cutting 
Off. 


Full 
Stroke. 


Per cent. 
49.6 
58.2 
67.6 


Stroke. 
1.32 
1.67 
2.6 


Stroke. 

1. 
1. 
1. 



660 



C03IPOUND MARINE ENGINE. 




IMPROVED COMPOUND SURFACE CONDENSING MARINE ENGINE. 

Extraordinary Duty of Steam Machinery. — Two Locomotives 
belonging to the Pennsylvania R, R. Co., are credited with the following 
performances : — 

Engine No. 55 ran two years, ten months, and twenty-five days, and 
made 161,476 miles, without once being off her wheels, or receiving other 
repairs than such as are common to round-house work. The cost of run- 
ning her during this period was $1.88 per mile. The other engine, No. 
422, ran three years, six months and nineteen days, and made 153,280 
miles, at a cost of $2.44 per mile without undergoing the slightest 
repairs. 



COMPOUND MARINE ENGINE. 



GGl 



To FIND THE Quantity of Water necessary for a Stea^i r.oiL- 
EK.— Ascertain the number of lbs. of coal consumed per hour, divide it 
by 7*5, and the quotient will be the desired quantity of water in cubic ft. 
pe'- hour. A cubic ft. of water weighs 62*5 lbs. See page 629. 




The above sketch represents an outline of the least-complicated and 
lowest-priced form of compound-engine, as at present constructed on tlie 
Clyde, in Scotland, and on the Delaware, in the United States. The 
cranks Y, Z, are coupled at an angle of 90° ; only two cylinders, A and 
B, are used ; a uniform distribution of steam pressure is secured by a 
large allowance of steam pipe, and by the steam reservoir, 0, P, between 
the two cylinders. The valves, ?/, ?/, are adjusted like those of an ordi- 
nary engine, the essential difference being that the steam exhausted by 
the first cylinder, A, is used over again in the second and largest one, B, 
the combination effecting a steam expansion of about six times, the pres- 
sure in the boiler usually ranging between 60 and 75 lbs. per square inch. 

In the City of Pekmg, a 5,000 ton vessel, built on the Delaware for the 
Pacific Mail Company, there are two pairs of compound engines, with 



662 



CONSUMPTION OF COAL, &C. 



cylinders of 51 and 88 ins. diam. The crank shafts are 18 ins. diam. 
Boiler pressure is 60 lbs. Steam is expanded 9 times . The boilers are 
10 (cylindrical inform, with cylindrical flues), lOJ ft. long, 13 ft. diam. ; 
shells, 13-16 in. thick, with 520 ft. of grate surface, 16,500 sq. ft. of heat- 
ing surface, and 1,600 sq. ft. of superheating surface, with smoke stacks, 
S^^ft. diam., and 70 ft. high. 

"Tlie simplest form of superheater used on board steamers consists of a 
wrought-iron drum filled with tubes. They are placed usually in the 
up-takes, or at the base of the funnel of a marine boiler, so disposed 
that the waste heat and flame from the furnaces will pass through 
the tubes and around the shell of the drum, the steam being inside. 
Connection is made witli the boiler and steam pipes of the engine, and 
fitted with stop valves to govern the admission of steam according to 
require Qients. A safety valve and gauge glass is also fitted, to show 
whether the superheater is clear of water, as priming is liable to fill it 
up. It has been shown that this contrivance often effects a saving of 20 
to 25 per cent, in the fuel consumed. 

Table for finding the Consumption of CoAii per Hour in Steamers^ 
either Paddle or Screio {the same Screio being used throughout), at any 
Bate of Speed, the Consumption for a particular Rate being Jcnoicn. 
{At a given Amount of Coal, the Engineer may determine the most pru- 
dent Rate of Engine for reaching next coaling Port.) 



Speed. 


Consumption 
of Coal. 


Speed. 


Consumption, 
of Coal. 


3 


.216 


9 


5.83 


3i 


.343 


9h 


6.86 


4 


.512 


10 


8,00 


H 


.729 


10>, 


9.26 


5 


1.000 


11 


10 65 


^\ 


1 331 


m 


12.15 


6 


1.728 


12 


13.82 


a 


2.197 


121 


35.61 


7 


2.744 


13 


17.58 


n 


3.375 


13i 


19.68 


8 


4.096 


14 


21.95 


8i 


4.910 







Explanation. 



The speed for the consump- 
tion of an unit of coal is sup- 
posed here to be 5, which may be 
5 miles or knots, or 5 times any 
number of miles or knots ; then 
if 5 of such number of miles re- 
quire 1 unit of coal per hour, 9 
of such units will, by the table, 
require 5.83 units of coal, and 3 
of them .216 units of coal. 



It will be evident that this table is calculated on the principle that the 
horse power varies very nearly as the cube of the speed ; the enormous 
increase of consumption at increased velocities is in fact a little greater 
than that shown by the Table. 

The advantages indicated above to be obtained at low velocities are 
evidently independent of those obtained at those velocities by using the 
steam expansively. Engineer's and Contractor' s Pocket Book- 

To Preserve Boiler Tubes. — A coating of red-lead and boiled linseed 
oil, applied to iron boiler tubes acts as a powerful preservative. 

A lacquer of linseed oil and caoutchouc applied to the walls of a steam 
boiler prevents the adhesion of sediment so that the scale admits of easy 
removal. 

To Protect Polished Steel or Iron from Rust.— Go over the sur- 
face with paraffine, or steep the iron for a few minutes in a solution of 
sulphate of copper and then transfer it into a solution of hyposulphite of 
soda acidulated with hydrochloric acid. The result is a blue-black coat- 
ing not affected by air or water. 



CONSUMPTION OF FUEL, &C. GG3 

Breaking and crushing strains of Iron and Steel. Average 
calculations. 

Breaking strain of wrought iron = 23 tons per sq. inch of section. 

Crushing do, do. =17 '' do. do. 

Breaking strain of cast iron = 7^ " do. do. 

Crushing do. do. =50 " do. do. 

Breaking strain of steel bars =50 *' do. do. 

Crushing do. do. z= 166 " do. do. 

Memoranda OF Teiviperatures for Engineers, &c. — Melting ice 
is 32° ; boiling water at atmospheric pressure or exposed to air 212° ; 
steam at 60 lbs. pressure by steam guage 307° ; usual heat of superheated 
steam 380° to 400° ; smoke in the funnel 600° ; water in hot Avell from 
100° to 120°. For raising steam, the horizontal surfaces over the fire, 
have double the value of vertical surfaces for economy of heat. Boiler 
plates increase in strength up to 570° of heat, and get weaker with the 
increase of temperature. 

Temperatures at sundry subterranean depths, in deg. Fahr. 
At 68 ft. 47,9 At 621 ft. 50.7 At 1290 ft. 58.3 At 1662 ft. 61.2 
'' 299 *' 48.8 " 939 " 57.8 " 1414 " 59.4 " 1900 '' 61.4 

Fresh water begins to freeze at 32°, called the freezing point, but salt 
water not till 28|o. The atoms lose the motion called heat, and become 
fixed in crystals. 

Consumption of Fuel in Marine Boilers. — Tliis will average 
about 15J lbs. of coal per square foot per hour. In 4 furnaces 3 ft. wide 
by 6 ft. long Avith 72 sq. ft. of surface, about 12 tons of coal Avill be burnt 
per day. 

feet. lbs. 
72 X 15i 

Thus, =9.9 cwts. per hour, say 10 cwts. per hour or 12 tons per 

112 
day. A much simpler and equally correct rule is, that one foot in width 
of fire bar equals 1 ton of coal per day ; so that in the examjple above the 
total width of four furnaces is 3ft. x ~= 12 ft, wide, or 12 tons per day as 
before. 

A ship having 40 ft. beam and ordinary condensn)g engines, will re- 
quire 40 tons of coal per day to drive her at 10 knots. The reason for 
stating this is, that it is wellknown from ordinary experience of average 
steamers that the beam squared equals the consumption of fuel for 40, 50, 
or 60 days, according to whether the engines are ordmary jet, surface 
condensing, or compound. Thus, in present example : — 

days 

4/0)160/0 5/0)160/0 6/0)160/0 



40 tons for one day 32 tons for 26 tons 8 cwt. 

for ordinary con- surface for compound 

densing. condensing. engines. ^ 

A pair of surface condensing engines (not comi^ound) having 40 inch 
cylinders, doing average Avork, wiU require 16 tons of coal per day ; it be- 
ing a well known ]3ractical fact that the diameter of one cylinder, squared 
and divided by 100, gives the average consumption of fuel in this class of 
engine per day. Thus, in iDresent example : — 

42- = 40 X 40 = 1000 ; then, := 16 tons per day. 

Compound engines burn i less, and ordinary jet i more than the above. 
Jieed*s Engineefs Hand Book, 



664 



RULES FOR ENGINEERS, &C. 



Ratio of Combustion per hour under various Boilers.— Cor- 
nish, = 3J lbs. per square foot ; land boilers = 10 to 20 lbs. (English) 13 
to 14 lbs."; marine boilers (natural draught), 10 to 18 lbs. ; (blast), SO to 
60 lbs. ; locomotive boilers, 80 to 120 lbs. 

To FIND Horse Power of Engine to raise Water to a givfn 
Height. — Weight of column of water X by its velocity, in feet, per min- 
ute, product -f- 33,000 = H. P. 

To FIND THE Velocity required to Discharge a given volume 
OF Water in any Given Time.— Number of cubic feet X 144 ; pro- 
duct -r by area of pipe, or opening in inches = Velocity. 

To Ascertain the Breadth of the Ports.— Half the throw of the 
valve should be at least equal to*the lap on the steam side added to the 
breadth of the port. If this breadth does not give the required area of 
port, increase the throw of valve until the area is attained. 

Proper Lift of Poppet Valves. — The best results from poppet or 
conical valves are obtained by giving them a lift equivaleilt to one half 
the semi-diameter of a circle, or J the diameter of the valve. This will 
afford an opening equivalent to the area of the port and the eccentrics and 
the lifting toes Should be adjusted so as to produce this effect. 

To find Dimensions of Chimney for a Land Engine. — Multiply 
number of lbs. of coal consumed under the boiler per iiour by 12 ; divide the 
product by square root of the height of chimney in feet. Q'uotient is area 
of chimney at smallest point in square inches. 



Table Showing Diameter and Height of Chimney for any Boiler. 



Horse-powei 
of Boiler. 



10 
12 
16 
20 
30 
50 
60 



Alt. of Chimney 
in Feet. 



60 

75 

90 

99 

105 

120 

120 



Interior Diameter 


H. P. of 


at Top 


Boiler. 


14 inches. 


70 


14 " 


90 


16 " 


120 


17 " 


160 


21 '* 


200 


26 " 


250 


27 ** 


380 



Alt. of Chimney Interior Diameter 
in Feet. at Top. 



120 
120 
135 
' 150 
165 
180 
195 



SO inclies. 

31 ** 

38 *• 

'13 ** 

47 " 

52 " 

57 *' 



To Clean Greasy Cotton Waste. — Boil it in a strong solution of 
common soda in water, and save the resultant soapy liquid to keej:) your 
drills and reamers lubricated when drilling iron. 

To Clean Grease from Bolts. — Moisten with benzine, roll in saw- 
dust, and brush afterward. 

Calculations regarding Dimensions, Power, &c., of Steam 
Boilers . — Good authorities consider it quite a safe practice to allow 
9 square ft. heating surface for Cylinder boilers per H. P. 
-I2 " " " " " flue ** *' *' 
15 " " •' " " tubular 

One half the circumference of the boiler multiplied into the length and 
reduced to square feet will give the heating surface in cylinder boilers ; 
or, the lieating surface in the shell of flue and tubular boilers. To find 
the heating surface in the tubes or flues, multiply their external circum- 
ference by their length and reduce to square feet. The heating surface 
of the tubes or flues added together and then adding the heating surface 
in the shell, will give the total heating surface. This divided by 12 or 15 
as the case may be will give the horse power of any i^articular boiler in 
terms of heating surface as given above. This is to be understood as 
being i)urely conventional and arbitrary, and not the actual horse power, 
which can only be determined by an experimental test, made by a com- 
petent expert. 



HEATING SURFACE, &C., OF BOILERS. 665 

The following Tables will serve as a guide in the selection of boilers, 
and may be quite serviceable to millwrights and others. 

Table I.— H. P. of Cylinder Boiler at 9 feet. 





H. P. 


Diam. Length, 


Heating Surface 




10 




36: 


in. 19 ft. 


90 


sq. ft. 




12 




38 


22 


103 






15 




40 


26 


135 






18 




44 


28 


162 






20 




46 


30 


180 




Table II.- 


-H. P. 


OF 


2 Flue Boilers at 12 feet. 


H. P. 


Diam. : 


Boiler. 


Diam. Flues. 


Length. 


Heat. Surf. 


15 




34 in. 




10 in. 


18 ft. 


176 sq. ft 


18 




3G 




12 


20 


222 


20 




40 




14 


20 


254 


22 




44 




16 


18 


260 


25 




46 




17 


20 


302 


Table III.- 


-II. P. 


OF 


5 Flue Boilers at 12 


FEET. 


H. P. 


Diam. Boiler. 




Diam. Flues. 


Length. 


Heat Surf. 


20 


4i 


in. 




(2-10 ill. 
\ 3— 8 
( 1—13 


14 ft. 


245 sq. ft. 


25 


40 






^2— 9 
(2— 8 
i 1— 14 


16 




30 


50 






^2—10 
(1-8 


18 


356 



Table IV. — H. P. of Boilers with 6-inch lap welded Tubes at 

12 FEET. 

H. P. Diam. Length. No of Flues. Heat Surf. 

15 42 in. 12 ft. 6 179 ft. 

20 42 16 6 239 

25 44 18 ' 7 302 

30 46 18 9 363 

36 46 20 10 434 

42 48 20 12 503 

Table V.— H. P. of Boilers with 3-inch tubes at 15 feet. 

H. P. Diam. Length. No of Tubes. Heat Surf. 

15 36 ill. 8 ft. SO 227 ft. 

19 36 10 30 283 

22 36 12 30 339 

27 40 12 36 402 

31 44 12 42 465 

36 44 14 42 543 

42 48 14 50 638 

xu regard to the diameter and length of a boiler, it might be observed 
that cylinder boilers are usually made from 18 to 30 feet in length, and 
from 30 to 48 inches in diameter. Flue boilers from 18 to 24' feet in 
length, and from 36 to 60 inches in diameter. Tubular from 8 to 18 feet 
in lenfith, and from 30 inches to 5 feet in diameter. 



66G 



ON BOILERS, POWER OF EXPLOSIVES. 



Boilers havinf^ lap-welded tubes increase in extra cost when their 
lengths exceed 18 feet. These tubes would have to be made to order, 
which, in case of repairs, might cause considerable loss of time in having 
to wait for them to be made. It is better to keep the diameters of boilers 
below 4 feet than go over it, using two or more boilers as may be needed 
to furnish the requisite amount of steam. 

In large and important works the subjects of boilers, engines, etc., 
ought to be referred to a competent mechanical engineer, who will ad- 
vise as to the kind, size, and number to be employed. Tlie Mill Stone. 

To find the contents of cylinder boilers multiply the area of the head 
in inches by the length in inches and divide the product by '1728 ; the 
quotient will be the number of cubic feet of water the boiler will con- 
tain. Example : Diameter of head, 36 inches ; area of head, 1017.87 
inches ; length of boiler, 20 feet or 240 inches. Now multiply 1017.87 by 
240 and the product will be 244,283.80 ; divide this by .1728 and the re- 
sult will be 141.37 cubic feet, which will be the contents of the shell. 

In flue boilers, multiply area of the head in inches by the length of the 
shell in inches ; multiply the combined area of the ilues in inches by 
their length in inches, subtract this product from the first and divide the 
remainder by '1728 ; the quotient will be the number of cubic feet of 
water the boiler will contain. 

To FIND THE Length of Belting when closely Rolled. — The sum 
of the diameters of the roll and the eye in inches, multiplied by the num- 
ber of turns made by the belt, and this product multiplied by the decimal 
.1309, will be the length of the belt in feet. Axichincliloss. 

To Measure Scantlings, Joists, Plank, Sills, &c.—i?«7e.— Multi- 
ply the width, the thickness and the length together (the width and thick- 
ness in inches and the length in feet), and divide the product by 12 ; the 
result will be the square feet. To Measure Boards — Multiply the length 
(in feet) by the width (in inches) and divide the product by 12 ; the re- 
sult will be the number of square feet it contains. 
Explosive fokce of various substances used for fire arms, 
artillery, blasting, &c. 



Blasting Powder 

Artillery " 

Sporting " 

Powder, Nitrate of Soda for its base 

Powder, Chlorate of Potash for its base . . 

Gun Cotton 

Picric Acid 

Picrate Potash 

Gun Cotton mixed with Chi. Potash 

Picric Acid " '' ♦* 

Picrate " «' <*' 

Mtro-Glycerin 



Heat. 



509 

608 

641 

764 

972 

590 

687 

578 

1420 

1424 

1422 

1320 



Volume 


of Gas. 


0.173 liter. 


0.225 




0.216 




0.248 




0.318 




0.801 




0.780 




0.585 




0.484 




0.408 




0.337 




0.710 





Estimated 

Explosive 

lorce. 



88 
137 
139 
190 
309 
472 
536 
680 
680 
582 
478 
939 



The above instructive table is by the celebrated M. Berthelot, who 
further describes nitro-glycerin as " really the ideal of portable force. 
It burns completely Avithout residue ; in fact, gives an excess of oxygen ; 
it developes twice as much heat as powder, three and a half times more 
gas, and has seven times the explosive force, weight for weight, and, 
taken volume for volume, it possesses twelve times more energy." From 
the extreme danger of the work, none but a competent chemist should 
fittemnt to manufacture it. 



GOLD MINING, SPEED OF BODIES. 



667 



Many other explosives derive their energy from nitro-glycerin. Dy- 
namite is nitro-glycerine compounded with rotten-stone, or silicious, or 
infusorial earth, tripoli, &c. ; a compound of nitro-glycerin and saw-du.^t 
has been sold under the name of dualin ; a mixture of jjlaster of Paris 
and nitro-glycerin has been sold under the name of " selenitic powder;" 
and fine powder, blended with nitro-glycerin, has been vended under the 
name of "lithofracteur," or " rendrock." The practical miner will be 
interested in the above, as well as in the following : — 
Table showing the quantity of gold to the ton of ore, cor- 
responding TO the weights in grains obtained from 400 
grains of mineral. 



If 400 grains O- 

Ore give 

Fine Gold, 



Grains. 

.001 

.002 

.003 

.004 

.005 

.006 

.OOT 

.008 

.009 

.010 

.020 , 

.030 

.040 

.050 

.0«0........ 

.070........ 

.080 

.090 

.100 



One ton of 

Ore 
.will yield, 



Ozs. 












1 

2 
3 
4 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 



Dwts. 

1 

3 

4 

6 

8 

9 
11 
13 
14 
16 
12 

9 

5 

1 
18 
14 
10 

7 

3 



Grs. 

15 
6 

21 

12 
4 

19 

10 
1 

16 
8 

16 

8 

16 

8 

16 

8 



If 400 Grains of 

Ore give 

Fine Gold, 



Grains 

.200 

.300 

.400...-. 

.500 

.600 

.700 

.800 

.900 

1.000 

2.000 .... 
3.000. ... 

4.000 

5.000 

6.000 

7.000 .... 

8.000 

9.000 

10.000 

20.000 



One ton of 

Ore 

will yield, 



Ozs. 

16 

24 

32 

40 

49 

57 

65 

73 

81 

163 

245 

326 

408 

490 

670 

653 

735 

816 

1633 



Dwts. 

6 
10 
13 
16 



3 

6 

30 
13 
16 


13 

6 


13 

6 


13 

6 



Grs. 

10 

8 

10 

8 

16 

8 

16 

8 

16 

8 

16 

8 

16 



Mr. Black, of San Francisco, estimates that in mining operations the 
average cost of handling a cubic yard of auriferous gravel with the pan 
is $20 ; with the rocker, $5 ; with the long tom, $1 ; and with the hy- 
draulic process, 20c. See other items for miners on page 451. An ex- 
cellent compilation on this subject is ''The Miner's Hand-Book/' by 
Julius Silvermith, for sale by D. Van Nostrand, New York. 

Table showing the Average Velocities of Various Bodies ., 

;Per hour. Per sec- 

A man walks 3 miles, or 4 feet- 

Ahorsetrots 7 " or 10 '' 

Ahorseruiis 20 " or 29 *' 

Steamboat runs 18 '' or 26 " 

Sailing vessel runs 10 " or 14 '* 

Slow rivers flow 3 " or 4 " 

Rapid rivers flow 7 *' or 10 " 

A moderate wind blows 7 " or 10 " 

Astormmoves 36 " or 52 " 

A hurricane moves 80 " or 117 " 

Arifleball " 1000 *' or 1466 •* 

Sound <* 743 " or 1142 <* 

Light <* 192000 miles per sec. 

Electricity " 288000 '•' '' " 

Parker'fi Philosophy. 



668 



ON SUGAR MILLS, &C. 



Enormous Results of SteamPower.— The aggregate steam-power 
in use in the world is at present three and one-half millions horse-power 
employed in stationary engines, and ten millions horse-power in locomo- 
tive engines. This force is maintained without the consumption of 
animal food, except by the miners who dig the coals, and the force main- 
tained in their muscles is to the force generated by the product of their 
labor about 1 to 1,080. This steam-power is equal to the working force 
of 25 millions of horses, and one liorse consames three times as much 
food as one man. The steam-power, therefore, is equivalent to the sav- 
ing of food for 75 millions of human beings. Further, three power-looms 
attended by one man, produce 78 pieces of cotton fabric, against 4 pieces 
produced by one hand-loom, worked by one man in the year 1800. A 
carpenter's planing machine does the work of twenty men. 




SUGAR MILL. 

Sugar Mill. — The sugar canes are crushed in a press consisting of 
three hollow cast iron rollers, represented in the cut by a b c, placed 
horizontally in a cast iron frame. By means of the screws, i, i, the ap- 
proximate distance of the rollers is adjusted. One roller is half as large as 
the others, and is moved by three cogged wheels fitted on to the axis of the 
rollers. The sugar canes are transferred from the slate gutter, d, d, to the 
rollers, a, c, which press them a little, and from tlience they are carried 
to the arched plate, n, to the rollers c, b. The pressed sugar canes fall 
over the gutter/, the expressed juice collecting in g, g, and running off 
through h. The middle roller is termed the king roller ; the side cylin- 
ders are individually the side roller and macasse. 

Sugar Mill. — Fo7* Expressing 20,000 lbs of Cane Juice per day. 
Non-condensing Engine. Cylinder 15 ins. in diameter by 4 ft. stroke. 
Pressure, 50 lbs. per sq . in., cut off at J the stroke of the piston. Revolu- 
tions. 36 per minute. Boiler. One of 62 ins. diam. by 30 ft. in length, 
with 2 18-in. return flues. Grates. 36 Square ft. Rolls, Two sets of three 
each, of 24 ins. diam. by 5 ft. in length ; geared 2\ to 36 of engine, giving 
a speed of periphery of 15 J ft. per minute. Fly- Wheel. 18 ft. diam. ; 
weight 5 tons. 

This arrangement of a second set of rolls is a late improvement ; its 
object, that of expressing the cane a second time. An increase of r:0 per 
cent, is effected bv it. 



RULES FOR MACHINISTS, &C. 



GG9 



For a Crop of 3000 Boxes of Sugar of 500 lbs. each. — Cylinder. 
10 ius. in diam. by 4 ft. stroke. Pressure^ 60 lbs. per square in. Revo- 
lutions 48, driving 1 set of rolls, 24 ins by 4 ft., at a speed of periphery of 
36 ft. per minute. Boiler. 52 ins. by 24 ft., with 2 16-in return flues. 
Grate Surface. 25 square ft. Fly Wheel. 16 ft. diam. ; weight. 4 tons. 
Engineers* and Contractors* Pocket Book. 

Cotton Press. Non-condensing Engine. For 1000 Bales in 12 hours. 
Cylinder 14 in. in diam. by 4 ft. stroke. Pressure. 40 lbs. per sq. . at full 
stroke. Revolutions. 60 per minute. Boilers- Three, plain cylindical, 
without flues, 30 in. in diam. by 26 ft. in length. Grates. 32 square ft. 
Presses. Four, geared 6 to one, Avitli 2 screws each of TJ in. diam., by 1§ 
In. pitch. Shaft ( Wrought Iron). Journal, 8J in. Fly-ioheel. 16 ft. 
diameter, weight, 4 tons. 

Rules to Ascertain the Pressure ov Slide Valves. — Multiply 
the unbalanced area of the valve in inches by the pressure of steam in 
lbs. per square inch, and the weight of the valve in lbs., and multiply the 
sum by 15 

To GET AN Engine into Line and Square the Shaft. — Set up 
two lines, one parallel to the axis of the eylmder, or through the cylindel-, 
if possible, and the other perpendicular to the first, in the same plane. 
These are reference lines to measure from, to brmg the shaft and guide 
into line. 

Hint to Machinists. — In turning steel or otlier hard metal, use a drip 
composed of petroleum 2 parts, andturpentine 1 part. This will ensure 
easy cutting and perfect tools when otherwise the work would stop owmg 
to the breakage of tools from the severe strain. 

To Melt Brass Turnings and Filings avith Little Waste. — 
Compress firmly in a crucible until it is full ; then cover, and lute the 
top with pipe or fire-clay. Brass scraps may be melted with new brass, 
putting it in with the zinc after the copper is melted. 

To Temper Anvils.— Heat the anvil and immerse it in a tank of 
cold water to a depth of two or three inches, or play a stream of cold 
water from a liose on its face. 

PROPER SIZE, SPEED, &C., OF EMERY WHEELS. 



Diam. of Wheel 
in inches. 


Eev. per 
miuutc. 


Number of 
Emery. 


Grade 
of Cut. 


2 


5600 


8 to 10 


Wood Rasp. 
Kasp File. 
Rough File. 
Bastard File 


4 


3000 


16 to 20 . . . 


6 


2000 


24 to 30 


8 


1500 


.S6 to 40 


10 


1200 


... 46 to 60 


Second Cut File. 


12 


1100 


70 to 80 . . 


Smooth File 


34 

16 


900 

750 


... 90 to 100.... 
120 


Superfine File. 
Dead Smooth File. 


18 


TOO 






20 


600 






22 


550 






24 


500 


• 





26 


450 






30 


400 






36 


325.. 















Emery wheels may be trued by means of a diamond tool, a red hot 
iron, or by a file applied to the wet periphery of the wheel. For emery 
cement, see page 424. In using emery paper or cloth for finishing, the 
paper, although the easiest to destroy, imparts the smoothest polish to 
the metal, and the lou.c^er it is used the better it i)olishes. 



670 WEIGHT, DIMENSIONS, ifcC, OF TIN PLATES. 



Number, Weight, Size, Length, and Breath of Tin Plates. 



Brand Mark. 


No. of 
Sheets 
inBox. 


Length and 
Breadth. 


Weight per 
Box. 






Inches.Inches. 


Cwt. qr. lbs. 




1 c 


225 


14 by 10 


10 




1 X 


225 


14 by 10 


110 




1 XX 


225 


14 by 10 


1 1 21 


Each 1 X advances 


1 XXX 


225 


14 by 10 


1 2 14 


j- ^?1.75 to $2.00 


1 xxxx 


225 


14 by 10 


13 7 


1 xxxxx 


225 


14 by 10 


2 


S? »r 6 rJi 


1 xxxxxx 


225 


14 by 10 


2 21 


D C 


100 


17 by 121 
17 by 12| 


3 14 




D X 


100 


1 14 


^ ^'^ § 


D XX 


100 


17 by 12| 
17 by 121 


117 


? S o ^ 

>5 f-. J^ _ 


D XXX 


100 


12 


.■B -"b-S 


D xxxx 


foo 


17 by 12i 


1 2 21 


gl^a 


D xxxxx 


100 


17 by 12j 


1 3 14 


«SS^ . 


D xxxxxx 


100 


17 by 12^ 


2 7 




S D C 


200 


15 by 11 


1 1 27 


o xi ^ 


S D X 


200 


15 by 11 


1 2 20 




S D XX 


200 


15 by 11 


1 3 13 


Ittiol 
ortec 
cost: 
thai 
:egu 


S D XXX 


200 


15 by 11 


2 6 


S D xxxx 


200 


15 by 11 


2 27 


In adc 
are imp 
usually 
portion 
teemed i 


S D xxxxx 


200 


15 by 11 


2 1 20 


S D xxxxxx 


200 


15 by 11 


2 2 13 








about 


TTT Taggers, 


225 


14 by 10 


10 




1 C 


225 


12 by 12 


^ 




1 X 


225 


12 by 12 






1 XX 


225 


12 by 12 






1 XXX 


225 


12 by 12 




About the same weight 


1 xxxx 


225 


12 by 12 










. 


I per Box, as the plates 


1 c 


112 


14 by 20 




above of similar brand, 


1 X 


112 


14 by 20 




14 to 10. 


1 XX 


112 


14 by 20 




' 


1 XXX 


112 


14 by 20 






1 xxxx 


112 


14 by 20 


> 




Leaded or ) 1 C 
Ternes S 1 x 


112 
112 


14 by 20 
14 by 20 


10 
110 


1 For Roofing, 


OIL CANISTERS, {from 2h to 125 


galls.) WITH THE QUANTITY AND 


QUALITY OF TIN REQI 


jiRED FOR CUSTOM WORK. 


Galls. 


Quantity and Quality. 


Galls. 


Quantity and Quality. 


1 


2 Plates, IX in body. 


33 


I3i Plates, IX in body, 3 


2 *' SDX 




breadths hiirh. 


sj 


2 *' DX 


45 


13^ Plates, S D X m body 


8 


4 " IX 


60 


13j *' DX " 


10 


34 '' DX 


90 


15| " DX " * 


15 


4 '' DX 


125 


20 " DX " 



* The bottom tier of plates to be placed lengthwise. 



DIAGRAM FOR BEVEL COVERS, &C. 



671 



Varnishes for Pipes and Iron-Work.— Coal tar, 30 pjals. ; tallow, 
6 lbs. ; rosiii, Ih lbs. ; lamp-black, 3 lbs. ; fresh slaked lime, finely sifted, 
30 lbs. Stir all thoroughly together, and apply hot. Another. — Tar oil, 
20 lbs. ; asphaltnm, 5 lbs. ; powdered rosin, 5 lbs. Heat all together in 
an iron kettle, ver}^ carefully, to prevent ignition. 




To Strike out can tops and Bevel Covers For Vessels.— 
Describe the angle M A C, and from the point F, the altitude height 
you desire the breast, erect a perpendicular line H ; then on the line C, 
mark the point E one-half the diameter of the can, and on the line H 
marlc the j)oint G one-half of the opening in the top of breast ; draw the 
line B to cross through the points E and G to intersect the line M ; place 
one foot of the compasses at the point I and the other on the point E, and 
delineate the circle E N L ; next, span the compasses from point I to 
point G and outline the circle G D K ; then span from A to E, and step 
the compasses six times on the circle E N L, which gives the dimensions 
of the breast. The allowance for the locks is represented by the dotted 
lines. 

Beautiful Bronze, Applicable to all Metals. — Take 10 parts 
aniline red (fuchsine), and 5 of aniline purple, and dissolve in 100 parts of 
95 per cent, alcohol, taking care to help the solution by placing the vessel 
in a sand or water bath. As soon as the solution is effected, 5 parts of 
benzoic acid are added, and the whole is boiled from five to ten minutes 
until the greenish color of the mixture is transformed into a fine light- 
colored, brilliant bronze. Apply with a brush. 

Imitation Nickel Plating. — Coarse rasped granulated zinc is boiled 
for some time in a mixture of 3 parts by weight of pal ammoniac, and 



672 



FRUSTRUMS, ELLIPSES, NAILS, &C 



10 of water, the objects immersed and stirred up with a zinc rod. The 
deposit is silvery bright, and resists mechanical action as well as a coat- 
ing of ]iickel. The process can be recommended for goods which are 
meant for a second coating of some other metal, since any other is easily 
deposited on zinc. 

A 




How TO Strike out the Frustrum of a Con^e.— In the figure E 
G H D represent the desired frustrum ; continue the liwes D E and G H 
until they meet at the apex C ; then from C as a centre, Avith the radius 
C H, lay off the arc H B ; also from C, with the radius C G, describe the 
arc G A ; make G A twice the length of E F G, draAving the line C A, 
and G H A B, is the desired outline of the plate you require. 
to find the area of ax ellipse. 

Rule. — Multiply the longer diameter by the shorter diameter, and by 
'7854, and the product will be the area. 

Example. — Required the area of an ellipse whose longer diameter is G 
inches and shorter diameter 4 inches ? 

64-4+' 7854 = 18-8496, the area. 

To FIND THE SURFACE OF A SPHERE OR GLOBE. — Multiply the diameter 
by the circumference ; or multiply the square of the diameter by 3-1416 ; 
or multiply four times the square of the radius by 3'1416. 

No. OF American Machine made Cut Nails in a Pound as 



VERIFIED BY ACTUAL COUNT. 








Size. | Number. 


Size. | 


Number. 


Size. | 


Number. 


3 penny. 408 


6 penny. . 

8 " :.. 

10 '' ... 


156 

100 

m 


12 penny. 
20 '' ... 
30 " .. 


52 


4 <' 275 


32 


5 " 227 


^n 







Boat. 

No. 4 1-4 in.. 

No. 5 5-16 in. . 

No. 6 3-8 in,. 

No. 7 5-8 in.. 



Spikes. 



13 to 1 lb. ! 


8 


u 


5 


(( 


4 


(( 



No. 
No. 
No. 
No. 
No. 
No. 
No. 



4.. 
5.. 
6.. 

7.. 
8.. 
0. . 



Ship. 
.5-16 in 8 to lib. 



,.3-8 in 6 

.3-8 in 5 

.3-8 in ...31 

.3-8 in 3" 

,.9-16 in 2 

10 9-16 in 11 



Note on Forcings. — Iron, while heating, if exposed to air, Avill 
oxydize ; when at white heat, if in contact with coal, it will carhonize, or 
become steely. Iron should l3e heated as rapidly as possible. 

To Restore Burnt Iron. — Giye a smart heat, protected from the 
air ; if injured by cold hammerinc/, anneal sloAvly and moderately ; if 
hard or steely j give one or more smart heats, to extract the carbon. 



673 

Cost of a Pennsylvania Railroad Passenger Car.— The Lon- 
don Engineering gives iii detail the cost of constructing one first-class 
Standard Passenger Car, at the Altoona shops of the Pennsylvania R.R., 
the total cost being ^4,423.75. The principal items are as follows : — 

Labor ^1263 94 

Proportion of Fuel and Stores 28 61 

2480 feet Poplar 86 80 

3434 feet Ash 127 08 

llOOfeetPine 20 90 

2350 feet Yellow Pine 70 50 

500 feet Oak 10 00 

450 feet Hickory 13 50 

700 feet Michigan Pine 49 00 

400 feet Cherry 16 00 

439 feet Maple vineer 24 14 

4 pairs Wheels and Axles. . . 332 85 



57 Sash Balances 44 61 

61 Lights Glasses 65 83 

2 Stoves 77 56 

25 Sets Seat Fixtures 60 5o 

3 Bronze Lamps 13 50 

2 Bronze Door Locks 15 20 

Butts and Hinges 15 58 

13 Basket Racks 77 35 

12 Sash Levers 42 00 

61 Bronze Window Lifts. ... 24 40 

61 Window Fasteners 16 47 

238Sheets Tin 41 44 



2 pairs Passenger Car Trucks 533 62i273 lbs. Galvanized Iron 25 31 



13 gallons Varnish 52 34 

45 lbs. Glue 14 33 

2925 lbs. Iron 87 75 

792 lbs. Castings 16 99 

Screws 5188 

Gas Regulator and Gauge 25 25 

2 Two-Light Chandeliers.. 50 72 

2 Gas Tanks 84 00 

1 Air-Brake, complete 131 79 



96 yards Scarlet Plush 228 87 

44 yards Green Plush 109 99 

61 yards Sheeting 10 30 

243 lbs. Hair 72 95 

12Springs 22 96 

12 Spiral Elliptic Springs. . . 20 29 

IHeadLining 80 63 

2 packets Gold Leaf 14 58 

Various small items 261 44 



^4,423 75 
Comparative Cost of Freight by Water and Rail. — The Mis- 
sissipi Transportation Co. have proved by actual test that a single Tow- 
boat can transport at one trip from the Ohio to New Orleans, 29,000 
tons of coal loaded in barges. TJiey estimate that in this way the boat 
and its tow, worked by a few men, carries as much freight to its destina- 
tion as 3,000 cars and 100 locomotives, manned by 600 men, could trans- 
port, and they propose to undertake the shipment of wheat, pork, and 
other produce on the same plan . 

A standard locomotive of the New York Central Railroad, 32J tons 
weight, with cylinders 16 inches diameter, 24-inch stroke, 60-inch drivers 
with four drivers and four truck wheels, will haul over the Central Rail- 
road, with its level grades and straight line, 1,000 tons, or say 50 loaded 
cars. The same locomotive would work as follows : 

20-foot grade 460 tons or say 23 loaded cars. 

40-foot grade 290 tons or say 14^^ loaded cars. 

60-foot grade 205 tons or say 10 loaded cars. 

80-foot grade 150 tons or say 8 loaded cars. 

100-foot grade 120 tons or say 6 loaded cars. 

Passenger Cars — 4 feet SJ inches Gauge. — For 60 persons ; Body 
48 ft. ; length over platform, 54"^ ft. ; width, 9 ft. 6 ins. ; height at sides, 7 
ft. 10 ins. ; at dome, 10 ft. 3 ins. ; saloon, 6 ft.x 2 ft. 9 ins. ; passage be- 
tween seats, 1 ft. 10 ins. ; seats 1 ft. 4 ins. wide, 3 ft. 2 ins. long inside, 1 
ft. 4 ins. from floor ; sash lights, 2 ft. X 2 ft. 7 ins. ; doors, 2 ft . 3 in. X 6 ft. 
4 ins.; framing — 2 side sills, 5Jx 9 ; 4 inside do., 4X9 ; end do., 6x9 ; 
transom beams, 9x14 ; pillars," 2X3 ; end do., 5 ins. rad. ; flooring IJ 
ins., double, laid diagonal, crossed at angle of 45° ; 2 truss rods, IJ ins., 
iron ; dome braced by iron knees, 2x§ ins. ; platforms, 2 ft. 6 ins. wide ; 
bumper beam, 7x8 at centre, 4x3J at ends ; weight, empty, 39,000 lbs. ; 
dead weight per passenger, 650 lbs. ; weis^ht, loaded, 46,980 lbs. ; load on 
each wheel, light, 3,250 lbs. ; if loaded, 3,915 lbs. 

Sleeping Coach.— For 64 passengers : Body 61 ft. long, 8 ft. 10 ins, 
wide inside, 7 ft. 10 ins. high at sides, 9 ft. 7 ins. at dome ; carried on 



674 DIMENSIONS OF CARS, &C, ' 

twelve 33-iii. wheels, 16 elliptic springs, 36-iu. centres, 5 leaves, 5-16 Ins., 
1 do., §X34, steel— weight, 93| lbs. each— and 8 rubber springs over 
axles, 8x7 ;"dead weight, without passengers, 26 tons, or 812.5 lbs. per 
passenger ; if loaded, 945.5 lbs. per passenger ; load on each wheel— 
5.012 lbs. Western Palace Cars, on 16 wheels, loaded, weigh, 78,500 lbs., 
or 4,907 lbs. load on each wheel. 
Box Cars. — 27 ft. 5 ius. long, 8 ft. 6 ins. wide, 7 ft. 3 ins. high at sides, 

8 ft. at roof ; doors, 5 ft. X5 ft. 10 ins. ; track to top of car, 10 ft. 10 ins. ; 
timbers— 2 side sills, 4jX8 ; 4 inside do., 3^x8 ; end do.,5x8| ; transoms, 
5x12 ; pillars for doors, 3|x4 ; end do-, 3^x4^ ; plates, 5x3J ; ridge 
beam, 2^X3^; rafters — l|x 3l at sides, ljxl2 at centre ; intermediates If x 
2J ; weight; 17,800 lbs. ; do., loaded, 37,800 lbs.; dead weight for 
each ton carried, if loaded, 1,780 lbs. ; load on each wheel, if light, 2,225 
lbs. ; if loaded to capacity, 4,725 lbs. 

Baggage Cars. — 45 ft. long, 9 ft. 4 ins. wide, 7 ft. 4 ins. at sides, 9 ft. 
at crown of roof ; end doors, 2 ft. 2 ins.x6 ft. 4 in. ; end side doors, 3 ft. 
X6 ft. 2 ius. : centre doors, 3 ft. 10 ins. x 6 ft. 2 ius. ; timbers — 6 longitu- 
dinal sills, 5ix9J ; 4 truss rods, IJ ins., iron ; weight of car, 27, 000 lbs. ; 
capacity, 12 tons"; total weight, if loaded, 51,000 lbs. ; carried on 8 wheels 
=6,375 lbs. on each wheel. 

Coal, Cars — 8 Wheels.— 10-ton, 8-wheel cars : Body, 20 ft. long, 21 
ft. 10 in. over all ; 7 ft. wide, 7 ft. 8 in. over allx4 ft. high ; from top of 
rail to body, 2 ft. 6 J ins. ; rail to centre of buffer, 2 ft. 7^ ins. ; buffers, 10 x 
12 ins. ; 2 "^ft. 1 in. centre to centre ; total weight, empty, 13,440 lbs. ; 
loaded, 35,840 lbs. ; per wheel=4,480 lbs. 

Coal Cars — 4 Wheels. — 6 tons, 4 wheels : Body, 11 ft. long ; over 
all, 13 ft.x6 ft. 7 ins. wide ; 7 ft. 5 ins. over allx4 ft. 3 ins. high ; frame 
of oak, 4^X8^; end sills, 8^x9J ; body carried on 4 oak springs, each 3 
X6j ; at ends, 2jx6jx9 ft. long, bolted together • wheels, 5 ft. centre to 
centre ; journarboxes bolted to the springs ; weight, empty, 6,720 lbs., 
loaded, 20,160 lbs. ; on each wheel=5,040 lbs. 

EjyTGLiSH Railw^\y CARRIAGES — 4 FEET 8| INCHES GAUGE.— Extreme 
length over buffers, 22 ft. ; frame, 17 ft. 11 ins. longx6 ft. 8 ins. wide ; 
body, 18 ft. long X 7 ft. 4 ins.x6 ft. 2 ins. high ; compartments, each 6 ft. 
long ; sides and ends of under framing, 11x4 ; transoms, 9x3x11x3 ; 
framing of body, 3x24x24x2J ; flooring, 2 thicknesses of J boarding, 
laid diagonally ; roof, | thick on ribs, 2^x11, 2 feet apart ; doors, 1 ft. 11 
ius.x5 ft. 5 ins. high ; seats, 1 ft. 6 ins.li'om floor ; wheels, 36 ins. diam., 

9 ft. centre ; journals, 6 ft. 4 ins. apart. 

Freight Wagons.— Bodies, 7 ft. 6 ins. widexl6 ft. long, 20 ft. over buf- 
fers ; open wagons, sides, 2 ft. to 4 ft. 6 ius. high ; covered goods wag- 
ons, sides, 6 ft. 9 ins. high. 

mechaniCxVl movements. 

In the construction of models, or machinery, the skilful mechanic and 
inventor will study to avoid clumsiness in the arrangement of parts, and 
will naturally take pride in selecting, as far as possible, the simplest and 
best forms of mechanical movements. As suggestive for this purpose we 
Uave brought together and condensed an extensive series of mechanical 
movements. Here the mechanic may find at a glance the movement 
suited for his purpose, and may see the separate parts best adapted to 
any special combination of mechanism. 

The following is a brief description of the various movements as 
numbered : 

1. Shaft coupling. 2. Claw coupling. 3. 4. Lever couplings. On the 
driving shaft, a dislv with spurs is mounted, and to the shaft to be driven 
a lever is hinged. By causing this lever to catch in the spurs of the disk 



MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS. 



G75 



the coupling is effected. 5. Knee or rose coupling, of wliicli 26 is a side 
view. 

6. Universal joint. 7. 8. Disk and spur coupling. 9. Prong and spur 
lever coupling. _ 

I 








S6 






70- 







SO 



fl- 



r 



^ 






X 







/^ 






3S 




10. Fast and loose pulley. 11. Sliding gear, tlie journal boxes of one 
of tlie wheels being movable. 12. Friction clutch. By tightening or re- 
leasing a steel band, encircling a pulley on the shaft, the machinery is 
thrown in or out of gear. 13. 14. Shoe and lever brakes. 15. 16. Change 
of motion by sheaves. 17. Spiral flanged shaft. 18. Connected witli the 
rod are pawl links, catching into ratchet-teeth in the wheel to which 
rotary motion is to be imparted. When the rod moves in one direction, 
one of the pawls acts ; and when the rod moves in the opposite direction, 



676 



MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS, 



the other pawl acts in the same direction as the first. 19. The recipro- 
cating motion of a rod is converted into rotary motion of the fly-wheel by 
a weight suspended from a cord, which passes over a small pulley that 
connects with a treadle, from which the motion is transmitted to the fly- 
wheel. 




20. " Flying horse," used in fairs for amusement. By pulling the 
cords radiating from the crank, the persons occupying the seats or horses 
on the ends of ttie arms are enabled to keep the apparatus in motion. 21. 

22. Bow-string arrangements to connect reciprocating into rotary motion. 

23. Same purpose by differential screw. 24. The same by double rack 
and wheels. 25. Coupling for square shafts. 26. Side view of Fig. 5. 
27. Sliding-spur pulley coupling. 28. Lever with bearing roller to 
tighten pulley bands. 29. Chain wheel. 



MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS. 



677 



30. Reciprocating rectilinear into reciprocating rotary motion by t\Yo 
racks and cog-wheel. 31. Oblique-toothed wheels. 32. Worm and worm- 
wheel. 33. 34. Claw coupling with hinged lever. 35. 36. Disk couplings, 
with lugs and cavities. 37. Disk coupling with screw bolts. 38. 39. 
40. Shaft coux:)lings. 




41. Face view of Fi^. 12. 42. Friction cones. 43. 'Friction pulleys. 

44. Self-releasing coupling. Disks with oblique teeth. If the resistance 
to the driven shaft increases beyond a certain point, the disks separate. 

45. Hoisting blocks. 46. Elbow crank, for changing motion. 47. Re- 
ciprocating into rotary motion by zigzag groove on cylinder. 48.- An- 
other form of Fig. 29. 49. Reciprocating into a rotary motion. 

50. Same .purpose. 51. Same purpose, by double rack and two 
ratchet pinions. When the double rack moves iii one direction, one 



GTS 



MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS. 



j)iiiion is rigid with the shaft : when the rack moves in the opposite 
direction, the other pinion is rigid, and a continuous rotary motion is 
imparted to the fly-wheel shaft. 52. Reciprocating into oscillating. 53. 
Rotary into reciprocating. By the action of the wheel-pins the carriage 




is moved in one direction, and by the action of said pins on an elbow- 
lever, it is moved in the opposite direction. 54. Stamp rod and lifting 
cam. 55. For giving reciprocating motion to rack. 56. Same motion 
to a bar with slot, by means of an eccentric pin, projecting from a re- 
volving disk, and catching in the slot. 57. Walking-beam and fly-wheel. 
58. Reciprocating motion to pump or other rod by means of eccentric disk 
and friction rollers. See 81 and 104. 59. Hoisting crane. 



MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS, 



679 



GO. Friction gears. See 43. 61. Rotarj- into reciprocating by rising 
and falling pinion acting on endless rack. "^ 62. By the revolving cam, a 
rising and falling or a reciprocating rectilinear motion is imparted to a 
drum. 63. Reciprocating motion to a frame by means of endless rack 
and pinion. 64. Reciprocating rectilinear motion to a toothed rack by a 






£?'?. 




129 




«3 




^^7 h 





I2Z 






13^. 






US 




®: 



123 




ijr 




120 




A?^ 





/J/ 



# 



aL 



13^ Ci) 



I3a 



•J-:. 




132 






toothed segment on a lever-arm, Tvhich is subjected to the action of a 
weight, and of an eccentric wrist-pin, projectmg from a revolving disk. 65. 
Reciprocating motion to a rod. The wheels are of different diameters, and 
consequently^ the rod has to rise and fall as the wheels revolve. (See 110. ) 
Qi^. Cam and elbow-lever. 67. Rod reciprocates by means of cam. 68. 
Revolving into reciprocating motion, by an endless segmental rack and 



680 MECHANICAL MOVEMEKTS. 

pinion, the axle of whicli revolves and slides in a slot toward and from 
the rack. This rack is secnred to a disk, and a rope ronnd said disk ex- 
tends to the body to which a reciprocating motion is to be imparted. 69. 
Elliptic geai's. 

70. Bevel gear. 71. Worm and worm-wheel. 72. Transmitting 
motion from one axle to another, with three different velocities, by means 
of toothed segments of unequal diameters. 73. Continuous revolving 
into reciprocating, by a cam-disk acting on an oscillating lever. 74. In- 
termittent revolving motion to a shaft with two pinions, and segment gear- 
wheel on end of shaft. 75. Oscillating lever, carrying pawls which 
engage teeth in the edges of a bar to which rectilinear motion is imparted. 
76. Oscillating lever, connects by a link with a rod to which a recti- 
linear motion'is imparted. 77. Oscillating lever and pawls, which gear 
in the ratchet-wheel. 78. Common treadle. 79. Describing on a re- 
volving cylinder a spiral line of a certain given pitch which depends 
upon the comparative sizes of the pinion and bevel- wheels. 

80. Marking a spiral line, the graver moved by a screw. 81. (See 
Fig. 58. ) 82. Pkmger and rods. 83. Crosshead and rods. 84 . Recip- 
rocating rod guided by friction rollers. 85. Revolving into reciprocating 
motion, by means of roller-arms, extending from a revolving shaft, and 
acting on lugs projecting from a reciprocating frame. 86. Crank motion. 
87. Reciprocating motion by toothed wheel and spring bar. 88. The 
shaft carries a taper, which catches against a hook hmged to the drum, 
so as to carry said drum along and raise the weight on the rope. When 
the tappet has reached its highest position, the hook strikes a pin, the 
hook disengages from the tappet, and the weight drops. 89. Reciprocat- 
ing motion to a rod by means of a groove in an oblique ring secured to 
a revolving shaft. 

90. Double crank. 91. Cam groove in a drum, to produce recipro- 
cating motion. 92. Belts and pulleys. 93. Pulloys, belts, and internal 
gear. 94. As the rod moves up and down, the teeth of the cog-wheel 
come in contact with a x:)awl, and an intermittent rotarj^ motion is im- 
parted to said wheel. 95, By turning the horizontal axles with different 
velocities, the middle wheel is caused to revolve with the mean velocity. 
96. Oscillatmg lever and cam groove in a disk. 97. Lazy tongs. 98. 
Oscillating segment and belt over pulleys. 99. Converting oscillating 
into a reciprocating motion by a cam-slot in the end of the oscillating lever 
which catches over a pin projecting from one of the sides of a parallelo- 
gram which is connected to the rod to which reciprocating motion is im- 
parted. 

100. Oscillating motion of a beam into rotary motion. 101. Motion of 
a treadle into rotary motion. 102. Double-acting beam. 103, Single- 
acting beam. 104. (See Figures 58 and 81.) 105. Device to steady a 
piston by a slotted guide-piece, operated by an eccentric on the driving- 
shaft. 106. Rod operated by two toothed segments. 107. Two cog- 
wheels of equal diameter, provided with a crank of the same length, and 
connected by links with a cross-bar to which the piston-rod is secured. 
108. Device for a rectilinear motion of a piston-rod based on the hypocy- 
cloidal motion of a pinion in a stationary wheel with internal gear. If the 
diameter of the pinion is exactly equal to one half the diameter of the in- 
ternal i^ear, the hypocycloid becomes a sight line. 109. Same purpose 
as 56. 

110. Action similar to 65. 111. Revolving motion by a circular slid- 
ing i^inion gearing in an elliptical cog-wheel . 112. Similar to 96. 113. 
Carpenter's clamp. The jaws turn on their pivot-screws, and clamp the 
board. 114. An irregular vibratory motion is given to the arm carrying 
the wheel A, by the rotation of the pinion B. 115, Intermittent rotary 



MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS. G8l 

motion of the pinion-shaft, by the continuous rotary motion of the large 
wheel. The part of the pinion shown next the wheel is cut on the same 
curve as the plain portion of the circumference, and, therefore, serves as 
a lock whilst the wheel makes a part of a revolution, and until the pin 
upon the wheel strikes the guide-piece upon the i)inion, when the pinion- 
shaft commences another revolution. 116. Stop-motion used in watches 
to limit the number of revolutions in winding up. The convex curved 
part, «, h, of the wheel B, serving as the stop. 117. Several wheels, by 
connecting-rods, driven from one pulley. 118. Intermittent circular mo- 
tion is imparted to the tootlied wheel by vibrating the arm B. When the 
arm B is lifted, the pawl is raised froni between the teetli of the wheel, 
and travelling backward over the ch'cumference again, drops between 
two teeth on lowering the arm, and draws with it the wheel. 119. Re- 
ciprocating rectilinear motion is given to the bar by the continuous motion 
of the cam. The cam is of equal diameter in every direction measured 
across its centre. 

120. Mechanism for revolving the cylinder in Colt's fire-arms. When 
the hammer is drawn back the dog, a^ attached to the tumbler, acts on 
the ratchet, 6, on the back of the cylinder, and is held up to the ratchet by 
a spring, c. 121. Alternate increasing and diminishing motion, by means 
of eccentric toothed wheel and toothed cylinder. 122. Oscillating or 
pendulum engine. The cylinder swings between trunnions like a pendu- 
lum. The piston-rod connects directly with crank. 123. Intermittent 
rotary motion. The small wheel is driven, and the friction rollers on its 
studs move the larger wheel by working against tlie faces of oblique 
grooves or i)rojections across the face thereof. 124. Longitudinal and 
rotary motion of the rod is produced by its arrangement between two 
rotating rollers, the axles of which are oblique to each other. 125. Fric- 
tion indicator of Roberts. Upon the periphery of the belt-pulley a loaded 
carriage is placed, its tongue connected with an indicator. With a^given 
load the indicating pointer remains in a given position, no matter*what 
velocity is imparted to the pulley. When the load is changed the indi- 
cator changes, thus i^roving that the friction of wheels is in proportion to 
load, not velocity. 126. Circular intermittent rectilinear reciprocating 
motion. Used on sewing-machines for driving the shuttle ; also on three- 
revolution cylinder ])rinting-presses. 127. Continuous circular into in- 
termittent circular motion. The cam is the driver. 128. Sewing- 
machme, four-motion feed. The bar B carries the feeding-points or 
spurs, and is pivoted to slide A. B is lifted by a radial projection on cam 
C, whicli at the same time also carries A "^and B forward. A spring 
produces the return stroke, and tlie bar, B, drops by gravity. 129. 
Patent crank motion, to obviate dead centres. Pressure on the treadle 
moves the slotted slide A forward until the wrist passes the centre, when 
the spring B forces the sUde against the stops until next forward move- 
ment. 

130. Four-way cock. 131. One stroke of the piston gives a complete 
revolution to the crank. 132. Rectilinear motion of variable velocity is 
given to the vertical bar by rotation of the shaft of the curved arm. i33. 
Pantagraph for copying, enlarging, and reducing plans, etc. C, fixed 
point. B, ivory tracmg point. A, pencil trace, the lines to be copied 
with, and B, the pencil, will reproduce it double size. Shift the slide to 
which C is attached, also the pencil slide, and size of the copy will be 
varied. 134. Ball-and-socket joint for tubing. 135. Numerical register- 
ing device. The teeth of the worm shaft-gear with a ]:)air of worm- 
wheels of equal diameter, one having one tooth more than the other. 
If the first wheel has 100 teeth and the second 101, the pointers will 
indicate respectively 101 and 10,100 revolutions. 136. Montgolfier's 



G82 



MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS. 



hydraulic rara. The right hand valve being kept open by a weight 
or spring, the current flowing through the pipe in the direction of the 
arrow, escai^es thereby. When the pressure of the water current 




overcomes the weight of the right valve, the momentum of the water 
opens the other valve, and the Avater passes into the air-chamber. On 
equilibrium taking place, the left valve shuts and the right valve opens. 
By this alternate action of the valves, water is raised into the air-cham- 
ber at every stroke. 137. Rotary engine. Shaft B and hub G are ar- 



KNOTS, AND HOAV TO TIE THE3I. 



683 



ranged eccentric to the case. Sliding radial pistons, a, a, move in and 
out of hub, C. The pistons slide through rolling packings in the hub C. 
138. Quadrant engine. Two single-acting pistons, B, B, connect with crank 
D. Steam is admitted to act on the outer sides of the pistons alternately 
through valve a, and the exhaust is between the pistons. 139. Circular 
into rectilinear motion. The scolloped wheel communicates motion to the 
horizontal oscillating rod, and imparts rectiluiear movement to the up- 
right bar. 140. Rotary motion transmitted by rolling contact between 
two obliquely arranged shafts. Scientific American Reference Book. 

Special note to inventoks. — For full and complete information 
relating to the obtaining of Patents, Inventors, and others interested, are 
referred to the Scienti^c American Hand-Book, forwarded free by mail on- 
application to Munn & Co., 37 Park Row, New York. 

Information can also be obtained by addressing Coyne & Co. , office 
Western Manufacturers Chicago, Ills. 

The knots represented on the preceeding page of engravings are as 
follows : 

KNOTS, AND HOW TO TIE THEM. 



1. Simple overhand knot. 

2. Slip-knot seized. 

3. Single bow-knot. 

4. Square or ruf-knot. 

5. Square bow-knot. 

6. Weaver's knot. 

7. German or figure-of-8 knot. 

8. Two half -hitches, or artificer's 
knot. 

9. Double artificer's knot. 
Simple galley knot. 
Capstan or prolonged knot. 
Bowline-knot. 
Rolling-hitch. 
Clove-hitch. 
Blackwall-hitch. 
Timber hitch . 
Bowline on a bight. 
Running bowline. 

19. Catspaw. 

20. Doubled runnmg-knot. 

21. Double knot. 
Six-fold knot. 
Boat-knot. 
Lark's head. 
Lark's head. 

26. Simple boat-knot, 

27. Loop-knot. 

28. Double Flemish Imot. 

29. Running-knot checked 

30. Crossed running-knot. 

31. Lashins: knot. 



10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 
18 



22. 
23. 
24. 
25. 



32. Rosette. 

33. Chain-knot. 

34. Double chain-knot. 

35. Double running-knot, 
check-knot. 

36. Double twist-knot. 
Builders' knot. 
Double Flemish knot. 
English knot. 



with 



37. 
38. 
39. 
40. 
41. 
42. 
43. 
44. 
45. 
46. 
47. 



Shortening-knot. 



Shortening-knot. 
Sheep-shank. 
Dog-shank. 
Mooring-knot. 
Mooring-knot. 
Mooring-knot. 

Pigtail worked on the end of a 
rope. 

48. Shroud-knot* 

49. A bend or knot used by sailors 
in making fast to a spar or a 
bucket-handle before casting 
overboard ; it will not run. 
Also used by horsemen for a 
loop around the jaw of a colt m 
breaking : the running end, af- 
ter passing over the head of the 
animal and through the loop, 
w^ill not jam therein. 

50. A granny's knot. 

51. A weaver's knot 



The principle of a knot is, that no two parts which would move in the 
same direction if the rope were to slip, should lie alongside of and touch- 
ing each other. 



684 CAPACITIES OF VARIOUS IRON WORKS 

Ck)ST OF Iron Production.— Id Staffordshire, the making of bars 
marked "best, best, best," corresponds to a consumi^tion of 5 tons of 
Coal per ton of Iron made from the forge pigs, which themselves require 
from 2 to 2^ tons of Coal for their production. Calculating waste of iron 
in puddling", &c., one ton of the best brands of Staffordshire bars repre- 
sent 8 to 9 tons of good coal consumed. 

Gartsherrie Iron Works, Scotland.— Furnaces, 16. Proportion 
of charges, about 32 cwts. of calcined ore are used to the ton of iron, 6 
cwts. of pure limestone, or 10 cwts. of limestone containing a high per- 
centage of alumina, which is sometimes preferred, forming a surplus of 
quickly melted slag. The charges are made np with the coal in quan- 
tities of about 30 cwts. each, and are hoisted to thetopof tlie furnace by a 
very simple contrivance. Temperature of blast 800°. Weekly production 
of each furnace about 160 tons. 

CoLTNEss Iron Works : — Furnaces, 12. The calcined ironstone 
contains from 60 to 65 per cent, of iron, and the furnaces are charged 
with an addition of 12 cwts. of unburnt limestone, and 48 cwts. of coalfor 
every ton of iron made. The make per furnace varies from 12 to 15 tons 
at a cast, the furnace being tapped once in every 12 hours. From 8 to 12 
tuyeres are. in each furnace arranged in groups of 3 in each arch formed 
by the square foundation. The tuyeres are usually IJ in. diam. at the 
nozzle, temperature of blast is between 600° and 700°. Power is furnish- 
ed by a i^air of condensing beam engines, worked with 32 lbs. steam pres- 
sure and a vacuum of 26 ins. The steam cylinders are 48 ins. diam. and 
the blowing cylinder 100 ins., pressure of blast in the blast main is 3^ ins. 
The blowing cylinder in the lower row of furnaces is 120 J ins. 

GovAN Iron Works, Glasgow.— Furnaces, 6 ; height 50 ft. The 
charges are made up in loads of 15 cwts. of ore and limestone for every 
load of 10 cwts. of coal. Consumption of coal for every ton of iron made 
is about 50 cwts. Blowhig Cylinders 2 ; pressure of blast 2 J lbs. The 
make of each furnace is about 12 to 15 tons per cast, tapped every 12 hours." 
The blowing engine is supplied with steam by 7 double-fiued Cornish 
boilers fired with coal slack, and placed below the ground level close to 
the engine house. The charge of gray iron for each refinery is 24 cwts., 
and 6 or 7 charges are made per day with ordinary coke for fuel. 

Barrow-in-Furniss Iron Works :— Furnaces, 11. The charge per 
ton of iron is 34 cwts. of ore, 6J cwts. of limestone, and from 10 to 21 
cwts. of coke. Ore yields 57 per cent, of iron, weekly production 4000 
tons. The dimensions of the larger furnaces Avhich form the second 
group, are, height 56 ft., diam. at the boshes, 7 ft., greatest inner diam. 
16 ft. 6 ins., diam. at top, 11 ft. 6 ins., they are tapped every 6 hours and 
give about 20 tons at each cast. The blast pressure varies from 3 to 3J 
lbs., each furnace has 6 tuyeres, diam. of tuyeres is from 2 J to 3^ ins.^ 
temperature of blast 600° to 650°. Forty-two boilers, all fired with gas, 
supply the steam to the different engines; of these, 22 work up to 25 lbs., 
and 12 to 35 lbs. pressure. The first set of engines comprise 3 vertical 
beam engines : diam. of one steam cylinder is 52 ins., of the other two 
48 ins. , each blowing cylinder placed at one end of the corresponding 
beam, is 100 ins. in diam. with 9 ft. stroke . 

Iron Founding. — In dimensions, the McKenzie cupola, so extensively 
used in America, is from the drop bottom to the bottom of the charging 
door, 9 ft. high. The longer diameter outside is 5 ft. 4 ins., and the short- 
er diameter 4 ft. 4 ins." The blast is admitted through an annular 
tuyere or opening which extends completely round the bottom part. The 
blast is led into a chamber surrounding the boshes of the cupola, and 
from this chamber it escapes through the annular tuyere. The cupola 
is fitted with a drop bottom. A cupola of that kind is charged with 1400 
lbs. of coal, then 4000 lbs. of iron, 400 lbs, of coal, 4000 lbs. of iron again, 



CAPACITIKS OF VARIOUS IRON WORKS. ijSo 

and the alternate charges of 400 lbs. of coal and 4000 lbs. of iron are re- 
peated for the necessary height. The blast is supplied, when the furnace 
is at work, at the extremely high pressure of 2^ lbs. per sq. inch ; but 
when the furnace is first started the slight resistance met with by the 
blast does not permit a pressure of more than J lb. to be obtained. The 
blast is applied in about 40 minutes after the fil-e is lighted, and the iron 
begins to run in about 20 minutes after the blast is turned on. When 
the furnace is fairly at work the meltuig proceeds at the rate of almost 4 
tons per hour. One of the McKenzie cupolas at Morris, Tasker & Co.'s 
tube works, at Philadelphia, measures 7 by 4 ft., and is blown with a 
pillar of blast of about 24 ms. of water. The regular day's work is 23 
tons of metal run down in 2^ hours, the iron beginning to melt in 15 
minutes from the time the blast is turned on, and running at the rate of 
10 tons per hour. It is charged about 4J ft. deep with iron and anthra- 
cite coal, and about 1 ton of the latter is buiTied for every 9 tons of metal 
melted. In melting small quantities, in say, a No. 3 McKenzie cupola, 
a good proportion is to put in a bed about 900 lbs. coal, and charge from 
4000 to 5000 lbs. of iron, then 150 to 200 lbs. coal, and charge 1000 to 2C00 
lbs. on the top of it. In Ireland's cupola, the furnace should be filled with 
coke to the top of the boshes, and four separate cwts. of iron, alternated 
with three cwts. of coke, should then be introduced to fill it up to the 
charging door. In these furnaces a ton of freely running iron has been 
run down by IJ cwt. of coke, 1 :t more usually from 2 to 2 J cwts. are re- 
quired. The furnace should be j^ept in careful repair and each charge 
well levelled off. • In the Woodward cupola a steam jet is used instead 
of a fan, and the steam required for the jet to create the draught is only 
equal in quantity to the requirements of an engine for driving a fan of 
sufficient power to w^ork the same size of ordinary cupola ; and the con- 
sumption of coke in melting is IJ cwt. -pev ton of iron. 

Blowing or Blast Engines, — Iron works at Mt. Savage, Md. For 
blowing 4 furnaces, 14 feet diam. , each making 100 tons of pig iron per 
week. 

Engine (Condensing) . Diameter of cylinder, 56 in. ; length of stroke, 
10 ft. 

Revolutions. 15 per minute. Pressure. 60 lbs. per square in., cut off 
at J of the stroke. 

Boilers. Six of 60 in. in diameter, and 24 ft. in length, with one 22-in. 
flue in each, double returned. Grates. 198 square ft. 

Blast Cylinder . 126 in. in diameter by 10 ft. stroke. Revolutions. 15 
per minute. 

Pressure of Blast. 4 to 5 lbs . per square in. 

Area of Pipes. 2300 square in., or i- that of the cj-lmder. 
For Blowing Two Furnaces and Two Fineries, making 240 Tons 
OF Forge Pig per Week. 

Engine {]}f on-condensing). Diameter of cyliiider, 20 in. ; length of 
stroke, 8 ft. Revolutions. 28 per minute. Pressure. 50 to 60 lbs. per 
square in. (fuU stroke). 

Boilers. Six of 36 in. in diameter, and 28 ft. in length (without flues). 
Grates. 100 square ft. 

Blast Cylinders. Two of 62 in. in diameter, by 8 ft. stroke. Revolutions. 
22 per minute. Pressure of Blast. 2J lbs. per square in. 

Area of Pipes. 3 ft. or | that of the cylinders. 

One blast furnace has two 3-in., and one 3J m. tuyeres, the other has 
three of 3 in 

One finery has six tuyeres of IJ in., and the other, four of IJ in. 

The ore yields from 40 to 45 per cent, of iron.- The temperature of the 
blast is 600°. 



686 RULES FOR 3IECHANICS, &C. 

DowLAis Iron Works.— -Furnaces 17. Weekly production about 180 
tons per furnace, total annual production of pig iron about 150,000 tons, 
total annual consumption of coal about 1,000,000 tons . The furnaces are 
blown by 6 beam engines. The largest has a 55 in. steam cylinder and 
13 ft. stroke of steam piston, while the blowing cylinder is 12 ft. diam., 
and the blast piston has a stroke of 12 ft., the great beam being divided 
unequally ; weight of working beam 44 tons, of fly wheel 35 tons. Blast 
is discharged into a main 5 ft. diam. and about 140 yards long. No fur- 
nace is more than 18 ft, in diam. at the boshes, and f cav are as much as 
50 ft. high, square at tlie base and assuming the circular form about half 
way up. They are tapped 3 times in 24 hours, are fed with raw coal, and 
consume 30 cwts. of coal per ton of iron made. Temperature of blast 612°, 
pressure of blast 3 to 3J lbs. 

The furnaces, mines, forges, Bessemer steel works, &c., employ in all 
nearly 100 steam engines, 9000 work people (of which about 5500 are 
under ground and 3500 above), and 700 horses. 

Cohesive Strength of Tie-Bars, Suspension Rods, &c. — Breaking 
weight in tons, equal area of section of rod in square inches, multiplied 
by cohesive force per square inch in tons. 

Cohesive strength of steel = 50 tons 
'' " Wrought iron 23 

" Cast-iron 7i 

Wr'ght copper 15 
Cast-brass 8 

Lead 0.75 






(( 



tons 






tons 




Cohesive 


Str. 


of ash =8 








Beech 5.5 








Oak 5.5 






" , 


seasoned 6 








pitch pine 6 








Chestnut 5 








Fir 5.5 



*' Boxwood 10 

In use, take J of the above as breaking weight. 

A mixture of 30 per cent, of wrought iron with cast-iron, carefully 
fused in a crucible, increases strength of cast-iron one third. Chilling 
the under side of cast iron materially increases its strength. Chilled bars 
of cast iron deflect more readily than unchilled. Girders cast with face 
up are stronger than when cast on side, as 1 to .96 ; also strongest when 
cast with bottom flange ui3. Cast-iron and wrought iron beams, having 
similar resistances, have weights, as 2.44 to 1. 

To Test the Quality of Iron. — If fracture gives long silky fibres 
of leaden-gray hue, fibres cohering and twisting together before breaking, 
may be <;onsidered a tough soft iron. A medium, even grain, mixed with 
fibres, a good sign. A short blackish fibre indicates badly refined iron. 
A very fine grain denotes a hca^d steely iron, apt to be cold-short, hard to 
work with a file. Coarse grain, with brilliant crystallized fracture, yel- 
low or broAvn spots, denote a brittle iron, cold-short, working easily 
when heated ; welds easily. Cracks on the edge of bars, sign of hot- 
short iron. Good iron is easily heated, soft under the hammer, throws 
out but few sparks. 

To find the Weight of Timber Beams, Posts, and Joists. — Mul- 
tiply length in feet by the breadth in inches and the depth in inches, and 
the product by one of the following factors : For elm, 2.92 ; yellow pine, 
2.85 ; white pine, 2.47 ; dry oak, 4.04. 

Weight of Timber Work, Timber Flooring.— Multiply breadth 
in feet by length in feet by the thickness in inches and by one of the 
following factors, according to the material : For elm use, 3.50 lbs. ; 
for yellow pine, 3.42 ; for white pine, 2.97 ; for dry oak, 4.85. 

Nickel Plating without a Battery. — To a solution of from 5 to 
10 per cent, chloride of zinc, as pure as possible, add enough sulphate of 



SUNDRY USEFUL ITEMS. 687 

nickel to produce a strong green color, and bring to a boil in a iwrce- 
lain vessel. The piece to be plated, which must be perfectly bright and 
free from grease, is introduced so that it touclies the vessel as little as 
IDOssible. Boiling is continued from thirty to sixty minutes, water being 
added from time to time to rei:)lace that evaporated. During ebullition 
nickel is i)recipitated in the form of a white and brilliant coating. The 
boiling may be continued for hours without increasing the thickness of 
this coating. As soon as the object appears to be plated it is washed in 
water containing a little chalk in suspension, and then carefully dried. 
The chloride of zinc and sulphate of nickel must be free from metals 
precipitable by iron. If, during the precipitation, the liquid becomes 
colorless, sulphate of nickel should be added. The spent liquid may be 
used again by exposing it to the air until the iron is precipitated, filtering 
and adding the zinc and nickel salts as above. Cobalt also may be de- 
I)osited the same waj^. 

To Remove Irox Mould Fno:si Marble. — Take butter of antimony 
1 oz., oxalic acid 1 oz. ; dissolve them in Ipt. water, add flour, and bring 
the composition to a proper consistence. Then lay it evenly on the 
stained part with a brush, and, after it has remained for a few days, 
wash it off, and repeat the process if the stain is not quite removed. 

Green Transparent Varnish FOR Metals. — Grind a small quan- 
tity of Chinese blue with double the quantity of finely-powdered chro- 
mate of potassa (it requires the most elaborate grinding) ; add a suffi- 
cient quantity of copal varnish thinned with turx)eutine. The tone may 
be altered by more or less of one or the other ingredients. Green bronze 
liquid : One quart of strong vinegar, J oz. of mineral green, J oz. raw 
umber, J oz. sal-ammoniac, J oz. gum arable, 2 oz. French berries, J oz. 
copperas ; dissolve over a gentle fire, allow to cool, and then filter. 

Profits of Manufacturers. — In the State Census of Massachusetts, 
of 1875, Col. Wright, of Boston, separates the value of the raw material 
from the value added by ^vork done. Thus we have under the head of 
boots and shoes, not the value of the boots and shoes, but the value 
added to the leather by the work done to convert it into boots and shoes. 
This is stated to amount to $89,375,792, for which the employes received 
$18,727,124, or $455.05 each on an average, and the employers appro- 
priated $70,648,668. Cotton and other industries show similar results. 

Proceeds of One Ton of Cotton Seed. — A correspondent of Lef- 
fel's News reports cotton seed as worth now, delivered at the mills in New 
Orleans, $11 per ton, the mills furnishing the bags it is put up in. from 
that ton of seed will be gotten : 

250 lbs. lint worth 5ct.^. per lb., or $12.50 

About 500 lbs. hull worth 2.50 

About from 40 to 45 galls, oil, sav 40 galls, at 50 cents 20.00 

Say 800 lbs. oil cake, worth 11/2 cent per lb.. 12.00 

Or, Sll worth of seed works to value of $47.00 

Arrangement, Proportion, Capacity, &c. , of Grain Elevators. 
— On this subject Pallett rules that the pulleys should beat least 24 inches 
diameter, and about one inch thicker than the width of the belt, and 
nearly half an inch higher in the middle than at the sides, to make 
the strap keep on. These i)ulleys should have a motion of twenty- 
five revolutions per minute. The buckets should be about fifteen inches 
apart. One hundred and twenty-five buckets will pass per minute, 
carrying 162 quarts and hoisting 300 bushels per hour. If this is not 
fast enough, make the strap wider and the buckets larger, increase 
the velocity of the pulley (not above 35 revolutions), nor place more 
buckets than one for every twelve inches, or they will not empty. 



688 



ON FAKM BUILDINGS. 




ON FARM BUILDINGS. 



The followiiio^ plan for a barn appeared in the columns of the Country 
Gentleman^ and is of a wsize suitable for about 75 acres of land under cul- 
tivation on the system of mixed husbandry; but the size may be either 
expanded or diminished to answer all possiljle requirements in any given 
case. 

The size is 42X60 ft. Fig. 1 shows the common or principal floor, and is 
so constructed that a loaded Avagon can be driven in at one end, unloaded, 
and then pass out at the other. The contrivance for this purpose, so as 
not to interfere with the cellar or basement, is shown in the perspective 
view at the head of tliis article, an embankment being made at each end, 
which would be facilitated if the building were placed between two slight 
knolls or in a moderate hollow, in which case ample drains should be 



iSAY, l&Km 



M^ 



\±1 



1 1 1 mi j 5 



\inu' 'wiii 



HORSE s raBLiEy igxio 



1HFLENW 



TOOLZ 






Fig. 1. 
provided round the whole. In the plan fig. 1, V V represent ventila- 
tors or hay shutes ; A trap door for throwing down chaff or straw, G 
granary, and S stairs. The bay contains 950 square feet, and will 
hold about 40 tons of compact hay of about 500 cubic ft. to the ton Avhen 
well settled. In addition, there is room on the platforms over the floor 
and horse stables to hold about 20 tons more. By marking off a scale of 
feet on one of the ventilators, the owner may at any time gain an approx- 
imate idea of the quantity of hay on hand. 



ON FAKM BUILDINGS. 



689 



Fig. 2 represents the basements. The roots are drawn in on the bam 
floor and dumped down the trap A, shown in fig. 1. In fig. 2, A AAA re- 
present calf pens, or boxes for cows in calf. 




1- I' l 'i'l'lHM'l' l 



C W STABLE . IZy SO 
SHSa & MAUURB 



Fis:. 2. 



tST' 



Rules for Farmers. — The prime auxiliaries to good farming are : 
1 . Sufficient capital to buy the farm and stock it well. 2. The proper 
selection of a farm commensurate with these requisites. .3. The selection 
of good land and the rejection of barren, no matter how cheap. 4. To lay 
it out in good style, and provide it with good buildings, fences, and gates. 
5. Stock It with' the best animals and implements at a reasonable price, 
and provide good shelter for both. 6. Bring the soil into good heart by 
draining, killing of weeds, manuring, deep ploughing, and a proper rota- 
tion of crops covering every part of it. 7. Diligence and careful oversight 
of all operations, correct accounts in the matter of wages, buying, selliug, 
weighing, measuring, cost of crops, animals', net returns of each, ac- 
cumulation and preservation of manure, &c. 8. Early rising, remembering 
that " He that Avould thrive must rise at five. He that has thriven may 
lie till seven." 9. Regular and careful feeding of stock with considerate 
and merciful treatment of horses, cattle, &c., at all times. 

Touching the rotation of crops the following courses have proved well 
adapted to most of the Eastern and Middle States : 

I. 1st year, corn and roots, Avell manured. 2nd year, wheat, sown 
with clover seed, 15 lbs. per acre. 3rd year, clover, 1 or more j'-ears, 
according to fertility, and amount of manure on hand. 

II. 1st year, corn and roots with all the manure. 2nd year, barley 
and peas. 3rd year, wheat, sown with clover. 4th year, clover one 
or more years. 

The next illustration represents the frame of an improved stable and 
barn which appeared not long ago in the columns of the Globe and Canada 
Farmer^ cohcernmg which the owner furnished the following i:)articulars to 
that journal : ' ' Barn 56 x 80 feet, outside posts 20 feet high, the purline posts 
33 feet ; has five bents, 20 feet spans, framed according to cut. The size of 
timber used is from 6 to 8 inches ; the sills are 3 x 12 in. plank bedded on 
the stone wall. The barn proper is 56 x 60, leaving 20 x 56 feet for a straw 
house. The driving floor is 16 feet wide, the bays on each side, loft, all 
floored over with double inch boards. The double doors work on rollers. 
There is a ventilating door in each gable end, working with a small pulley 
from the floor : also one on the roof, all very useful in the time of thresh- 
ing to allow dust to escape. On each side of the driving floor is a ladder 
reaching to the top of the barn. The granary is 20 feet square. The bins 
are six feet deep on each side, leaving 8 x 20 feet to keep the mill in for 
clearing np. The barn is well lighted . If stone is scarce, the wall need 
be no higher than to clear the ground, as shown in the cut. No. 1 cut 
pine shingles are best for roof. This stable is in three parts. 1st. 25 feet 



690 



ON FARM BUILDINGS. 



is taken from one end and divided in three parts ; tlie centre is a feed 
room 20 x 25 feet ; stables 18 feet deep, with five stalls in each part. 2d. 
Tliere is a yard 30 x 56 for young stock. There is a trap door at the side 
of the drive floor to drop down straw. If water can be had a well is ].^re- 
ferable in this yard. There is a large door on each side to drive in and 
take out the manure. 3d. The cow stable is directly under the straw 
house, 25x56 feet, divided into three parts: the centre is the feed room, 25 
X 26 feet, with trap door above to let down the chaff. The stables are 15 




feet deep, with six stalls on each side. There will be sufficient light to 
all the stables, feed room and yard ; outer doors for stables and inner 
doors leading into the centre yards. Height of stables, 8^ and 9 feet. 
The advantages over old style of building are as follows .-—Lighter and 
shorter timber. There are two rows of central posts run to the top of 
building, forming the purliue work, and the whole building being framed 
into these posts makes a much stronger frame ; is handier for storing ; 
for forks working ; for threshing ; is better ventilated ; all straw inside ; 
all stock inside ; manure all under cover, and when a farmer has one of 
these barns he has all the outbuildings he requires." 
' Weight of Hay.— Hay, w^ell settled in mows or stacks, fifteen cubic 
yards make a ton. Rule for long or square stacks : Multiply the length 
in yards by the width in yards, and then by half the height iu yards, and 
divide by fifteen. Rule for circular stack's : Multiply the square of the 
circumference in yards by four times the height in yards, and divide by 
100 ; the quotient by fifteen. 



AGRICULTURAL FACTS. 691 

SUNDRY ITEMS OF INTEREST TO FARMERS. 

A BUSHEL OF WHEAT, 60 Ibs., should yield, of flour, about 48 lbs., 
shorts, 8 lbs., bran 4 lbs. Wheat flour is of the best quality from grain that 
has been cut before it comes to full maturity, being whiter and softer, and 
such flour carries a better figure in the market. Coarse or thick-husked 
grain will yield more bran and less flour than tlie khid noted above. 

Proceeds of Grists. — On this subject a correspondent of the Country 
Gentleman remarks : "The product and waste in grinding depend 
much upon the quality and cleanness of the wheat. I have had winter 
wheat turn out 40 pounds of flour and 12J pounds of bran, middlings, etc., 
to the bushel. The ' waste ' in grinding clean wheat should be not more 
than a pound to a pound and a quarter. Spring wheat will not make as 
nuich flour. The foJlowing from a ' grist ' of the last crop of spring wheat 
is a good average of a dozen more that I have noted. 

Weight of wheat, 1,486 lbs. 

" " flour, 952 lbs. 

" " bran, 240 " 

" " screenings, - - - - - - 32 " 

" " middlings (canaiUe) 88 " 

" " toll, 148 " 

" " waste, 26 "~l,4861bs. 

Here is 24| bushels, and the yield of flour is 38.45 pounds per bushel, 
and the offal amounts to 14.54 pounds per bushel, whfle the waste is 
only 1.05 pounds per bushel. It is proper here to state that I sent a ' grist ' 
out of the same bin, to a new mill a few weeks before, and the return w^as 
only 36 pounds in flour and the ' waste' or Avheat stuck to the mill, besides 
the toll, 5i pounds to the bushel. I did not repeat my experiment at that 
mill. 

A miller, writing to the Mill Stone, claims that he can, on custom work, 
make from 38 to 42 lbs. of flour to the bushel of wheat, besides his seventh 
for toll, and on merchant work he can make 1 barrel of fancy flour out 
of 4i bushels of wheat. This he cites as good work, and right here it 
may be remarked that many farmers raise an outcry against the miller, 
because he fails to give first class flour and ample returns from badly 
damaged or improperly cleaned grain. In a canticle descanting on the 
hard times, composed by a rural poet of the writer's acquaintance, the 
versifier sought to immortalize his name by a burlesque on the fair fame 
of every tradesman in the town. The stanza reflecting on the honest 
miller was as follows : 

And there's the miller, he grinds for his toll, 

And he ought to do right for the sake of his soul. 
But still, there, he goes, with the dish in his fist, 
He gives you the toll and he keeps the grist. 

Millers, as a general rule, are fair-dealing men. From time immemorial 
they have been called "honest," and it is no more than fair that they 
should be honestly dealt with. If you wish first class returns bring first 
class grain to the mill. 

Estimating the produce of an acre in oats at 50 bushels, they will 
contain 450 pounds of flesh-forming food, and 672 pounds of fat-forming 
food ; while three tons of hay off the same acre will carry 480 pounds of 
flesh-formers and 2790 pounds of fat-formers. Hay is a vStandard food 
for cattle. 

Measuring Hay in Bulk.— To find the number of cubic feet in a 
mow, multiply the length, width and depth together. Five hundred 
cubic feet of ordhiary clover and timothy hay, jiacked under ordinary 
circumstances, will make a ton. Generally, so many things have to be 
taken into consideration, in calculating the weight of hay in bulk, it 



692 



AGKICULTURAL FACTS, 



makes it difficult to ascertain it precisely. For instance, fine new-raowu 
hay, like red-top or herds grass, would probably not require quite 500 
cubic feet for the ton ; timothy alone, requires about 550 ; clover 650 ; 
coarse meadow hay 700 or more. After being stacked thirty days, the 
bulk would be decreased from five to ten per cent. Again, hay will vary 
somewhat in measurement according to the time it is cut. 

The government standard for a ton is 7^ feet ; this gives 422 cubic feet. 
To find the number of cubic feet in a stack, multiply the area of the base 
by one third the perpendicular height. 

It is estimated that 25 cubic yds. of common meadow hay in the wind- 
tow compose a ton, and 10 cubic yds. of baled, or pressed hay, the same 
weight. 

A truss of neio hay is 60 lbs. , of old, 56 lbs. , a load of hay, 36 trusses ; 
a bale, 300 lbs. A truss of straw is 40 lbs. 

Table exhibiting capacities of grain bins, &c., 10 ft. high. 



^ 


Bia 


Bin 


Bin 


Bin 


Bin 


Bin 


Bin 


Bin 


Bin Bin 


Bin 


Bin 


Bin 


>S C3 -M 


6 ft.. 


7 ft. 


8 ft. 


9 ft. 


10 ft. 


lift. 


12 ft. 


.13ft.. 


14 ft.. 


loft. 


16 ft. 


20 ft. 


22 ft. 


S.S, 


Long. 
Bu. 


Long. 


Long. 


Long. 


Long. 


Long. 


Long. 


Long. 


Long. 


Long. 


Long. 


Long. 


Long. 




Bu. 


Bu. 


Bu. 


Bu. 


Bu. 


Bu. 


Bu. 


Bu. 


Bu. 


Bu. 


Bu. 


Bu. 


3 


145 


161) 


192 


217 


241 


265 


289 


313 


338 


362 


386 


482 


530 


4 


193 


225 


257 


289 


321 


354 


386 


418 


450 


482 


514 


643 


708 


5 


241 


282 


321 


362 


402 


442 


482 


622 


563 


603 


643 


804 


884 


6 


290 


338 


386 


43J 


482 


530 


579 


627 


675 


723 


771 


964 


1060 


7 


338 


394 


450 


50t 


563 


619 


675 


731 


788 


844 


900 


1125 


1238 


8 


386 


450 


514 


579 


643 


707 


771 


836 


900 


964 


1029 


1286 


1414 


9 


434 


507 


579 


651 


723 


796 


8681 940 


1013 


1085 


1157 


1446 


1592 


10 


482 


563 


643 


723 


804 


884 


964 


1045 


1125 


1205 


1286 


1607 


1768 


11 


631 


619 


707 


796 


884 


972 


1061 


1149 


1238 


1326 


1414 


1768 


1944 


12 


579 


675 


771 


806 


964 


1061 


1157 


1254 


1350 


1446 


1543 


1929 


2122 



Measuring Corn in the Crib. — Many rules are given by which the 
number of bushels of corn in a crib may be ascertained, but all of them 
must be more or less unreliable, from the fact that they assume that two 
bushels of ears are equal to one of shelled com — some corn will not make 
it, while some will more than do it. We give several such rules, any one 
of which will be, probably, sufficiently accurate. 

1. Measure the length, breadth and height of the crib, inside the rail ; 
multiply them together and divide by two, the result is the number 
of bushels of shelled corn. 

2. Level the corn so it is of equal depth throughout, multiply the length, 
breadth and depth together, and this product by four, and cut off one 
figure to the right of the product. The others wiU represent the number 
of bushels of shelled corn, 

3. Multiply length by height and then by width, add two ciphers to the 
result and divide by 124. This gives the number of bushels of ears. 
Another rule is to proceed as above to obtain the cubic feet, and then 
assume that 1 1-5 cubic feet make one bushel of ears. 

4. Multiply lensjth bv breadth and the product by the height, all in 
inches, divide this bv 2,748, and the quotient will be the number of bushels 
of ears. From two-thirds to one-half of this will be the number of bushels 
of shelled corn, depending upon the kind and quality. The first of 
these rules is the one generally used as an approximate estimate. 

To Measure Grain in the Granary. --Divide the cubic feet by 56 
and multiply by 45, and the result will be struck measure. 

Loss FROM Shrinkage.— It is said that corn loses one-fifth and 
wheat one-fourteenth by drying. From this estimate it seems that 
it would be more profitable to the farmer to sell unshelled corn in the fall 
at 75 cents per bushel, than to keep it until Spring and sell it at $1, and 



AGRICULTUKAL FACTS. 



693 



that wheat at Sl.25 in December, is equal to $1.50 the Biicceeding June. 
Ill cases of potatoes, taking those that rot and are otherwise lost, together 
with the shrinkage, there is little doubt that between October and June 
the loss to the owner that holds them is not less than 33 per cent. 

The English Quarter, at which wheat is quoted in the Eng i^h rei)oit3, 
is 5G0 pounds or one-fourth of the ton gross weight of 2240 pounds. The 
English legal bushel is 70 pounds, and consequently 8 of those bushels is 
a quarter — equal to 9J of our statute bushel of 60 pounds. 

TABLE EXHIBITING CONTEXTS OF CORN-CKIBS, CONTAINING CORN IN THE 
EAR, COMPFTED ON A BASIS OF 3,840 CUBIC INS. PER BUSH. HEIGHT 
OF CRIB, 10 FT. 



Xgth 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


18 


20 


22 


24 


26 


28 


30 


r^3 


135 


149 


162 


175 


189 


202 


216 


243 


270 


297 


324 


351 


378 


405 


c'^y2 


158 


173 


189 


205 


221 


236 


258 


284 


315 


347 


378 


410 


441 473 


'rrA 


180 


198 


216 


234 


252 


270 


288 


324 


360 


396 


432 


468 


504 


540 


^^V2 


203 


223 


243 


263 


283 


304 


324 


365 


405 


446 


486 


527 


567 


608 


g5 


225 


248 


270 


292 


315 


337 


360 


405 


450 


495 


540 


585 


680 


675 


^5y2 


248 


272 


297 


322 


347 


371 


396 


446 


495 


545 


594 


644 


693 


743 


6 


270 


297 


324 


351 


378 


405 


432 


486 


540 


594 


648 


70? 


756 


810 


eVz 


293 


322 


351 


380 


410 


439 


468 


527 


585 


644 


702 


761 


819 


878 


7 


315 


347 


378 


409 


441 


472 


504 


567 


630 


603 


756 


819 


882 


945 


'^'A 


338 


371 


405 


439 


473 


506 


540 


608 


675 


743 


810 


878 


945 


1013 


8 


360 


396 


432 


468 


504 


540 


576 


648 


720 


792 


864 


936 


1008 


1080 


81^ 


383 


421 


459 


497 


536 


574 


612 


689 


765 


842 


918 


995 


1071 


1148 


9 


405 


446 


486 


526 


567 


607 


648 


729 


810 


891 


972 


1053 


1134 


1215 


10 


450 


495 


540 


585 


539 


675 


720 


810 


900 


990 


1080 


1170 


1?60 


1350 


11 


495 


545 


594 


643 


693 


742 


792 


891 


990 


1089 


1188 


1287 


1386 


1485 


12 


540 


594 


648 


702 


756 


810 


864 


972 


1080 


1188 


1296 


1404 


1512 


1620 



Example.— Under 28 and opposite 8 is 1,008, representing the number of 
bnshels of corn in the ear contained in a crib 28 ft. long, 8 ft. wide, and 10 ft. 
high. This space would contain 1,800 bushels of shelled corn. 

Rule when the Crib is Flared at the Sides.— Multiply half the 
sum of the bottom breadths in feet by the perpendicular height in feet, 
and the same again by the length in feet, multiply the last product by '63 
for heaped bushels of ears, and by '42 for the number of bushels in 
shelled corn. This rale is based on the generally accepted estimate that 
3 heaped half bushels of ears, or 4 even full, form 1 of shelled corn. 

Another Rule with Equal Sided Cribs. — Multiply the length in 
feet by width in feet, and this last by the height in feet, multiply the 
resulting product by '63 and the x^roceeds will show the heaped bushel^ of 
ears. To get the number of bushels in shelled corn multiplj^ by '42. 

Memoranda. — A barrel of corn is 5 bushels shelled. By 'this latter 
measure crops are estimated, and com bought and sold throughout 
most of the Southern and Western States. At New Orleans a barrel of 
corn is a flour barrel full of ears. In some parts of the west it is common 
to count 100 ears to the bushel. 

Another Way to Measure Corn in the Crib. — Multiply the 
length, breadth, and height together in feet, to obtain the cubic feet ; 
multiply this product by 4 and strike off the right figure, and the result 
will be shelled* bushels, nearlj\ 

To Find the Contents of a Barrel or Cask.— Multiply the 
square of the mean diameter (in inches) by the length of the barrel (also 
in inches), divide this product by 29.5 and point off one figure to the 
right; the result will be the answer in wine gallons. 

It may be necessary to add that to find the mean diameter, we add 
together the greatest and least diameters and divide by 2. 



694 AGRICULTURAL FACTS. 

To Find the Number of Bushels of Apples, Potatoes, &c., in 
A Box or Bin. — Multiply the length, breadth and depth together (all in 
feet), and this product by 8, pointing o:ff one figure in the product 
for decimal. 

Storage of Roots in Cellars, &c. — It will require about 15 cubic 
feet of space to hold 10 bushels of roots. At this rate the following table 
will serve to estimate the dimensions of a root house or cellar required 
for the storage of various quantities of roots. 

1,000 Bushels of roots wiU require 1,500 cub. ft., or | o?,^20 x 9.4 x^f h'igh 

1 KAA a " « 9 9r^n " ( 20 X 12.6 X 9 high, 

■^'^"^ ^'^^^ i or, 20 X 14.0 X 8 high, 

onm " *< " qnm '< ( 20 x 16.8 x 9 high, 

^'^^ "^'^^ I or, 20 x 18.9 x 8 high. 

qnAH " " " AKO(\ " ( 20 X 25.0 X 9 high, 

*^'^^ ' *'^^ i or, 20 X 28.0 x 8 high. 

AC)m *^ " ^' anm i' ) 20x33.4 X 9 high, 

*'^^ ^'^^ i or, 20 X 37.6 x 8 high. 

n (Y)(\ ii a " in r,m " J 20x58.4 X 9 high, 

^'^^ -^"'^^ { or, 20 X 65. 7 X 8 high. 

10 nnn " '' " 15000 '' { 20x83.4 x 9 high, 

^^'""^ -^^'^^ ( or, 20 X 93. 9 X 8 high. 

Capacity of Wacon-Beds.— i?w?e 1.— If the opposite sides are 
parallel, multiply the length inside in inches by the breadth inside in 
inches, and that again by the depth inside in inches, and divide the 
product by 2,150.42 (the number of cubic inches in a bushel), and the 
quotient will be the capacity in bushels. 

Example. — What is the capacity of a wagon-bed 10 ft. long, 4 ft. wide, 
and 15 inches deep. 

Work. — 120 inches, length, x 48 inches, width, x 15 inches, depth, 
= 86,400 -f 2,150.42 = 40 bushels. Ans. 

Rule 2. — Should the head and tail boards, or either of them, be set in 
bevelling, add the top and bottom lengths together and divide by 2 for the 
mean length, and proceed by the foregoing rule. Should the sides 
be sloping add tlie top and bottom widths, and divide by 2 for the mean 
width, and i:)roceed by the foregoing rule. 

Should the contents be required in cubic feet, divide the product by 
1,728 (the number of cubic inches in a cubic foot), instead of 2,154.42, and 
the quotient will be the contents in cubic feet. 

Gross and Net Weight and Price of Hogs. — A short and simple 
method for finding the net weight or price of hogs, when the gross 
weight or price is given, and vice versa. 

Note. — It is generally assumed that the gross weight of hogs, dimin- 
ished by one-fifth or 20 per cent, of itself gives the net weight, and the 
net weight increased by one-fourth or 25 per cent, of itself equals 
the gross weight. 

To find the net weight, or gross price : Multiply the given number by 
•8 (tenths). 

( 365 

Example, — A hog weighing 305 lbs. gross, will weigh 292 lbs. / .8 

net, and pork at ^3.65 net, is equal to S2.92 gross. " f 

i 292.0 

To find the gross weight, or net price : Divide the given number by '8 
(tenths). 

Example.— A hog weighing 348 lbs. net, weighs 435 lbs. gross; ( -S)^^^ 
and pork at $3.48 gross, is equal to ^.35 net. " | "o« 



AGRICULTURAL FACTS. 



695 



To FixD THE Number t>F Shingles Required in a Roof.— Eide. 
— Multiply the nuiiiber of square feet by 8, if the shingles are exposed 4J 
ins. , or by 7 1-5 if exposed 5 ins. To find the li umber of square feet, 
multiply the length of the roof by twice the length of the rafters. 

To tiiid the length of the rafters at one fourth pitch, multiply the width 
of the building by .56 (hundredths) ; at one-third pitch, multiply it 
by '6 (tenths) ; at two-Hfths pitch, by '64 (hundredths.) This gives 
the length of the rafters from the apex to the end of the wall, and what- 
ever projects must be taken into consideration. 

iVo^e. — By J or ^ pitch is meant that the apex or comb of the roof is to 
be i or J tlie width of the building higher than the walls or base of the 
rafters. 

f For J pitch, 30 X .6 = 18. 
With 1 foot projection = 19 

Example. — How many shingles are 2 times 19 = 38 
required to cover a building 42 feet 42 and 2 = 44 

long and 30 feet wide ; the roof to ^ 

have ^ pitch, and to project 1 foot on 
each end, and 1 foot on each side for 
the eaves — the shingles to lie4j inches 
to the weather. 

Capacities of 

For a circular cistern, take the 
table on page 612), and multiply by 



1672 sq. feet 
8 



Ans. 13,376 
Cisterns. 

diam. in feet, square that (see 
•785398 ; that gives the area m feet ; 
multiply this by 1.728 and divide by 231, and you will have the number 
of gallons capacity of one foot in depth of the cistern ; from this calculate 
the depth. 

If for a Square Cistern, multiply length by breadth, and proceed to 
multiply the result by 1,728 and to divide by 231, as before. Calculated 
in this way we find that each foot in depth of a 

Circular Cistern. Square Cistern. 



5 feet in diam. 

6 '' " 

7 •* 

8 " '• 

9 '' " 
10 " 



holds 4.66 bbls. 
'^ 6.71 " 
" 9.13 '' 
" 11.93 ** 
" 15.10 '•' 
" 18.65 " 



5 feet by 5 feet holds 5.92 bbls. 

6 " 6 ** " 8.54 ♦* 

8 '* 8 *' *< 15.19 " 

9 " 9 " '* 19.39 " 
10 " 10 " " 23.74 '' 



&c., 31^ gals, are estimated to 1 



In calculating the capacity of cisterns 
barrel, and 63 gals, to 1 hogshead. 

To Compute the Weight of Lht. Cattle. For cattle of a girth 
of from 5 to 7 feet, allow 23 lbs. to the superficial foot. For a girth of 
from 7 to 9 ft. , allow 31 lbs. to the superficial foot. For small cattle and 
calves of a girth of from 3 to 6 ft. allow 16 lbs. to the cubic foot. For pigs, 
sheep, and animals measuring less than 3 ft. girth, allow 11 lbs. to the 
superficial foot. 

Rule. — Measure the girth in inches back of the shoulder, and the 
length in inches from the square of the l)uttock to a point even with the 
point of the shoulder blade. Multiply the girth by the length, and di- 
vide the product by 144 for the superficial feet, and then multiply the 
superficial feet by the number of lbs. allowed as above for cattle of va- 
rious girths, and the product will be the nuniber of pounds of beef, veal, 
or pork in the four quarters of the animal. To find the number of stone, 
divide the number of lbs. by 14. 

Exa:mple. — What is the estimated weight of beef in a steer, whose girth 
is 6 ft. 4 ins. . and lens^th 5 ft. 3 ins. 

Work.— 76 ins. girth, x 63 ins. length, z= 4788 -f 144 = 33J square 
feet, X 23 == 764| lbs. , or 541 stone. Ans . 



696 



AGRICULTURAL TABLES. 



"When the animal is but half fattened, a deduction of 14 lbs, in every 
280, or 1 stone in every 20 must be made ; and if very fat, 1 stone for 
every 20 must be added. See other rules on page 558. 

These rules are a very close approximation to the truth, subject to very 
slight variations owing to the condition, breed, &c., of various animals. 
Tlie following Table is compiled from two English authorities on the 
subject : 

Girth, 
ft. in. 



Length, 
ft. in. 



Kenton's Table, 
stone lb. 



Gary's Table, 
stone lb. 



5 

5 

5 6 

5 6 

6 
6 
6 6 

6 6 

7 

7 

8 
8 



3 6 21 21 00 

4 24 24 00 

27 1 27 00 

34 4 34 07 

38 8 38 11 

43 1 43 00 

45 9 45 07 

9 48 48 00 

C 64 6 64 07 

70 5 70 03 

99 8 99 1' 

107 5 107 



3 
4 
4 
5 
4 
4 
5 
6 

6 6 

7 



In reference to the very important item of Sheep Husbandry, the fol 
lowing valuable Table presents the results of numerous exiDeriments bj 
De Rauraer : 

TABLE S HO WING THE EFFECTS PRODUCED BY AN EQUAL QUANTITY OF 
THE FOLLOWING SUBSTANCES AS FOOD FOK SHEEP. 



libs. Designation. 

1000 potatoes raw with salt. . 

'' "• " without salt 

** mangel- wurtzel, raw.. . . 

** wheat.... 

*' oats 

*' barley 

" peas 

" rye, with salt 

" '' without salt 

" corn meal, wet 

** buckwheat 



Increased weight of 


Produced 


Produced 


living animal in 


Wool 


Tallow 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


461/2 


61/2 


121/2 


44 


6% 


iiy2 
61/2 


381/2 


51/4 


155 


14 


591/2 


146 


10 


421/2 


136 


m. 


60 


134 


41 


133 


14 


35 


90 


12 


43 


129 


131/2 


171/^ 


120 


10 


33 



The following Table, from Delisser's Horseman's Guide, exhibits the 
percentage of different nutritive elements in the various kmds of food 
supplied to horses in this and other countries : 



Description of Food. 


Wood 
Fibre. 


Sugar and 
Starch. 


Fibrine and 
Albumen. 


Fattv Mat- 
ter. 


Saline Mat- 
ters. 


Water. 


Black Butter Corn. 


none. 


53.5 


15.5 


10.5 


9.2 


11.2 


Oats. 


30.0 


43.0 


11.4 


0.6 


2.5 


12.5 


Indian Corn. 


8.0 


53.0 


14.0 


6.0 


5.0 


14.0 


Linseed. 


19.0 


35.0 


20.0 


8.0 


6.0 


12.0 


Beans. 


14 5 


40.0 


26.0 


2.5 


3.0 


14.0 


Peas. 


9.0 


48.0 


24.0 


2.0 


3.0 


14.0 


Barley. 


14.0 


52.0 


13.5 


2.5 


3.0 


15.0 


Old Hay. 


30.0 


40.0 


7.0 


2.0 


7.0 


14.0 


Clover. 


25.0 


40.0 


9.0 


3.0 


9.0 


14.0 


Barley Straw. 


46.0 


• 34 


1.5 


none. 


6.5 


12.0 


Oat Straw. 


50.0 


31.0 


1.0 


a trace. 


5.5 


12.5 


Wheat Straw. 


55.0 


27.0 


0.5 


none. 


5.5 


12.0 


Bran. 


51.0 


2.0 


20.0 


4.0 


7.0 


13.0 


Carrots. 


3.0 


10.0 


1.5 


none. 


1.5 


84.0 



1 pt. of Black Butter-Corn as imported from the Indies, and sold in 
many of the feed stores, is considered equivalent to 12 qts. of oats for 
nourishing qualities Avheu fed to a horse. Hard working horses can be 



AGRICULTURAL TABLES. 



697 



kept in prime order by feeding them, 1st, At Night after ivork, I peck 
oats, and h pt. black butter corn, with 8 to 10 lbs. ^ood haj^ 2d, In the 
Morning, | peck oats, 1 pt. Indian meal, with say, 2 lbs. hay. 3d, During 
the day, ^ peck of oats with a little hay. 4th, On Saturday Night a 
good warm bran mash. 5th, On Sunday, an extra allowance of hay. 

These rules followed out, will ensure to a horse a weekly allowance af, 
Fibrine and Albumen, 22 lbs. ; Fat, 5J lbs. ; starch and sugar, 85 lbs, so 
that the relative proportion of nitrogenous to carbonaceous food is as 1 
to 4 ; while for a fattening animal it is as 1 to 5. Horses should be water- 
ed before feeding. 

Table, showing the results of experiments in the feeding op 
good hay and other substances, as food for stock. 

10 lbs. of hay are equal to 
30 to 35 lbs. mangold wurtzel. 



10 lbs of hay are equal to 


8 to 10 lbs 


. clover hay. 


45 to 50 *' 


green clover. 


40 to 50 ♦' 


wheat straw. 


20 to 40 " 


barley straw. 


20 to 40 *' 


oat straw. 


10 to 15 " 


pea straw. 


20 to 25 *' 


potatoes. 


25 to 30 " 


carrots (red). 


40 to 45 '* 


" (white). 



45 to 50 


<( 


tuniips. 


20 to 30 


it 


cabbage. 


3 to 5 


(< 


peas and beans. 


5to C 


<( 


wheat. 


5 to 6 


(< 


barley. 


4 to 7 


<< 


oats. 


5 to 7 


(( 


Indian corn. 


2 to 4 


<( 


oil cake. 



Note. — In calculations of this kind, due allowance must be made for 
variations caused by the condition, age, digestion, breed, &;c., of the 
animal, and the variety or mixture of the food dispensed. The same re- 
marks are eminently true of the following. 
Table, showing the difference between good hay and the 

substances noted below, as food for stock, being the mean 

cf experiment and theory. 



100 lbs. 


of hay are equal to 


100 lbs of hay are equal to 


275 lbs. 


green Indian corn. 


54 lbs. rye. 


442 •* 


rye straw. 


46 


" wheat. 


360 " 


wheat " 


59 


" oats. 


164 ♦* 


oat '' 


45 


** peas and beans mixed. 


180 '* 


barley '< 


64 


** buckwheat. 


153 '' 


pea " 


57 


** Indian corn. 


200 " 


buckwheat straw. 


68 


" acorns. 


201 " 


raw potatoes. 


105 


" wheat bran. 


175 " 


boiled potatoes. 


109 


u rye ** 


339 " 


mangold wurtzel. 


167 


'' wheat, pea, and oat chaff. 


504 *' 


turnips. 


179 


*< rye and barley, mixed. 


300 '' 


carrots. 







The following Table shows the amount of hay or its equivalent per day, 
required by each 100 lbs. of live weight of various animals : 

Working Horses 3.08 lbs. 

" Oxen 2.40 '* 

Fatting Oxen 5.00 ** 

« « when fat 4.00 ♦* 

Milch Cows from 2.25 to 2.40 ** 

Dry " 2.42 ** 

Young growing cattle 3.08 " 



Steers. 



2.84 
3.00 
3.00 



Pigs 

Sheep 

Winter Treatment of Hens. — Hens will produce an abundance of 
eggs during winter if they are provided with a warm comfortable roost 
during the night, and a sheltered sunny exposure during the day. Give 
them plenty of dry ashes, gravel, and sand to roll in ; a box of slacked 
or old lime to nibble at, with an allowance of finely chopped meat every 
other day, and plenty of corn and oats, boiled soft, and spiced with 
cayenne pepper. Add the table crumbs, potato i)arings, &c., with plenty 
of lukewarm water, and they will render ample returns. No living thing 
kept on a farm pays better than hens if they are only well used. 



698 



AGRICULTURAL TABLES. 



Nutritive value of various crops, as to starch, gum, gluten, 
albumen, casein, oil, saline matter, &c. 



DESIGNATION. 



Wheat 

Barley 

Oats 

Peas , 

Beans 

Indian Corn . . 

Potatoes , 

Turnips 

Wheat Straw, 
Meadow Hay, 
Clover Hay . . . 
Cabbage 



Bushels. 



lbs. 



25 
35 
50 
25 
25 
30 

12 tons 

30 " 

'\ :: 

20 '' 



1500 

1800 

2100 

1600 

1600 

1800 

27000 

67000 

3000 

3400 

4500 

45000 



-a 
o 
o , 

C5fl 

M 






225 

270 

420 

130 

160 

100 

1080 

1340 

1500 

1020 

1120 

430 



825 
1080 
1050 

900 

640 
1260 
4800 
6000 

900 
1360 
1800 
2300 



fl 








i.s 




^ « 




<5S 




« 


Oil. 


0) C 








c 








o 




180 


45 


230 


50 


300 


100 


380 


34 


420 


40 


220 


130 


540 


45 


1000 


200 


40 


80 


240 


120 


420 


200 


1300 


1 130 



30 

50 

75 

48 

50 

30 

240 

450 

150 

220 

400 

600 



''^ Johnston . 

In the following table, by Sprengel, the grain, leaves, peas, straw, and 
hay, are estimated after they have been dried in the air, the roots after 
they have been taken from the field. The potato loses in drying 69 per 
cent, of water ; the turnip, 91; the carrot, 87; the turnip leaf, 86; the 
carrot leaf, parsnip, and parsnip leaf, each 87, and the cabbage 93. 
Table showing the quantitv and kinds of inorganic matter 

REMOVED from THE SOIL IN 1000 LBS. EACH OF THE FOLLOWING 
CROPS. 











_g 






ri 

3 


!2 
'S 
< 

't-l 


o 


2 

1— ( 

o 


k 


to 




1 


a 


« 


1 


S 


CJ 


&< 




•g 


-d 


^- 


a o 




I 


eg 


3 


< 


iZ 


5 
CO 


& 


g 


trace 


S 




Wheat— Grain . 


2.25 


2,40 


0.96 


0.90 


0.26 


4.00 


0.50 


0.40 


0.10 


11.77 


'' Straw. 


0.20 


0.29 


2.40 


0.32 


0.90 


28.70 


0.37 


1.70 


0.30 






35.18 


Barley— Grain. 


2.78 


2.90 


1.06 


1.80 


0.25 


11.82 


.59 


2.10 


0.19 


trace 




23.49 


<• Straw. 


1.80 


0.48 


5.54 


0.76 


1.46 


38.56 


1.18 


1.60 


0.70 


0.14 


0.20 


52.42 


Oats— Grain ... 


1.50 


1.32 


0.86 


0.67 


0.14 


19.76 


0.35 


0.70 


0.10 


0.40 




25.80 


" Straw . . . 


8.70 


0.02 


1.52 


0.22 


0.06 


45.88 


0.79 


0.12 


0.05 


0.02 


0.02 


57.40 


Rye— Grain 


5.,^2 




1.22 0.44 


0.24 


1.64 


0.23 


0.46 


0.09 


0.42 


0.34 


10.40 


" Straw... 


0.32 


0.11 


1.7810.12 


0.25 


22.97 


1.70 


0.51 


0.17 






27.93 


Field) Bean... 
Bean j Straw... 


4.15 


8.16 


1.65 


1.58 


0.34 


1.26 


0.89 


2.92 


0.41 






21.36 


16.56 


0.50 


6.24 


2.09 


0.10 


2.20 


0.34 


2.26 


0.80 


0.07 


0.05 


31.21 


Field ) Pea .... 
Pea j Straw . . 


8.10 


7.39 


0.58 


1.36 


0.20 


4.10 


0.53 


1.90 


0.38 


0.10 




24.64 


2.35 




27.30 


3.42 


0.60 


9.96 


3. .37 


2.40 


0.04 


0.20 


0.07 


49.71 


Potasj^^pg 


4.028 


2.334 


.331 


.324 


.050 


.084 


.540 


.401 


.160 


.032 




8.284 


8.19 


.09 


12.97 


1.70 


.04 


4.94 


.42 


1.97 


.50 


.02 




30.84 


Tnr 1 Roots.. 

^''^' {Leaves. 


2.386 


1.048 


.752 


.254 


.0.S6 


.388 


.801 


.367 


.239 


.032 




6.303 


3.23 


2.22 


6.20 


.59 


.03 


1.28 


2.52 


.98 


.87 


.17 




18.09 


Carrots 


3 533 


.922 

.702 


.657 
.468 


.384 
.270 


.039 
.024 


.137 
.162 


.270 
.192 


.514 

.ioo 


.070 

.178 


.033 
.C05 


.060 

9 


6.619 


Parsnips 


2.079 


4.180 


Rye Grass 


8.81 


3.94 


7.34 


0.90 


0.31 


27.72 


3.53 


0.25 


0.06 






52.86 


Red Clover 


19.95 


5.29 


27.80 


3.33 


0.14 


3.61 


4.47 


6.57 


3.62 






74.78 


White Clover.. 


31.05 


5.79 


33.48 


3.05 


1.90 


14.73 


3.53 


5.05 


2.11 


0.63 




9J.32 


Lucerne 


13.40 


6.15 


48.31 


3.48 


0.30 


3.30 


4.04 


13.07 


3.18 


0.30 




95.52 


Sainfoin 


20.57 


4.37 


121. 9512. 88 


0.66 


5.00 


3.41 


9.1€ 


1.57 






69.57 



AGRICULTURAL TABLES, &C. 699 

As a means of enabling the farmer to form an approximate estimate of 
the amount removed from the soil by his crops, we append the following 
valuable tables by Prof. Johnston : — 

Table showing the amount of obganic substances removed from 

THE soil in 1000 LBS. EACH OF THE FOLLOWING CROPS WHEN PER- 
FECTLY DRY. 

Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen. Nitrogen. Ash. 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Hay. about 458 50 387 15 90 

Red Clover Hay.. 474 50 378 21 77 

Potatoes 440 58 447 15 40 

Wheat 4G1 58 434 23 23 

Wheat Straw 484 53 3891/2 331/2 70 

Oats 507 64 367 22 40 

Oat Straw 601 54 390 4 51 

Table showing inorganic matter removed from the soil in 1000 
lbs. each of the following crops in their ordinary state 
of dryness. 

Beans about 30 lbs. 

Peas ** 30 " 

Pea straw <' 50 " 

Meadow Hay " 50 to 100 

CloverHay " 90 lbs. 

Rye Grass Hay " 95 " 

Potatoes <^ 8 to 15 

Turnips " 5 to 8 

Carrots " 15 to 20 



Wheat about 20 lbs. 

Wheat straw " 50 *' 

Barley '•' 30 " 

Barley straw '' 50 " 

Oats " 40 " 

Oatstraw " 60 " 

Rye " 20 '< 

Rye straw ** 40 ** 

Indian Com " 15 '' 

Indian Com Stalk.... " 50 '' 

Grand Idea for Farmers ; Best Fodder at $1.00 per Ton— Mr. 
Francis Morris of Howard Co., Ind., thus recounts a very unusual ex- 
perience in preparing and ushig corn fodder. The system, if carried out 
to its ultimate results, would render almost any farm a fair equivalent to 
a gold mine, so far as profit is concerned. 

" About the 1st of last August, I i^lanted five acres of ordinary wheat 
land in Indian corn, and I allowed it to grow until the 1st of October, 
when it was in tassel. I then had it cut down with a reaper and passed 
through the ordinary process of chopping, using for that purpose an or- 
dinary feed-cutter. The fodder thus produced was mixed with straw in 
proportion of four-fifths corn fodder to one fifth straw. It was then put 
in trenches, trampled down, and covered with earth. The fodder re- 
mained in this state until last Christmas day, when the trenches were 
opened and the fodder taken out and fed to the cattle. The fodder was 
found to be in as perfect a state of preservation as when it was first put in, 
and the cattle seemed to relish it from the first, and now prefer it to any 
other kind of food. The cost of producing this fodder was only $1 a ton, 
wliich is only one-twentieth as much as the cost of timothy hay, which 
is not equal to it in any respect. If the land is planted early in the spring, 
20 or 30 tons can be raised to the acre, but in France the land is highly 
manured and the corn is sowed only two feet apart, which often makes 
the yield as high as 80 tons to the acre. The same land can afterwards 
be planted in barley, and loses none of its strength by the planting of the 
com, as it is a principle in agriculture that the strength of the land is only 
lost in the formation of the grain. By the use of this fodder every farm 
of 100 acres, planted with 10 acres of this fodder, would be able to fatten 
100 head of cattle during the winter, which would yield a profit of 50 per 
cent., besides the immense advantage of having such an amount of stable 
manure, which in itself, if utilized, would pay for the fodder thus used." 

The advantages of this method, Mr. Morris states, are best shown by a 



700 



AGRICULTURAL FACTS, &C. 



comparison between the cost of production of this fodder and the cost of 
timothy haj^ . 

Phosphate, 10 acres, at $16 §160 

Team and plow for 30 days 60 

Man to tend the team . 15 

Cutting 15 

Hauling and preserving , 250 

Total cost §500 

" A fair estimate of the crop of these ten acres would be 500 tons. 
Five hundred tons of timothy hay would cost $10,900, and as this 500 tons 
of chopped fodder will answer the same purpose as the timothy hay, it is 
easily seen that every community can thus raise its own meat at about 
half the cost to import it." 

Of all the vegetable products used as food, it is to be noted that in their 
dry $tate, carbon forms almost J the weight, oxygen a little over J," 
hydrogen a little more than 5 per cent, nitrogen from 1 J to 4 per cent, and 
earthy matter from 1 to 20 per cent. 




A SIMPLE STUMP PULLER. 
The above cut represents a simple stump machine illustrated in the 
columns of the American Agriculturist. It is worked by a lever, moved 
preferably by a stout yoke of oxen. The end of the lever is supplied 
with a strong clevis, sufficiently long to pass around so as to be used on 
either side. The fulcrum of the lever consists of a chain which is to be 
fastened to the largest stump near (a) ; on each side of this is a clevis, 
with a short chain and hook attached. To work the machine, fix a chain 
to the stump to be pulled, hook on to one of the short chains of the 
machine (6), draw up the oxen until that chain is tight ; hook on the 
other chain (c), turn the team, and draw up as far as they can go ; hook 
the chain (?>), turn and draw again, and so repeat until the stump is 
drawn out. Then fasten on to another, and repeat the process until all 
the stumps are out within reach of the one the machine is anchored to. 
The machine will then have to be moved to another anchoring place, and 
so on until the field is cleared. The last stump left must be grubbed 
out. It will be necessary to remember that the power of this lever is 



DYNAMITE VS. STUMPS, &C. 701 

very great; and stump pulling requires stout implements and chains. A 
breakage may not only cause delay, but a blow from a snapping chain 
may very easily be fatal ; it is therefore absolutely necessary for safety 
that the chains be made of the best iron, with the best workmanship, and 
strong enough to hold against all the resistance they may meet. The 
lever should be strengthened with iron plates in those parts where the 
holes are bored for the clevis bolts. 

Dynamite vs. Stuivips and Rocks.-— Late experiments by John O'Don- 
nell, of Jamacia, L. I. , before an invited party of farmers, prove con- 
clusively that stumps and rocks can be sent flying by means of dynamite 
at a very low cost. The stronger and fresher the stump is the further it 
flies. Five stumps were attacked. The first was of oak, partly decayed. 
The men employed punched a hole with a crowbar betwe'en two project- 
ing roots, but not being experts, did not insert the instrument fully under 
the stump. Consequently, only two-thirds of it was blown out. The 
partial decay of the wood was another hindrance. It did not offer the 
necessary resistance. A partially rotted chestnut stump was blown to 
fragments. The crowbar was badly inserted under an apple-tree stump, 
and that, like the oak, was shattered to the extent of two-thirds. With 
a sound and sturdy oak stump, however, the dynamite was fully 
triumphant. The stump was blown out utterly. 

A charge was place under a rock weighing about two tons. It was 
thrown from its bed and shattered to pieces. A rock half its size was 
thrown twenty feet, but not broken. A hole about a foot deep was then 
drilled into a well-embedded rock, and charged with four ounces of 
dynamite. It was much broken, and the pieces not dislodged were easily 
pried out with the crowbar. 

About two inches of a cartridge an inch in diameter had hitherto been 
used upon the stumps, but the closing experiment was made with an 
entire cartridge eighteen inches long upon a fresh oak stump twenty 
inches in diameter. Many of the fragments were thrown 125 feet. 

The dynamite is put up in packages of oiled muslin, shaped like a 
candle, and impervious to water. One end is opened, and a hole is made 
in the powder with a stick for the insertion of the percussion cap, which 
is an inch long, and loaded for half its length with fulminate of mercury. 
A fuse is inserted in the cap, which is squeezed with nippers that it may 
fit tightly. The little interstices must be filled with soap, to render the 
cap waterproof. After the cap is in position in the powder, the top of 
the cartridge must be tied tight around the fuse, so that no water may 
enter. On the cartridge being placed against the stump, water must be 
poured into the hole and the ground around thoroughly soaked and 
pressed that it may offer a strong resistance. A little semi-circular dam 
should then be heaped around, within which more water should be 
poured, by way of adding to the resistance. The fuse, which should 
project outside of the dam, is then lighted. It reaches the cap in less than 
two minutes, which affords ample time for the operators to reach a safe 
distance. The explosion makes little noise, and after viewing a dance m 
the air of a myriad of fragments, spectators find a large hole, with a few 
loose roots around and the ground ready for the plough. 

Cockroach Destroyer.— To destroy cockroaches, mix finely 
powdered borax and fine sugar, half-and-half, and spread around where 
the roaches are most troublesome. For a few days it may seem that the 
remedy is doing no good, but soon the roaches will begin to die, and m a 
short time yon will be rid of them. This is said to be an infallible rem- 
edy. Cayenne pepper will keep the pantry and storeroom free from 
cockroaches and ant.^. 



702 



AGRICULTURAL TABLES. 



QUANTITIES OF SEED REQUIRED TO THE ACRE, &c. 
Table shoaving the quantity of garden seed for a given space. 
Designation. Space and quantity of seeds. 



Asparagus 

" Roots. 

Eng.Dwarf Beans 

French " " 

Beans, Pole,large 

«* '' small 

Beets 

Broccoli and Kale 

Cabbage 

Cauliflower 

Carrot 

Celery 

Cucumber 

Cress 

Egg Plant 

Endive 

Leek 

Lettuce.... 

Melon 

Nasturtium 

Onion 

Okra 

Parsley 

Parsnip 

Peppers 

Peas 

Pumpkin 

Radish 

Salsify 

Spinage 

Squash 

Tomato . . 

Turnip 

Water Melon 



1 oz. produces 1000 plants and requires a bed 12 ft. sq. 

1000, plant a bed 4 feet wide, 225 long. 

1 quart plants, from 100 to 225 of row. 

•' " " from 100 to 150 feet of row. 

" " " 100 hills. 

" '* <* 300 hills, or 250 feet of row. 

10 lbs. to the acre ; 1 oz. plants 150 feet of row. 

1 oz. plants 2500 plants, and requires 40 sq. ft. of ground. 

Early sorts same as broccoli, and require 60 sq. ft. ground. 

The same as cabbage. 

1 oz. to 150 of row. 

1 oz. gives 7000 plants, and requires 8 sq. feet of ground. 

1 oz. for 150 hills. 

1 oz. sows a bed 16 feet square. 

1 oz. gives 2000 plants. 

1 oz. gives .3000 plants, and requires 80 feet of ground. 

1 oz. gives 2000 plants and requires 60 feet of ground. 

1 oz. <* 7000 <' and requires seed bed of 120 feet. 

1 oz. for 120 hills. 

1 oz. sows 25 feet of row, 

loz. *' 200 " " 

loz. " 200 <* " 

1 oz. '' 200 " " 

loz. " 250 '' *' 

1 oz. gives 2500 plants. 

1 quart sows 120 feet of row. 

1 oz. to 50 hills. 

1 oz. to 100 feet. 

1 oz. to 150 feet of row. 

1 oz. to 200 feet of row. 

1 oz. to 75 hills 

1 oz. gives 2500 plants, requiring seed bed of 80 feet. 
1 oz. to 2000 feet. 
1 oz. to 60 hills. 



Table showing the quantity of seed required to the acre. 



Designation. Quantity of seed. 

Wheat 11/4 to 2 bush. 

Barley 1>^ to 21/2 " 

Oats 2 to 4 " 

Rye 1 to2 ** 

Buckwheat ^^ to 11/3 '' 

Millet 1 tolj^ '' 

Corn i4tol 

Beans 1 to 2 " 

Peas 2% to3K " 

Hemp 1 tol^ " 

Flax ^ to2 

Rice 2 to 21^ *' 



Designation . Quantity of seed. 

Broom Corn 1 to 1% bush. 

Potatoes 5 to 10 " 

Timothy 12 to 24 quarts. 

Mustard 8 to 20 '< 

Herd Grass 12 to 16 '' 

Flat Turnip 2 to 3 lbs. 

Red Clover 10 to 16 

White Clover 3 to 4 

Blue Grass 10 to 15 

Orchard Grass 20 to 30 

Carrots 4 to 5 

Parnsnips 6 to 8 



Table showing the quantity per acre when planted in rows or 

drills. 



Broom Corn 1 to ll^ bush. 

Beans I14 to 2 

Peas 11/2 to 2 



Onions 4 to 5 lbs. 

Carrots 2 to 2^ " . 

Parnsnips 4 to 5 " 

Beets 4 to 6 " 

To Estimate the Quantity of Peat. — Peat, as ordinarily in the bed, 
will weiojh 2,100 to 2,400 lbs. per cubic yard, if drained in the bed. 
1,340 to 1,490; when air-dried, 320 to 380 lbs. , when it will shrink to J 
or 1-6 its original bulk. 

Vitality of Seeds. — Beans will retain vitality for 2 years, beet 7, 
cabbage 4, carrot 2, sweet corn 2, cucumber 10, lettuce 3, melon 10, onion 
1, peas 2, parsnip 1, radish 3, squash 10, tomato 7, turnip 4. 



AGRICULTURAL TABLES. 



703 



Table showing germination of wheat sowed at various depths. 

Appeared above No. of plants 
Seeds sown to the depth of y^ inch. 



1 




2 




3 




4 




5 




6 





ground in 


that 


came up. 


11 days 




% 


12 '^ 




all. 


18 " 




% 


n 




« 


<< 




1^ 


« 




% 


23 " 




'^, 



La sowing wheat the rule is to give it a thinner covering in a close 
heavy soil, than in one that is light, gravelly, and sandy. 
Table, showing the period of reproduction and gestation .of 

domestic animals. 



DESIGNATION, 



Mare 

Stallion, 

Cow, 

Bull...... 

Ewe, 

Ram, 

Sow, 

Boar, 

She Goat, 

He Goat, 

She Ass, 

He Ass 

She Buffalo,... 

Bitch, 

Dog, 

She Cat, 

He Cat, 

Doe Rabbit, 

Buck Rabbit,.. 

Cock, 

Hen, 

Turkey, 

Duck, 

Goose, 

Pigeon, 

Pea Hen 

Guinea Hen, . . . 
Swan, 



0.0. 

0.2 



4 years. 

5 " 
3 ** 

3 " 
2 *' 
2 " 
1 •< 

1 " 

2 '• 
2 " 

4 '' 

5 '' 



2 '' 

2 " 

1 " 

1 " 
6 months 

6 " 

ft « 



^?!-5 




** ^ G 




•H.M O 




OotCJ 




•tft.2 








«- > o 


g 


« o 2 « 1 

Ph o,o,>» 1 


10 to 


12 


12 to 13 1 


10 to 


14 


8 to 


10 


6 




7 




6 




6 




6 




5 




10 to 


12 


12 to 15 1 


8 




8 to 


9 


8 to 


9 


5 to 


6 


9 to 


10 


5 to 


G 


5 to 


6 


5 to 


G 


3 to 


5 






PERIOD OF GESTATION 
CTBATIOX. 



Shortest pe- 
riod, days. 



20 to 30 
30 to 45 
40 to 50 
6 to 10 
20 to 40 



5 to G 

30 

12 to 15 



Growth 
grows for 



AND LIFE OF 

20 years, and 
8 



322 

240 

146 

109 

150 

365 

281 
55 

48 

20 



19 

24 

28 

27 

16 

25 

20 

40 

ANIMALS, 
lives 90 



Mean peri 
od.days. 



347 

283 

154 

115 

156 

380 

308 
60 

50 

28 



21 
26 
30 

30 
18 
28 
33 
42 



Longest 
period, dys. 



419 



321 

161 

143 

163 

391 

335 
63 

56 

35 



24 
30 
32 
33 

20 
30 
25 
45 



to 20 



to 
or 

or 



14 

10 



Man grows for 20 years, and lives 90 or 100 years. 

The Camel " 

The Horse " 

The Ox •* 

The Lion " 

The Dog <* 

The Cat "• 

The Hare '* 

The Guinea pig 

To Rid a House of Rats. — Wet a few pounds of unslacked lime with 
strong lye made from potash ; let it be quite soft ; spread it around the 
holes so that the rats cannot avoid treading in it ; let it remain a week or 
so, and if it gets dry scrape it off and moisten again. The mixture burns 
their feet, and they will not be likely to make a second visit. Do not let 
it come in contact with oil cloth or paint. 



5 ' 

^ <( (< (< 

A ii (( it 

2 (( (I it 

1% *' " '* 

J a n i( 
7 months, and lives 



40 

25 

15 

20 

12 

9 

8 

6 



704 



LAND MEASUREMENT. 



ON LAND MEASUREMENT. 
To aid farmers in arriving at accurate results in the measurement of 
an acre, we append the following table. A field of any of these dimen- 
sions contains one acre : 

10 yards wide by 483 long. 
242 " 40 '' *♦ 121 

60^ *< 70 '* " 69 

161 " 55 " " 88 

97 " 47 " ** 303 

303 " 59 ** " 82 

THE SIDE OF A SQUARE TO CONTAIN 
208.71 feet ; 12.65 rods ; 64 

147.58 feet ; 8.94 rods ; 45 

120.50 feet ; 7.30 rods ; 37 

104.36 feet ; 6.32 rods ; 32 

73.79 feet ; 4.47 rods ; 22^ paces. 

Table for farmers, surveyors, &c., giving exact proportions op 
an acre in square feet in a lot less than an acre. 



5 yards wide by 968 long. 
20 '' 
80 " 
30 ** 
50 
16 " 

One acre, 
^ acre, 

1/3 acre, 
1/4 acre, 
Vs acre, 



paces, 
paces, 
paces, 
paces. 



© 


oa p 


. 


OQ 


. 


03 (V 


? • 


to 6 


So* 




a 




(h ^ 

U 






^0 


Sj» 


3 <y 


c« 


rj CJ 


c3 


rj 0, 


e3 


0*^ 


S«H 


D'P^ 


S'^ 


, D^P^ 


S'H 


c-^ 


S.M 


m 


^B 


W 


^ 


02 


^ 


33106 


'^ 


436 


.01 


11326 


.26 


22216 


.51 


.76 


871 


.02 


11761 


.27 


22651 


.52 


33541 


.77 


1307 


.03 


12197 


.28 


23087 


.53 


33977 


.78 


1742 


.04 


12632 


.29 


23522 


.54 


34412 


.79 


2178 


.05 


13068 


.30 


23958 


.55 


34848 


.80 


2614 


.06 


13504 


.31 


24394 


.56 


35384 


.81 


3049 


.07 


13939 


..32 


24829 


.57 


3.-819 


.82 


3485 


.08 


14375 


.33 


25265 


.58 


36255 


.83 


3920 


.09 


14810 


.34 


25700 


.59 


36G90 


.84 


4356 


.10 


15246 


.35 


26136 


.60 


37026 


.85 


4792 


.11 


15G82 


.36 


26572 


.01 


37462 


.86 


5227 


.12 


16117 


.37 


27007 


.62 


37897 


.87 


5663 


.13 


16558 


.38 


27443 


.63 


38333 


.88 


6098 


.14 


16988 


.39 


27878 


.64 


38768 


.89 


6534 


.15 


17424 


.40 


28314 


.65 


39204 


.90 


6970 


.16 


17860 


.41 


28750 


.66 


3C640 


.91 


7405 


.17 


18295 


.42 


20185 


.67 


40075 


.92 


7841 


.18 


18731 


.43 


29621 


.68 


40511 


.93 


8276 


.19 


19166 


.44 


30056 


.69 


40946 


.94 


8712 


.20 


19602 


.45 


30492 


.70 


41381 


.95 


9148 


.21 


20038 


.46 


30928 


.71 


41818 


.96 


9583 


.22 


20473 


.47 


31363 


.72 


42253 


.97 


10019 


.23 


20909 


.48 


31799 


.73 


42689 


.98 


10454 


.24 


21344 


.49 


32234 


.74 


43124 


.99 


10890 


.25 I 


21780 


.50 


32670 


.75 


43560 


1.00 



Small Lots. — In laying off small lots the following admeasurements 
will be found to be both accurate and useful : — 

52 J feet square, or 2,722 J^ square feet,= 1'^ of an acre* 



732/3 
1041/3 
120>^ 
147/, 



=y8 



=¥4 



5,445 

10,890 

14,520 ** =¥3 

21,780 " =y2 *• 

43,560 " =1 acre. 

To Find the Number of Acres in a Body of Land.— i?w?e.— Mul- 
tiply the length by the width (in rods), and divide the product by 160 : 
the result will be the answer in acres and hundredths. 

When the opposite sides of a piece of land are of unequal length, add 
them together and take one-half for the mean length or width. Multiply 
this by the depth, and divide by 31 J. This will give the result required. 



LAND MEASUREMENT. 705 

fj'JRVErOR'S LONG MEASURE FOR MEASURING DISTANCES, BOUNDARIES, 
AREAS, RAILWAYS, &C. 

Ti^o'^o iiiches 1 link. I 4 rods 1 chain. 

25 links 1 rod.. | 80 chains 1 mile. 

EQUIVALENTS. 

Mile. Chains. Rods- Links. Inches. 

1 = 80 = 320 = 8,000 = 63,360 . 

1 =, 4 = 100 = 792 

= 25 = 198 

1 = 7.92 

Surveyor's long measure, scale of units, 7-92, 25, 4, 80. , 

TABLE OF MISCELLANEOUS LINEAR MEASURE. 

8 inches 1 palm. 

4inpTiA<i 1 Vi'inrl ^ Used in meaBuring the height of 

incneS l nana. \ i^oj-ses at the Ihoulder. 

9 inches 1 span. 

3 feet 1 pace or step. 

3.28 feet 1 metre. 

6 feet 1 fathom. ) ,, , . 

880 fathoms ^ ^ 1 mile. | ^-^-— ^-<iepthsatsea. 

3 geographical miles 1 league. 

60 '' ^'Xl flf^ctrf^f^ 5 Of latitude: 

69— statute " C ^^a^^*^* ^ Of longitude on the equator. 

Surveyor's square measure, for measuring the contents of 

farms, fields, &c . 

625 square links (sq. L) 1 pole, P. 

16 poles 1 square chain, sq. ch. 

10 square chains 1 acre, A. 

640 acres 1 square mile, sq. mi. 

36 square miles (6 miles square) 1 township, Tp. 

EQUIVALENTS. 

Tp. Sq. Mi. A. Sq. Ch. P. Sq. Links. 

1 = 36 = 2304 = 230,400 = 3,686,400 = 2,304,000,000 

1 = 640 = 6,400 = 102,400 = 64,000,000 

10 = 160 = 10,000 

1 = 16 = 1,000 

1 = 625 

Surveyor's square measure, scale of units, 625, 16, 10, 640, 36. 

An Acre is the unit of land measure, and is 10 square chains (10,000 
links), or a piece of land 3 chains 16i links (or about 69^ yds. ), on each 
of the four sides, or, if of a different shape, as much land as is embraced 
in that compass. 

A Rood is a quarter of an acre, or 40 perches, and contains 25,000 
square links ; if square, it should measure 1 chain and 58 links, or about 
34i yds. on each side. 

A Perch (sometimes called a pole or rod) is the 160th of an acre, and 
contains 30J square yds., or 625 square links, and embraces 5^ yds., or 
25 running links of the chain, on each of the four sides. 

Gunter's Chain, the unit of measure used by surveyors, Is a metallic 
chain 22 yds. in length, and is divided into 100 links of 7 iVo inches each. 
Measurements are calculated in chains and hundredths. As a substi- 
tute for the chain, some engineers use a steel measuring tape 100 feet 
long, with each foot divided into tenths. It takes 10,000 links to make 
1 square chain, as 100 times 100 is 10,000. An acre embraces 10 square 



706 



LAND MEASUREMENT, 



chains, or 100,000 square links. The outside measurements of land is 
estimated by running chains and links, the contents by square chains 
and links (being a regular system of decimals), the latter being a multi- 
ple of the former. In land measurement, the chain is drawn straight over 
hills and hollows. Correctness in the measurement is ensured by the use 
of a compass (sustained by a tripod) resembling a quadrant. 

Farmers and others not possessed of a Gunter's ^ham or metallic 
measuring tape, may effect correct measurements by the use of a notched 
pole 16 J feet long, containing 25 divisions, formed by 24 notches, each of 
them a trifle over 7 J inches apart. The 25 spaces will represent 25 links, 
and the pole J of a chain ; be careful to get the spaces correctly laid off 
and accurately numbered on the pole with pen and ink. 

In the United States Government Land measurement a town- 
ship consists of 36 sections, each 1 mile square, a section contains ^640 
acres, a quarter section, ^ mile square — 160 acres, an eighth section, J a 
mile long, north and south, and | mile wide — 80 acres, and a sixteenth 
section, J mile square — 40 acres. In the surveys of the Public Lands of the 
United States they are laid out in ranges of townships which run longi- 
tudinally, and are numbered on the maps in Roman characters, or 
capital letters, according to their proximity to the northern border of 
a State. The ranges of townships run from west to east, the extreme 
northern line of townships in any State would be all number 1, the next 
number 11 and so on down. In a township the sections are all numbered 
1 to 36, beginning at the north-east corner, as shown in the diagram. 

In drawing out deeds the area or contents of the 
land is described in acres, roods, and perches, the 
extent of each boundary is expressed by chains and 
links ; if the land is of' extra value, the odd yards 
and links are noted in describing the contents. In 
laying oE arms, less than half a perch is not 
reckoned, while a half perch or more is counted a 
full perch. The description of landed property as 
detailed in deeds should be definite and explicit as 
to contents and boundaries. Illustration— The dia- 
gram exhibits a piece of land, embracing, say 20 
acres fronting on the west of Stanley road, 

Land of John Reid. 



6 


5 


4 


3 


9, 


NW |NE 


7 


8 








SW 1 SE 


9 


10 


11 


12 


18 


17 


16* 


15 


14 


13 


19 


20 


21 


22 


23 


24 


— 


— 




— 


— 




30 


29 


28 


27 


26 


25 


21 


32 


33 


34 


35 


36 



05 



55S 






A 52 • 

-1-3 C 03 


Length, 


5- a 


ll-^ 


25 chains. 


• 53 


t-Z-^ 




03 


P 




§ 



Land 

of 

Daniel 

Wilson. 



Land of A. Rodgers. 
the land of John Reid is on the south side ; that of Alex. Rodgers on the 
north side ; that of Daniel Wilson on the west side ; and the Stanley road 
on the east side. In the Deed the lot should be described as follows : 
" Beginning at a post, stake, or tree, on the west side of the Stanley 
road at the north-east corner of land owned by John Reid, running 
westerly, parallel with the land of said Reid, twenty-five chains, to land 
belonging to Daniel Wilson, thence northerly, parallel with the land 
of said Wilson, sixteen chains and sixty links, to land of Alex. Rodgers, 
then easterly, parallel with the land of said Rodgers, twenty-five chains 
to the Stanley road, then southerly, along said road, sixteen chains and 
sixty links to the place of beginning, — containing twenty acres of land, 
^^'^ the same more or lesp." 



LEGAL WEIGHT OF A BUSHEL. 



07 



An English acre is a square of about 70 yds. each way ; a Scotch of 
774 yds. ; and an Irish of 88J yds. Every mile of mere hedge and ditch 
is about an acre. Roads and fences, 1 rod wide, occupy 1 acre for every 
mile of length. 

Note.— An English acre comprises 4,840 square yds. ; the Scotch, 
6,150 ; the Irish, 7,840 ; the French (hectare), 11,950 ; the Dutch, 9,722 ; 
the Prussian (morgen), 3,053 ; the Dantzic, 6,650 ; that of Amsterdam, 
9,722 ; that of the United States is English measure. 

FOU TABLE OF SURFACE MEASUREMENTS, SEE PAGE 128. 
EQUIVALENTS. 

A. Sq. Rod. Sq. Yd. Sq. Ft. Sq. Ins. 

640 =: 102,400 =: 3,097,600 = 27,878,400 = 4,014.489,600 

1 = 160 r= 4,840 = 43,560 =: 6,272,640 

1 = 30V4-: — ■ 



Sq. Mi. 
1 = 



27214 = 


39,204 


9 = 


1,296 


1 = 


144 



Table of avoirdupois pounds in a 
statute in the several 
The letter m signifies sold by measure. 



BUSHEL, AS PRESCRIBED 
STATES NAMED. 



BY 



COMMODITIES. 


50 


1 


48 
60 
14 
40 
46 
60 
24 
33 
56 
44 
52 
70 
48 
32 
57 
60 
54 


^ 

48 
60 
14 
50 
46 
60 
25 
33 
56 
44 
56 
68 
50 

48 
60 
56 


i 

48 
60 
14 
52 
46 
60 
24 
33 
56 
44 
56 
68 

35 

57 


48 
60 
14 
52 

60 

56 
44 
56 

50 
33% 


4 

32 

** 

56 
32 
32 

60 


! 

50 
30 

60 

50 


1 

46 
46 

m 

56 

50 
30 
52 

56 
50 

m 
60 


1 

48 

42 

60 

28 
28 
m 

56 
32 
56 

m 

60 


1 

48 

42 

60 

28 
28 

56 

32 

56 
.. 

60 


! 

48 
60 
14 
52 
46 
60 
24 
33 
56 
14 
52 

35 
57 
60 
56 

50 
45 
60 
20 


48 

50 
44 

55 
56 

30 

60 
56 

60 


48 
26 

48 

60 

55 
58 

32 

60 
56 

56 
44 
60 


i 

48 
32 


si 
1 

46 

42 

60 

28 
28 

.. 
56 

34 


1 

47 

58 

56 

.. 

32 
56 

60 


S* 
<^ 

.. 

50 

50 
60 

50 


J** 
46 
46 

56 

.. 

32 

60 
56 

CO 

• 1 


1 


Barley 

Beans 


48 


Blue Grass Seed 

Buckwheat 

Castor Beans 

Clover Seed 


40 


45 


42 

60 
28 
28 
56 

56 
32 


Dried Apples 

Dried Peaches 

Flax Seed 




•• 


Hemp Seed 

Indian Corn 

Indian Corn in ear. . . 

Indian Com meal 

Oats 

Onions 


52 

•• 

32 


56 

28 


Potatoes 




60 
56 


60 «rt 


" p'n 


60 


Rye 

Rye Meal 


54 


56 


56 


'a 


60 


56 


Salt . ; 








50 
45 

60 


50 
45 
60 
20 


50 
45 

60 
20 




Timothy Seed 

Wheat 

Wheat Bran.. ;....... 


60 


56 


45 

60 
20 


46 

60 



In Pennsylvania 80 lbs. coarse, 70 lbs. ground, or 62 lbs. fine salt malvc 
1 bushel, and in Illinois, 50 lbs. common, or 55 lbs. fine salt make 1 bushel. 
In Tennessee 100 ears of corn are a bushel. A heaping bushel contjans 
2815 cubic inches. 

In Maine 64 lbs. of ruta baga turnips or beets make 1 bushel. 

A cask of lime is 240 lbs. Lime in slacking absorbs 2^ times its volume, 
and 2^ times its weight in water. 

The United States Standard bushel contains 2150.42 cubic inches. A 
cubic foot contains 1728 cubic inches, so that a bushel is to a cubic foot, 
as, say 2150 to 1728, or about the proportion of 4 to 5 ; hence to convert 
cubic feet to bushels, multiply by |. 

To FIND THE CONTENTS OF A BiN IN CUBIC FEET. — Abate tlic contents 
one-fifth, and the result will be the contents in bushels. 



708 



AGRICULTURAL TABLES. 



ON FENCES. 

As the maintenance of fences is a most important consideration ou 
every farm, we present the following 

Table showing the number of rails, riders, and stakes required 
for every ten rods of zig-zag fence. 



Length 
of rail. 


Deflec- 
tion from 
right line. 

Feet. 


Length 

of 
panel. 


Num- 
ber of 
panels. 


No. of rails for eachlO rods 


M CO 

MS 


Number of 

riders 

(single). 


Feet. 


Feet. 

8 
10 
12 


Feet. 


5 rails 
high. 


6 rails 
high. 


7 rails 
high. 


12 
14 


6 

7 
8 


20% 
16^ 
13% 


103 
83 
69 


123 
99 
84 


144 

116 

95 


42 
34 

k 28 


21 
17 
14 



For longer distances than 10 rods, the proper number of rails, &c , 
may be computed by multiplying. For instance : If for 50 rods of 
fence, multiply the above number by 5 ; if for 100, multiply by 10, &c. 
The like rule will apply to the next 

Table, showing the number of rails and posts required for 
each ten rods of post and rail straight fence. 



«M4J 


•sl 


'^ 


O 


Number of rails for each 10 rods. 


z. S 


5T 

P 


3 S5 


Si 




to 1 


5 rails 


6 rails 


7 rails 


8 rails 


^2 


^l 


3 A 
^ 


g 


high. 


high. 


high. 


high. 


10 


8 


20% 


21 


103 


123 


144 


165 


12 


10 


1Q% 


17 


83 


99 


116 


133 


14 


12 


13% 


14 


69 


84 


95 


109 


16M 


14^ 


nvz 


12 


57 


69 


81 


93 



Approximate comparative cost of zig-zag and straight rail 

FENCES. 

Zig-zag rail fence- 
Twelve rails, at §25 per thousand 30 cents. 

Ground covered by fence, with total worm from stake to stake, 

in alternate panels of six feet, at §50 per acre 78 *' 

Two stakes, at two cents apiece 4 " 

§1.12 per 12 ft. 
Straight rail fence- 
Eight rails, at §25 per thousand 20 cents. 

Ground covered by fence, two feet wide . . 26 " 

Two stakes 4 " 

Wire 2 " 

??0 52 per 12 ft. 

A board fence, 4 ft. G ins. high, with cedar posts 6 ft. apart, 4 boards, 
respectively, 6 inches, 6 inches, 9 inches, and 12 inches broad, with a 
coping board and vertical board covering the joints against the posts, 
may be constructed, when lumber costs not over $16 per 1000, at a cost 
of not more than Si for every 12 ft. in length, without counting labor. 

The cheapest.and everything considered,the most efficient fence a farm- 
er can construct, is one made of wire; such fences vary in cost according 
to the number of wires used, the number of posts, size of wire, &c. The 



AGRICULTURAL TABLES. 



09 



following table exhibits the length of wire of each number that a given 

weight will make, from which may be computed the cost of a wire fence. 

63 lbs. of No. 6 runs 223 yards, and costs $S 45 or 8 J cents per rod. 

7 " 229 '* " 3 55or7t 

8 " 322 " " 3 65 or 6^ " 

Cost of materials of a loirefence^ posts eight feet apart, with a bottom 
board twelve inches wide, and a scantling three by four on top: 

1^ posts, at 5 cents 7J cents. 

12 feet of inch board, at $16.00 per tliousand feet. 19 " 

Scantling, 12 feet, at $16.00 per thousand feet 19 " 

5 wires=60 ft. of No. 6, at 8^ cents per rod 2^ " 

75J cents per 12 ft. 

In view of the increasing scarcity of timber in many parts of the 
country, it would be well for farmers to exercise greater care for the 
preservation of their standing trees, and as occasion offers, plant out 
more. Nature never fails to respond generously to all such investments. 
For interesting facts regarding the growth of forest trees, consult pp. 84 
and 118. This subject reminds the writer of the advice given by a Scotch 
laird to his son and heir on his death bed. The laird's ruling passion 
during a long life had been to set out trees, and when the closing scene 
arrived, the son was called to his father's l3ed-side, and while standing 
there anticipating salutary counsel befitting the solemnities of the oc- 
casion, the dying laird exclaimed ; " Now Jock, mind what I'm gaun to 
tell ye, wiien I'm gane be aye stickin' in a tree, for it'll grow when you'r 
sleepin'!" 

The chemical ingredients op plant food, in pounds avoirdupois, 
contained in one ton of the following manirres. 



Manures . 


Chlorine . 


Sulphu- 
ric Acid. 


Phospho- 
ric Acid. 


Soda. 


nesia. 


Potash 


Am- 
monia. 


Farm Yard Manure. . . 
Night Soil 


lb. oz. 
1 9 
3 


lbs. oz. 

1 4 

2 3 


lbs. oz. 

5 1 
120 
580 


lbs. oz 
1 10 
4 10 


lbs. oz. 
18 3 

2 7 


Ibs.oz. 
2 4 
6 7 


lbs. oz. 
13 5J 
47 15i- 

145 5 


Fresh Bones 


Dry Blood 












444 3 


Guano 


62 
22 9^ 
1344 


93 8 
194 31/4 


283 9 
5 123/4 


3G 15 
2 113/4 
833 


s'iiyi 


66 8 

711/4 


221 9i 


Soot 


50 2 


Salt, Common 




Gypsum. 


1317 
3 8 










Mxd. Urine p. 100 gals. 
Nitrate of Soda 


1 6 


2 6 


5 9 
8 3 




2 


18 31/4 
364 


Sulp. of Arnica 




1357 










470 













A dragoon-horse kept in a box-stall with 1 hour's exercise each day for 
a week, was fed as follows : — 

Oats each day 10 lbs. = 70 lbs. per week 
Hay " " 12 " = 84 " " '' 
Straw " '' 8 " == 56 " " 

He drank within the week 27 gals, of water ; during the time of his 
exercise the loss of manure is supposed to be 4 lbs. daily, or 28 lbs. per 
week, yet althogh the 

Total forage consumed amounted to 210 lbs., 

The manure and litter produced was 327 J lbs. 

Thus if lost manure be added, yielding with"the addition of the moisture 
imparted to the litter by urine, an increase of two-thirds beyond the weight 
of the food consumed. Experiments prove that a cow of average size voids 
about 60 lbs. of manure, or about IJ cubic feet per day, or more than 3 
cords, weighing over 10 tons, per year. Composted with pent or swamp 



710 



AGKICULirURAL TABLES. 



muck, three parts to one of manure, it would form 12 cords of excellent 
comjDost. It is further estimated that the liquid manure is equally valuable 
with the solid, and if this also is utilized by the peat absorbents, either 
under the stable or in it, 24 cords of an excellent fertilizer is secured. 
This, applied to 2 acres of worn-out meadow, producing say. 1 ton of 
hay or less per acre, would increase the crop to 3 tons to the acre the first 
year, besides greatly increasmg the crops for 5 years longer. In every 
case never fail to save your liquid manure, for it is well worth every effort 
that can be made. 

Table showing the comparative increase of corn by various 

fertilizers. 



QUANTITY OF FERTILIZER. 



1 No Manure. 

2 500 lbs. Superphosphate of Lime . 

3 690 '' Guano 

4 300 ** Superphosphate Lime & 640 lbs. Guano 
6 320 " Guano and 640 lbs. dissolved Bones, 
6 
7 



1040 '* Guano and 400 lbs. Superphosphate Lime 

16 loads Stable Manure 

32 *' " 

16 *' ** & 200 bus. leached Ashes 

16 ♦* " & 640 lbs. Super P Lime 

32 *< *« & 320 lbs. Guano & 1320 lbs. ) 

Superphosphate Lime j 60 I7V4 16 80* 1 % 
Hog manure from 108 bus. corn 43 15 16 20 30 

* Only the increase over the experiments 7 and 8 with stable manure alone. 

Table exhibiting the number of loads op manure and the 
injmber of heaps in each load required to an acre, the 
heaps at given distances apart. 



?> 


DO 


6 


. 


s 


u 


a n 


,fi 


ff 




r; 


S3 


f-( ^ 


^ 


a 


^1 


^ 


s 


-d-^ 


s 


'^ 


T fl 


tH 


4^ 


'^ 'H 


CI 




rH 


1— 1 


5 


28 




$ 


46 


18 


12 50 


501^ 


22% 


19 00 


58 


30 


25 10 


51 


23 


18 40 


743^ 


463^ 


38 60 


•65 V2 


^y? 


16 00 


42% 


143/4 


32 00 


44 


8 


12 00* 


495^ 


14K 


17 80* 


60 


171/4 


16 80* 


43 


15 


16 20 



«-' 6 ^ 

«^ ^ o • 

» ce ^ 2 

c3 o) f*^ 3 

fi o 03 a 



bus 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 



qrts 

143/4 

6 

63/4 

8 

63/4 

15 
143/4 

223/4 
28 



olf . 
























NUMBER OF HEAPS IN A LOAD. 






w^-C 


1 


2 


3 


I 4 


5 


6 1 7 1 8 


9 


1 10 


3 


538 


269 


179 


134 


108 


89% 


77 


67 


60 


51 


3^ 


395 


168 


132 


99 


79 


66 


56% 


49% 


44 


391/2 


4 


203 


151 


101 


751/2 


601^ 


50% 


431/4 


373/4 


33K 


301/4 


4K 


239 


120 


79K 


60 


4734 


393/4 


341/4 


30 


263^ 


24 


5 


194 


97 


641/2 
531/2 


48M 


383/4 


321/4 


273/4 


241/4 


21% 


191/4 


5% 


160 


80 


40 


32 


263/4 


223/4 

191/4 


20 


173/4 


16 


6 


131 


67 


443/4 


33M 


27 


22X/2 


16% 


15 


331/2 
111/2 


o'A 


115 


5714 


381/4 


2834 


23 


19 


161/4 


141/4 


123/4 


7 


99 


49M 


33 


243/4 


J?>^ 


I6I/2 
1414 


14 


121/4 


11 


10 


TA 


86 


43 


283/4 


21>^ 


121/4 


103/4 


9V2 


8% 


8 


75% 


37^ 


251/4 

221^ 


19 


153/4 


l^>t 


10% 


y% 


8V2 


6§ 


8^^ 


67 


33M 


16^ 


131/2 


9% 


ii% 


9 


60 


30 


20 


15 


12 


10 


8% 


^s 


6 


9V2 


535^ 


263/4 


18 


131/2 


103/4 

93/4 


9 


7% 


6 


6V4 


10 


481/2 


241/4 


I6I/4 


12 


8 


7 


6 


6V2 


43/4 


Exi 


^LANA-] 


DION.—' 


rheleft 


hand c 


jolumn 


gives the distai 


ice in 


3^ards 


bf^twe 


en the 


heaps e 


ach wa 


y 111 eac 


li row ; 


at th( 


i top 


of th 


3 col 11 m 


lis are 



AGRICULTURAL FACTS, &C. 711 

indicated the number of heaps in each load, and the number of loads re- 
quired i)er acre will be found at the point where the two lines meet. 

Memoranda. — 1 cubic ft. of half rotten stable manure will weigh 56 
lbs. ; if coarse or dry, 48 lbs. A load of manure is about 36 cubic ft. , and 
if of the first quality will weigh 2,016 lbs. ; if of the second, 1728 lbs. 8 
loads of the first kind spread over an acre will give 108 lbs. to each square 
rod, and about SJ lbs. to each square yard. 

To apply guano, mix it thoroughly for a few days with 5 times its bulk 
of vegetable mould or loam, and some charcoal or gypsum, after break- 
ing the lumps and sifting in alternate layers. Avoid the use of ashes or 
lime, as they tend to expel the ammonia, and keep under cover, dry, 
until used. It may then be scattered broadcast upon meadows or grain, 
or placed near the seeds of young plants in the hill. Use from 200 to 500 
lbs. guano to the acre, the latter quantity to the more barren soils. 

The following Table shows the composition of Bone dust. In 100 
parts, there are of 

Lime 55.5 

Phosphate of Magnesia 2. 

Soda, and Common salt 2.5 



Carbonate of lime 3.75 

Fluoride of calcium 3. 

Gelatine (the substance of horn) 33.25 

Analysis of a manure heap in the condition usually applied to a field. 

Fresh. Dried at 212°. 



Water 64.96 

Organic matter 24.71 

Inorganic salts 10.33 



Carbon 37.40 

Hydrogen... 5.27 

Oxygen 25.52 

Nitrogen 1.76 

Ashes (inorganic matter) 30.05 

The urine voided from a cow during one year contains 900 lbs. solid 
matter, and compared with Peruvian guano at $50 per ton is worth $20. 
It will manure l| acres of land, and is more valuable than its dung, in 
the ratio, by bulk, of 7 to 6, and in intrinsic value as 2 to 1. — Dana, 

The Urine of the Cow contains of water 92.6 per cent. 

'' *' Horse " " .94. " 

'< ♦*' Sheep '' '' 96. " 

'< '< Hog " *^ 92.6 " 

" '< Human '< " 93.3 " 

The remainder is composed of salts and rich food for vegetables. — 
Sprengel. 

AnAILVSIS of BOLIVIAN GUANO BY PROF. JOHNSTON. 

Water 6.91 

Organic Matter, containing Ammonia 55*52 

Common Salt and Sulphate of Soda 6.31 

Carbonate of Lime 3.87 

Phosphate of Lime and Magnesia 25.68 

Silicious Matter or Sand 1.71 

Analysis of Peruvian guano by prof, johnston. 

Water 13.09 

Organic Matter, containing Ammonia 63.17 

Common Salt and Sulphate of Soda 4.63 

Carbonate of Lime 4.18 

Phosphate of Lime and Magnesia 23.54 

Silicious Matter or Sand 1-39 

Prof. Johnston's Tests for Good Guano.— The drier the better, 
there is less water to pay for and transix»rt. The lighter the color the 
better, it is the less completely dissolved. If it has not a strong am- 
monincal smell it ought to give off such a smell when a spoonful of it is 
mixed with a spoonful of lime in a wine-glass. When put into a tumbler 
of water and stirred well, and the water and fine matter poured off, it ought 



712 



AGRICULTURAL TABLES. 



to leave but little sand or stones. When heated to redness over a fire or 
a bright flame, until the animal matter is burnt away, the ash should 
nearly all dissolve in dilute muriatic acid. 

ANALYSIS OF FISH GUANO. 

Water expelled by 212 ^ heat 8.06 

Sand 0.33 

Oil 2.40 

Organic Matter 50.72 

Super-Phosphate of Lime 9. 85 

Sulphate of Lime, Hydrated 19.62 



Sulphate of Magnesia 0-71 

*' Potash.... 2.05 

'•' Soda 2.42 

Chloride of Sodium 1.12 

Sulphate of Ammonia 2.72 

Dr. Apjohn. 



Table, showing the effect produced upon the quantity of the 
crop by equal quantities of different manures applied to 
the same soil, sown with an equal quantity of seed. 

Return in Bushels for each Bushel of Seed. 
Manure applied. "WTieat. Barley. Rye. Oats. 



Blood 

Night Soil 

Slieep Manure... 
Horse " 
Pigeon ** 
Cow " ... 

Vegetable*' 
Without Manure . 



14 
14 
12 
10 

7 
3 



16 

16 
13 
10 
11 

7 
4 



14 

1372 


"^l 


13 


14 


11 


14 


9 


12 


9 


16 


6 


13 


4 


5 



Analysis of fresh farm-yard manure, composed of horse, cow, and pig 
excreta, about 14 days old, by Dr. Augustus Yoelcker, Professor of Chem- 
istry in the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester, England. Accord- 
ing to this analysis one ton (2,000 lbs. ) farm-yard manure contains — 

Soluble silica (silicic acid) 24 lbs. 

Ammonia (actual or potential) 15% " 

Phosphate of lime 13x^^ " 

Lime 23yV " 

Magnesia 3yV 

Potash 331/2 

Soda 1§ 

Common salt fj^ 

Sulphuric acid , 2% 

Water 1323§ 

Woody fibre, &c 579 " 

Of course no two samples of farm -yard manure are exactly of the 
same composition. That analyzed by Dr. Voelcker was selected with 
much care, as representing a fair average. 

Note. — In estimating the value of barn-yard manure the value of the differ- 
ent excreta will always range in value according to the kind of food pro- 
vided for the stock. See last column of Table on page 716. 

Table showing the comparative value of animal manures, with 
farm- yard manure as the standard. 



100 lbs. farm-yard manure are equal to 
125 lbs. solid excrement of the Cow 

" Horse 

*' Cow. 

" Horse. 

« Cow. 

" Horse. 

*' Sheep. 

" Pig. 



73 


« 


i( 




91 


it 


liquid 




16 


t( 


(( 




98 


(( 


Mixed 




54 


<( 


<( 




36 


« 


(( 




64 


<( 


<( 





3 lbs 


Dry Flesh. 


5 " 


Pigeon Dung. 


15 ♦* 


Liquid Blood. 


4 ** 


Dry Blood. 


3 '* 


Feathers. 


3 *< 


Cow Hair. 


3 " 


Hair Shavings. 


SVa" 


Dry Woollen rags. 




Johnston. 



AGRICULTURAL TABLES. 



713 



Table showing 

MANURES, 



THE RELATIVE VALUE OF DECOMPOSED VEGETABLE 
FROM THE INORGANIC MATTDR THEY CONTAIN. 



1 ton Wheat Straw made into manure returns to tlie soil 



Oat 

Hay " 

Barley " 

Pea *' 

Bean " 

Rye 

Dry Potato-tops 

Dry Turnip-tops 

Rape Cake 

Malt Dust 

Dried Seaweed 





Inorganic Matter. 




lbs. lbs. 


lie soil . . . 


70 to 360 


n 


100 to 180 


il 


100 to 200 


<( 


100 to 120 


a 


100 to 110 


a 


100 to 130 


(( 


50 to 100 


K 


....400 


<( 


370 


i( 


120 


ii 


180 


H 


560 




Johnston. 



Table showing tpie relative values of decomposed vegetables 
as jnianures, from the nitrogen they contain. 
100 lbs. of farm-yard manure is equal to 
130 lbs. Wheat Straw Manure. 



150 




Oat " 




180 




Barley " 




85 




B'kwh't " 




45 




Pea '* 




50 




\\aieat Chaff 




80 




Green Grass 




75 




Potato Tops 





80 lbs 


. Fresh Seaweed Manure. 


20 '♦ 


Dried '* '* 


26 " 


Bran of Wheat or Corn '* 


13 '' 


Malt Dust *' 


8 " 


Rape Cako " 


250 " 


Pine Sawdust *' 


180 ** 


Oak " *' 


25 " 


Coal Soot " 



Bousslngault. 

Moisture absorbed by various manures. 

1000 parts horse-manure, dried at a temperature of 100'' Fahr., ab- 
sorbed by exposure to the air at a temperature of 62* Fahr.: 

Moisture 145 parts. 

1000 parts cow-manure, under same eircumstancea 130 " 



(< 


pig-dung, " 


<< 


(I 




sheep-dung, " 


(( 


ii 




pigeon-dung, '' 
rich alluvial soil, 


(I 




(( 


ii 


(( 


(( 


fresh tanners' bark, 


a 


(< 


(( 


putrified, '< 


(I 


ii 


(< 


refuse marine salt, 


<( 


n 


11 


■ soot. 


ii 


(< 


i( 


burnt clav, 


a 


ii 


(( 


coal ashes, 


(( 


u 


(( 


lime, 


<< 


i< 


i( 


sediment from salt-pans. 


ii 


« 


crushed rock-salt, 


<< 


il 


it 


gypsum, 


(( 


Ii 


« 


chalk, 


*t 


<( 



120 


(( 


81 


ii 


50 


ii 


14 


ii 


115 


ii 


145 


ii 


^0% 


a 


36 


a 


29 


a 


14 


a 


11 


i 


10 


it 


10 


it 


9 


it 


4 


ii 



Everything on a farm should be utilized, even the outflow of the 
kitchen slops should be discharged on a bed of swamp muck. Good wood 
ashes weigh about 60 lbs. to the bushel ; of this Gj lbs. are soluble in 
warm water. They are worth to the farmer from 60 to 70c. per bushel 
as a fertilizer, if leached, they are worth perhaps a quarter of that sum . 
They are excellent for all crops, altogether unequalled for fruit trees, and 
in a most unfavorable season 250 bushels of potatoes have been raised 
from 1 acre dressed with them. 

The products of the water closet, both liquid and solid, should be deo- 
dorized and composted by mixture with dried peat, ashes, or dry earth 
of a loamy nature. The privy vault or box should be easily accessible 
at all times, and ought to be kept well supplied with a mixture of these 



714 



AGRICULTURAL TABLES. 



absorbents. No better fertilizer than this Exists under the sun ; about 10 
bushels of the compost wttl be a good dressing for an acre. In China no 
other fertilizer is used, and about 400,000,000 of people exist on the crops 
nourished by it. The dry earth closet introduced into England by the 
Rev. Mr. Moule, and the Wakefield closet in the United States, are'^most 
powerful auxiliaries of the agriculturist, and deserve the highest commend- 
ation. 

Table showing amount of seed potatoes required, when cut or 
uncut, and when set at different distances apart, in drills 

twenty-eight inches from crown TO CROWN. 

Whole, and planted 6 inches apart 77 bushels per acre. 

a a 9 << '< f>Q <' t( 

i( (( 12 " '^ 38 '• ** 

" *' ........ 18 " " 26 •' " 

<< « 24 *' *' 19 ** ** 

Cut into two sets " *.'.'.*.'.*.".*. 6 " *' 38 " " 

i( i( 9 u a 25 •'* ** 

i< << 12 '* " 19 ** " 

il li Ig i< (( 13 K if 

Cut into four sets " '.'.'...[.. 6 '* " 19 " ** 

a ii 9 « << J3 n n 

n a 12 " " 10 ** ** 

Cut into five sets " !!!!.!!! 6 " " 15 " '* 

a »< 9 << " 10 << « 

Cut into six sets ** *.'..'.*.*.'.' 6 " " 13 *< *' 

Table showing the quantity of land, in acres and tenths, 
ploughed by a team and plough moving at the rate of two 
miles per hour, per day of 10 hours. 



Width of 

furrow in 

inches. 


Acres and 
tenths. 


Width of 

furrow in 

inches. 


Acres and 
tenths. 


Width of 

furrow in 

feet. 


Acres and 
tenths. 


Width of 

furrow in 

feet. 


Acres and 
tenths. 


5 


1.0 


12 


2.4 


2 


4.8 


SVa 


13.2 


6 


1.2 


14 


2.8 


2y2 


6.0 


6 


14.4 


7 


1.4 


16 


3.2 


3 


7.2 


eVa 


15.6 


8 


1.6 


18 


3.6 


3y2 


8.4 


7 


16.8 


9 


1.8 


20 


4.0 


4 


9.6 


TVa 


18.0 


10 


2.0 


22 


4.4 


4y2 


10.8 


8 


19.2 


11 


2.2 






5 


12.0 







Arguments in Favor of Soiling Cattle. — By soiling is understood 
the feeding of cattle in yards or in stables, with grass or other green fod- 
der cut in the fields, and hauled to them. The Hon. Josiah Qiiincy, a 
high authoritj^ states the following as the main advantages of "the 
system : 1st. The saving of land. 2nd. The saving of fencing. 3rd. 
The economizing of food. 4th. The better condition and greater comfort 
of the cattle. 5th. Tlie greater product of milk. 6th. The attainment of 
manure. See i)age 47. 

In reference to the 3rd item, the economy of food, he says : " There 
are six ways by which beasts destroy the article destined for their food — 
1. By eatinpc ; 2. By walking ; 3. By dunging ; 4. By staling ; 5. By lying 
down ; 6. By breathing on it. Of these six, the first only is useful. All 
the others are wasteful." He asserts that a milch cow may be kept by 
ths method during the ordinary pasturing season on the product of | 
acre of land, while at least 2 acres of the same land would be necessary 
on the pasturage system, and some place the proportion in favor of soil- 
ing as high as 1 to 7. By this system interior fences may be abolished 
in every case, Aveedy head-lands got rid of, and the plough performs its 
healthy work from one side of the farm to the other, without let or 
hindrance. 



ON SOILING CATTLE. 715 

The system recommended by Mr. Quincy is as follows :— 

"1. As early in April as the state of the land will permit, which is 
usually between the 5th and the 10th, on properly prepared land, sow 
oats at the rate of 4 bushels to the acre. 

" 2. About the 20th of the same month, sow oats or barley, at the same 
rate per acre, in like quantity and proportions. 

" 3. Early in May, sow, in like manner, either of the above grains. 

" 4. Between the 10th and 15th of May, sow Indian corn (the flat 
Southern being the best) in drills, 3 bushels to the acre, in like quan- 
tity and proportions. 
- " 5. About the 5th of June repeat the sowing of com. 

*' 7. After the last mentioned sowing barley should be sown in the 
above-mentioned quantity and proportions, in succession, on the 15th 
and 25th of June, and on the 1st of, or early in July ; barley being the 
best qualified to resist the frosts." 

Mr. Quincy relied on the mowing of his best grass land to carry his stock 
through the month of June, or from the earliest pasturing season to the 1st 
of July, when he anticipated fodder from his first sowing of oats, and after 
the first severe frost he relied on the tops of 12 acres of root crops for the 
supply of 15 cows. 

The plan adopted by Geo. E. Waring, Jr., another eminent agricultur- 
ist, for 12 Cows, is as follows : — 

" 1. Early in the autumn sow 3 acres of winter rye to be cut from May 
15th to June 15th. 

'' 2. Early in April, 3 acres oats, to be cut from June 15th to July 1st. 

*' 3. Late in April, 2 acres oats or barley, to be cut from July 1st to 
July 15th. 

" 4. Early in May, 2 acres oats or barley, to be cut from July 15th to 
August 10th. 

"5. Middle of May, 2 acres com, to be cut from August 10th to 
September 1st. 

" 6. Middle of June, the 3 acres from which rye has been cut to be 
sown with corn, to be cut from September 1st to September 20th. 

" 7. Early in July, the first three acres sown with oats to be re-sown with 
barley, to be cut from September 20tli until the harvest of roots and 
cabbages furnish a stock of green refuse, which will suffice until winter 
feeding commences. 

"8. In September, 3 acres of the 4 comiDrising Nos. 4 and 5, should be 
sown with rye for the following spring's use, and the rotation should 
follow in regular order. The latter end of the season should be helped 
out with root crops . The reason alleged by Mr. Waring for this ap- 
portioning 12 acres for 12 cows, is the bad condition df the land, but he is 
satisfied, that if all the manure made in the soiling season were to be 
applied to the ground year after year, that they might be made in time to 
support, during the whole of the usual pasturing season, 30 milch cows, or 
5 cows to each acre. He urges that in the Northern States the earliest 
abundant food will be secured by the use of winter rye, and that the best 
and most abundant food for the late summer and earlier autumn will be 
secured by the use of Indian corn. 

To Construct an Ice-House. — This indispensable appendage to the 
farm-house and dairy may be constructed at a small cost. One writer 
remarks : " Last January I drew 1 large load of sawdust and spread it on 
the ground on the north side of my horse-bam, then drew the ice (sawed 
in square cakes) and built up a square pile some 8x10 ft. and 7 or 8 ft. 
high, filluig up the spaces between the cakes with pounded ice. I then 
set up scantling and built a board house around it 2 feet larger each way 
than the ice ; then filled in sawdust around and 2 to 3 ft. on top, and 
covered with boards and slabs. We have used freely through the season, 



716 



COMPONENTS OF FARM PRODUCE. 



sold to pic-nic parties, given away to sick neighbors, and have plenty of 
ice yet." 

Another writer reports his method as follows : " I set posts in the 
ground, so as to make a house 12 ft. square (three posts on each side), 
then board or plank it up 8 ft. high, on the inside. The surface earth is 
now dug out 6 ins. deep, and sawdust filled in 1 ft. deep, making it 6 ins. 
above the level of the earth. The ice is carefully packed, 9 ft. square and 
6 ft. high, leaving a space of 18 ins. between ice and boards, closely 
packed with sawdust, and the same thickness of sawdust placed on top. 
I have an old fashioned board roof over this ice-house. The space above 
the sawdust is left open, so that the air can circulate through and the 
sun shine in. The result is that we have used ice daily and have aplenty 
yet. As to the cost, four men with one team, cut, hauled and packed the 
ice, and filled in the sawdust in less than 2 days, notwithstanding we had 
to haul the ice over J mile." 

Average composition, per cent, and per ton, of various kinds of 
agricultural produce, &c. , by john b. lawes, of rothamp- 
stead, england. 





PER CENT. 


LBS. PER (LONG) TON- 


:i- 




s 


i 


% 








a ■ 












s 




S ^-S 






S 


v 


O CO S 






5 *" 




1 

88.0 




hi 


4 

1 

1.65 


1 
4.75 


b 

•a 
3 

1971 


11 

H 
156.8 




4 
S 


1 

IS 


o o- 

jii 


Linseed cake 


7.00 


4.92 


110.2 


37.0 


106.4 


19.72 


Cotton seed cake.. 


89.0 


8.00 


7.00 


1.12 


6.50 


1994 


179.2 


150.8 


70.0 


145.6 


27.86 


Rape cake 


89.0 


7.00 


5.75 


3.76 


5.00 


1994 


179.2 


128.8 


39.4 


112.0 


21.01 


Linseed 


90.0 


8-00 


3.38 


1.37 


3.80 


2016 


89.6 


75.7 


30.7 


85.1 


15.65 


Beans 


84.0 


4.00 


2.20 


1.27 


4.00 


1882 


67.2 


49.3 


28.4 


89.6 


15.75 


Peas 


84.5 


3.00 


1.84 


0.96 


3.40 


1893 


53.8 


41.2 


21.5 


76.2 


13.38 


Tares 


84.0 


2.40 


1.63 


0.66 


4.20 


1892 


44.8 


36.5 


14.8 


94.1 


16.75 


Lentils 


?8.0 


2.00 


1.89 


0.96 


4.30 


1971 


67.2 


42.3 


21.5 


96.3 


16.51 


Malt dust 


94.0 


3,00 


5.23 


2.12 


4.20 


2106 


190.4 


117.1 


47.5 


94 1 


18.21 


Locust beans . .. 


85.0 


8.50 






1.25 


1904 


39.2 


. . 




28.0 


4.81 


Indian meal 


88.0 


1.75 


i.13 


6!35 


1.80 


1971 


29.1 


25.3 


*7.8 


40.3 


6.65 


Wheat 


85.0 


1.30 


1.87 


0.50 


1.80 


1904 


38.1 


42.0 


11.2 


40.3 


7.08 


Barley 


84.0 


2.20 


1.35 


0.55 


1.65 


1882 


49.3 


30.2 


12.3 


37.0 


6.32 


Malt 


95.0 


2.60 


1.60 


0.65 


1.70 


2128 


58.2 


c5.8 


14.6 


38.1 


6.65 


Oats 


86.0 


2.85 


1.17 


0.50 


2.00 


1926 


63.8 


£6.2 


11.2 


44.8 


7.70 


Fine pollard* 


86.0 


5.60 


6.44 


1.46 


2.60 


1926 


125.4 


144.2 


32.7 


58.2 


13.53 


Coarse pollardf 


86.0 


6.20 


7.52 


1.49 


2.58 


1926 


138.9 


168.4 


33.4 


57.8 


14.36 


Wheat bran. 


86.0 


6.60 


7.95 


1.45 


2.55 


1926 


147.8 


178.1 


32.5 


57.1 


14.59 


Clover hay 


84.0 


7.50 


1.25 


1.30 


2.50 


1882 


168.0 


28.0 


29.1 


56.0 


9.64 


Meadow hay 


84.0 


6.00 


0.88 


1.50 


1.50 


1882 134.4 


19.7 


33.6 


33.6 


6.43 


Bean straw 


82.5 


5.55 


0.90 


1.11 


0.90 


1848 124.3 


20.2 


24.9 


20.2 


3.87 


Pea straw 


82.0 


5.95 
5.00 


0.85 
0.55 


0.89 
0.65 


6.60 


1837,133.3 
1882112.0 


19.0 
12.3 


19.0 
14.6 


20.2 
13.4 


3.74 


Wheat straw 


84.0 


2.68 


Barley straw 


85.0 


4.50 


0.37 


0.63 


0.50 


1904:100.8 


8.3 


14.1 


11.2 


2.25 


Oat straw 


83.0 


5.50 


0.48 


0.93 


0.60 


1859 123.2 


10.7 


20.8 


13.4 


2.90 


Mang:el wurtzel 


12.5 


1.00 


0.09 


0.25 


0.25 


280 


22.4 


2.0 


5.6 


5.6 


1.07 


Swedish turnips . . . 


11.0 


0,68 


0.13 


0.18 


0.22 


246 


13.4 


2.9 


4.0 


4.6 


0.91 


Common turnips. . . 


8.0 


0.68 


0.11 


0.29 


0.18 


179 


15.2 


2.5 


6.{^ 


4.0 


0.86 


Potatoes 


24-0 
1.3.5 


1.00 
0.70 


0..'^2 
0.13 


0.43 
1.23 


0.35 
0.20 


537 
302 


22.4 
15.7 


7.2 
2.9 


9.0 
5.1 


7.8 
4.5 


1.50 


Carrots 


0.80 


Parsnips 


lo.o' 


1.00 


0.42 


)!30 


0.22 


336 


22,4 


9.4 8.1 


4.9 


l.ll 



* Middlings, Canielle. 



t ShipstufE. 



EQUIVALENTS OF VARIOUS FOODS. 
Tabel showii^-g nutritive equivalents of various foods. 



717 



Food. 



Irish potatoes , 

Carrots 

Parsnips 

Jerusalem artichoke 

Sugar beet 

Turnips (Swede). 

Common white turnip 

Mangel wurtzel 

Green pea straw 

Spurrey (green 

Green buckwheat stalks. . 
Common vetch (green), . . 

French vetch (green) 

Green stalks white lupin, 
Green stalks white bean. 

Green oats (fodder) 

Timothy grass (green) . . . . 
Red top " " ..-. 

Superior English hay 

Red clover (green) 

"White clover (green) 

Lucerne (green) 

Red clover (hay) . ... 

Wliite clover (hay) 

Lucerne (hay) 

Wheat flour 

Indian corn 

Rye meal 

Barley meal 

Oatmeal 

Buckwheat meal 

Peas 

Kidney beans 

Wliite field beans 

Lentils 

English linseed cake 

American linseed cake. 



Amount of 
flesh-form- 
ing matter 
in 
• 100 lbs. 



1.4 
0.6 
1.2 
1.0 
0.9 
1.0 
0.9 
1.0 
0.9 
2.7 
0.2 
1,9 
0.7 
1.8 
1.0 
1.0 
4.0 
3.3 
J-5 
1 ) 
1.5 
1.9 
22.5 
18.7 
12.7 
14.7 
ILO 
14.3 
13.0 
18.0 
9.0 
23.1 
23.9 
24.0 
25.7 
22.1 
22.2 



Amount ofi 

fat - forming 'Total nutn- 



matter 

in 
100 lbs. 



18.9 
6.6 
7.0 

18.8 

13.6 

5.2 

3.3 

12.6 

7.9 

2.3 

4.7 

2.6 

4.7 

2.3 

2.7 

8.5 

9.7 

8.7 

36.3 

3.6 

2.7 

3.6 

18.7 

40.0 

38.0 

66.4 

66.7 

55.8 

52.0 

51.1 

52.1 

41.9 

39.3 

39.7 

38.9 

51.0 

48.6 



tive 



matter 
in 
100 lbs. 



Nutritive 
equivalents 
of 100 lbs. 

best 
English hay. 



20.3 


245.3 


7.2 


691.6 


8.2 


607.3 


19.8 


251.5 


14.5 


336.5 


6.2 


803.2 


4.2 


1185.7 


13.6 


367.6 


8.8 


565.9 


5.0 


960.0 


4.9 


1016.6 


4.5 


1106.6 


5.4 


922.2 


4.1 


1212.1 


3.7 


1345.9 


9.5 


524.2 


13.7 


363.4 


12.0 


415.0 


49.8 


100.0 


5.6 


907.1 


4.2 


11857 


5.5 


905.4 


41.2 


120.8 


58.7 


84.6 


50.7 


98.2 


81.1 


61.4 


77.7 


64.2 


70.1 


71.0 


65.0 


76.0 


69.1 


72.0 


61.1 


81.5 


65.0 


76.0 


63.2 


78.7 


63.7 


78.2 


64.6 


77.0 


73.1 


68.0 


70.8 


70.3 



Bee Flowers. — The following select list of bee-flowers, plants, trees, 
&c., is commended to the attention of bee keepers on the high authority 
of Mr. King, Editor of the Bee Keepers' Magazine, New York, as one of- 
the most accurate and reliable ever published . Those plants marked 
with an asterisk are prime favorites of the bees, and yield large quantities 
of honey. 

Bee keepers would almost double the product of their hives by taking 
ndvantage of the grand modem discovery of artificial comb foundations. 
These foundations are made of wax, or other suitable materials, by 
means of a machme, are sold at a very reasonable price by the pound, 
and, when placed in hives, are the means of saving the bees a vast 
amount of time and work in the construction of comb, every pound of 
which, estimated in honest bee labor represents at least 20 lbs. of honey. 
Another notable discovery is the use of salicylic acid for curing foul 
brood and other useful purposes. The mixture is compounded as fol- 
lows : Mix tosjetlier 128 grs. salicylic acid, 128 grs. of soda borax, and 
16 ozs. of distilled water. "To use, uncap the brood iu all the frames that 



718 



LIST OF BEE FLOWERS, &C. 



show any diseased cells, and thoroughly spray the bees, brood, comb, 
and all, with an atomizer filled with the solution. 



Erica Carnea* 

Winter aconite* 

Rosemary* 

Laurustinus 

Hazel* 

Snow-drop. 

Crocus* 

Willow* 

Osier* 

Primrose 

Hepatica 

Yiolet 



Spring. 

Almond 

Wallflower* (single) 
Borage* 
Onion 
Gooseberry 
Apricot 
Peach 
Apple* 
Gooseberry* 
Currant* 
Laurel* 

Linden or basswood 
Summer. 



Alsike clover* White clover* 

Silverleaf buckwheat* Catnip 



Syringa 
Helianthemum 
Annual poppy* 
Sea-kale 
French willow* 
Sweet-briar 
Bean 
Yellow lupin 



Mignionette* 

Blackberry 

Chesnut 

Mallow 

Lime* 

Hyssop 

Teazle* 

Nasturtium 

Autiwin. 



Turnip* 

Cabbage, &c.* 

Strawberry 

Tulip* 

Hawthorn. 

Gorse or furze 

Columbine 

Laburnum 

Barberry* 

Ribes Sanguineum 

Butch clover* 

Sycamore maple* 

Lucerne clover* 

Spanish needle 

Yellow vetch 

Sainbois 

Broom 

Wheat 

Viper's bugloss* 

Raspberry* 

Symphora 

Racemosa 



Michaelmas daisy 
Winter savory 
Purple houseleek 
Ivy 
Honeysuckle 



Heath* 
Sunflower 
Lemon thyme* 
St. John's wort 
Melilotus leucantha* 



French buckwheat* 
sowed at midsum- 
mer 
Spanish broom* 
Hollyhock* 

Cucumber Pickles. — Select nice, firm cucumbers ; pour on them, for 
three successive mornings, boiling water enough to cover ; add a hand- 
ful of coarse salt. The night before pickling throw on cold water and 
drain ; put into jars with ground spices in a bag, sugar and salt enough 
to taste, alum size of an English walnut to each jar ; pour vinegar hot in 
each jar, and cover tight while hot. 

To FIKD THE SIZE OF A BiN TO HOLD A CERTAIN NUMBER OF BUSHELS. 

Augment the number of bushels J, and the result will exhibit the number 
of cubic feet the bin will comprise. Then, when two dimensions of the 
bin are known, divide the last result by their product, and the quotient 
will be the other size. 

Per Centage of Oil in Seeds, Grain, &c. 



Oil per cent. 

Linseed 11 to 22 say 17 

Hempseed 14 '' 25 '' 19 

Rapeseed 40 *' 70 " 15 

White Mustard 36**38 " 37 

Sweet Almond 40 " 54 ** 47 

Bitter Almond 28 " 46 ** 37 

Turnip Seed 40**50 ** 45 

Wheat Flour 2** 4 *' 3 

Barley 2 ** 3 ** 2i 



Oil per cent. 

Oats 5 to 8 say 6^ 

Indian Corn 5 

Wheat Bran 3 

Potatoes, turnips and cab- 
bage 

Wheat Straw 2 

Oat Straw 

Meadow Hay 2 

Clover Hay 3 



9 ** 


7 


5 " 


4 




H 


H'' 


3 




4 


5 " 


3^ 


5 *' 


5 



FACTS FOR DAIRYMEN. 



719 




TABLE SHOWING THE AMOUNT OF BUTTER AND CHEESE OBTAINABLE FROM 

MILK. 

100 lbs. milk contains about 3 lbs. pure butter. 
100 " *' '' '' 7.8 lbs. cheese. 

100 " *' averages " 3.5 lbs. common butter. 
100 ** '* '' '' 11.7 lbs. common cheese. 

100 " skim milk yields " 13.5 lbs. skim milk cheese. 

TABLE SHOWING THE INGREDIENTS CONTAINED IN VARIOUS KINDS OF 
MILK. IN 100 PARTS THERE ARE OF— 



"Woman. 



Cow. 



Ass. 



Goat. 



Ewe. 



Water, 


87.9 


87.0 


91.7 


86.7 


85.6 


Milk Sugar, 


6.5 


4.8 


6.1 


6.3 


5.0 


Butter, 


3.6 


3.1 


0.1 


3.3 


4.2 


Casein, 


1.5 


4.5 


1.8 


4.1 


4.5 



The quantity and quality of cows' milk varies according to the food sup- 
plied, breeds, &c. 

In EVERY 1000 PARTS OF MILK THERE ARE OF— 



Chloride of potassium , 9 parts. 
Phosphate of magnesia, 4 ** 
Free soda, 3 " 

Common salt, 3 ** 



Water, 840 parts. 

Milk-Sugar, 45 '' 

Butter, or oil, 40 " 

Casein, 40 <* 

Phosphate of lime, 17 " 

The time required for the full amount of cream to rise to the surface 
of new milk at different temperatures may be seen from the following 
table : — 

10 to 12 hours if the temperature of the air is 77° Fahr. 

18 to 20 '• " " *' 68° " 

24 *i (( (( <( 550 i( 

36 *' " " " 50° *• 

1 gal, of milk weighs 10 lbs. 4 ozs ; being heavier than water in the pro- 
portion of 103 to IGO. The best temperature at which to churn cream is 
from 550 to 60*^ Fahr. ; for milk 65° Fahr. Milk will produce scarcely 
any cream even in the space of a month if it is kept at 33° to 38° Fahr. 
Milk turns sour by the fermentation of the su^ar, and its transformation 
into lactic acid, thus causing the milk to curdle ; vinegar or rennet will 
produce the same effect. Good cream will produce about J of its weight 
of butter ; cheese made from good milk contains nearly 33 per cent, of 
water; that from skim-milk about 60 per cent. 



720 DIRECTIONS FOR CHURNING, ETC. 

The perfection of milk keeping is attained when a stream of pure 
spring water flows through the room where it is kept, Avhere fresh air 
circulates freely through slatted windows or doors imcontaminated by 
the odor of decaying vegetables or animal matter, and when the tempera- 
ture ranges from 55° to 65° Fahr. During winter great profit Avould re- 
sult from bringing the temperature of the milk to about 120° Fahr. pre- 
vious to setting, and during all seasons the greatest amount of cream will 
be collected when the milk in the pans is not over 2 inclies in depth. 
During warm weather the milk, after being drawn from the cow, should' 
as soon as possible, be cooled down to 02°. This may be done by setting* 
the pail in cold water, or by putting a little pulverized ice in the pail pre*^ 
vious to straining. A small piece of crystallized soda about the size of a 
marble, dissolved in a little water and added to a pail of freshly drawn 
milk, will increase the amount of cream, improve the butter, and correct 
acidity. Milk vessels, strainers, churns, &c. , should be kept scrupulously 
clean and free from taint of every kind by frequent scaldings with boil- 
ing water. During very hot weather the milk room may be cooled by 
hanging wet Imen sheets near the doors and windows, with the lower 
parts of the sheets immersed in cold water, and during cold weather the 
temperature may be raised by means of a fire in a stove, on which a 
vessel of water may be placed to x^revent too much dryness of air. 

In skimming the milk, deposit the cream in clean stone crocks, or tin 
oails, and after sprinkling a handful of fine salt over the surface, set 
away in a cool place, to remain until churned. In filling the churn leave 
out whatever milk may be found at the bottom of tlie cream crock as its 
sour taste will be sure to promote acidity in the butter. Churning should 
occupy from J to J of an hour ; rapid churning should be avoided, as it 
affects the quality and lessens the quantity of the butter ; if it should be 
hard and granular, refusing to come together well, throw in a little warm 
Avater, churning all the while, and the butter will be gathered and ready 
to take up. 

As tlie question of correct temperature is all important in the manu- 
facture of butter and cheese, frequent use should be inade of a good 
thermometer. Great loss is certain to result if this useful instrument is 
dispensed with. 

In churning, use care to keep the cream well washed down, so that the 
whole will granulate with regularity; and when the butter has formed in 
small lumps, pour off the buttermilk, leaving the butter in the churn ; 
pour in a i)ailf ul of pure cold water and well wash the butter in it, gather- 
ing it into a solid compact mass and working it to squeeze out the butter- 
milk. Next, remove it to the butter dish and again well wash, at a 
temperature not higher than 55° or 58°, until the milk is utterly removed 
from the butter and the water quite clear, then salt, with the bestAshton 
salt, at the rate of J lb. to 10 lbs. butter : Avork the salt Avell in and use 
every effort to rid the butter of water and milky brine, for depend upon it, 
the product Avill not be first class unless this is done. 

In paclving butter use neat firkins, tubs, or pails made of white oak ; 
purify each by filling with a strong solution of bicarbonate of soda boil- 
ing hot, allowing the Avater to stand for 24 hours. Avoid packing butter in 
vessels containing undissolved salt at the bottom ; unless covered Avitli a 
cloth the butter Avill be damaged by coming in contact Avith it. Take great 
precautions to remove all rancid or suspicious butter from firkins that 
are to be refilled. All butter made during the early part of the summer 
should be shipped and sold without loss of time, as it Avill only keep 
SAveet for a short period. Butter made during Avarm Aveather should be 
packed in firkins and ker^t in a dry cool place. To preserA-e it from the 
air, rover the butter to the depth of half an inch (or deep enough to ex- 
clude the a'r) Avith rtrong brine containing in solution 2 tablespoonf uls of 



ON CHEESE MANUFACTURE. 721 

white sugar and a piece of saltpetre double the size of a pea. In the fall 
the butter may be repacked in i^ails and tubs, to market as fresh butter. 

If butter is too soft while being worked and salted, allow it to stiffen 
for 3 or 4 hours in a cool place, then begin again and finish the work. In 
pacldng never mix even the smallest amount of iDoor butter with good ; it 
is certain to taint and ruin the whole package. The rancidity of butter 
may be prevented by thoroughly washing and salting before the cheesy 
particles and milky matter is acidified by exposure to the air, and by 
using due caution to exclude air from the imckage by a covering of water 
well saturated with salt. 

The oil of butter is a substance of peculiar richness, unlike any other 
known oil, and the fat of butter, when comi^acted by expressing the oil, 
is identical with the solid fat of the human body. Chemical analysis and 
numerous experiments i^rove that the butter in cow's milk comes direct 
from the fat of the animal. The fatty globules are carried into the circu- 
lation, deprived of stearine by respiratory combustion, and the oil is then 
sent to the udders, where, under the influence of mammary pepsin it is 
changed into tlie components of butter. It is on this principle that the 
oleomargarine, now being vended in such immense quantities in the 
United States and Europe, is manufactured from cow's fat or beef suet. 

First class butter is free from every trace of a rancid taste or smell. 
When cut with a knife it should neither soil the blade, exude any dew or 
milky brine, should be neither sticky nor greasy, but should, in summer, 
ix)ssess a rich yellow color, with a granular, waxy composition ; in winter 
the color should be of whitish cast or of a pale 5' ellow tint. A plentiful 
clover pasture surpasses all other food for i^rodiicing the best quality of 
milk and butter. 

On Cheese Manufacture. — The following practical directions are 
by an experienced manufacturer : 

-' When two milkings are united, strain the evening's milk and cool by 
means of pieces of ice dropped into the pails before straining. In the 
morning take off all the cream, mix it with twice the quantity of new 
milk. Add warm water enough to raise it to the temperature of 98*^. 
Rub annatto through a silk cloth sufficient to make the curd the color of 
rich cream. Into this put rennet sufficient to curd in 35 minutes . Stir 
the whole into the milk previously raised to the temperature of 85°. The 
milk should be warmed by means of a pail of hot water set into it, but 
never by 'putting it over the fire, for the least burning of the milk will 
spoil the cheese. While the curd is setting, cover with a cloth to pre- 
vent the surface from cooling. The method of cutting, scalding, and 
pressing depends upon the varieties of cheese to be manufactured. 
About 5 of a pound of the best Ashton salt is sufficient for 20 lbs. of curd. 
Care should be taken that the whey be entirely expressed." 

Calves may be raised in first class order at a cost of not more than one- 
tenth of the value of the butter made from the milk saved, by the use of 
oil meal, the cheapest molasses, and skim milk. The right quantity for a 
young calf, is a tablespoonful of oil meal (oil cake) and the same of 
molasses, divided into 3 parts, for 2 days' feed, added to the skim milk. 
At the end of the first week each may be increased, and at 10 days a 
spoonful of molasses and the same of oil meal may be given at each feed. 
At the commencement of the third week a spoonful of oat or barley- 
meal may be added to each feed, but this should be cooked. The oil 
meal should be scalded and allowed to form a thick mucilage before 
being mixed with the skim milk, the molasses may be added direct, and 
the whole given milk warm. Calves raised on this food have weighed 
125 lbs. at 4 weeks old. Hay tea is sometimes used to bring up a calf ; 
this is the soluble constituents of the hay, obtained by cooking. 

31 



722 



FATTENING POWER OP FOODS. 



At the noted agricultural college of Ilohenheim, Germany, probably 
the best conducted institution of the kind in the world, thej raise calves 
entirely by hand, and the daily allowance of food is as follows : 



MILK. 

lbs. 

1st week 12 . 

2nd '' 16 . 

3rd " 20 . 

4th " 22 . 



OATMEAL. 

lbs. 
... .... 
... .... 
... .... 
... .... 



FINEHAY. 

lbs. 











5th, 6th, and 7th weeks 22 1/2 V2 

8th week 21... 

9th « 20 

10th " 16 

11th '• 12 

12th « 8 

13th " 4 



■"V2 
... 1 
.. 2 
,.. 2 
.— 2 
... 3 



72 
1 

3 
6 

.10 
,10 



In the ninth week the milk is first mixed with water, and a little fine 
oatmeal is stirred in. The meal is afterwards mixed with the dry fodder 

After three months the milk is withheld, and then the young animals 
receive daily, till two and one-half years old, from twenty to twenty-two 
pounds of hay or its equivalent. B ut the calves never after receive, even in 
summer, any dry food till they are nine months old. The average feed- 
ing is so divided that the younger portion receives less, the older more, 
till two and one-half years, when they begin to receive the regular rations 
of the older cattle, including the grain fodder as indicated above. The 
growth witli this treatment is such that these animals (not Shorthorns) 
attain the following weights at various ages : — 

HETFERS. BULLS. 

Average weight of calves at three months 233 lbs 353 lbs. 

*' '< " " sixmonths ....351" 472 " 

" " " " twelvemonths 640'' 750" 

** " " " two years 1184" 1300** 

Daily increase of calves 1.5" 1.8** 

** ** in second year 1.4 ** 1.5 ** 

Fattening Power of Foods, Production of Pork, Beef, &c. — 
Carefully conducted experiments prove that 1 bushel of corn, weighing 
56 lbs., will produce lOJ lbs. of pork. Throwing off J to come at the net 
weight, gives 8 2-5 lbs. "of pork as the proceeds of 1 bush, corn, or 1 lb. 
of pork as the product of 6§ lbs. of corn. 1 lb. of pork is made by 3 4-5 
lbs. of cooked corn meal. Experiments made by C. M. Clay, of Kentucky, 
showed that one bushel of dry com made 5 lbs. 10 ozs. of pork ; of boiled 
corn, 14 lbs. 7 ozs., and boiled meal, 16 to 18 lbs. The following Table 
shows the relation which the price of corn bears to that of pork on the 
assumption that it requires 6§ lbs. of corn to produce 1 lb. of pork. 

TABLE showing THE PRICE OF PORK PER POUND AT DIFFERENT 
PRICES PER BUSHEL FOR CORN. 



Corn per bush. 
Cents. 


Pork per pound. 
Cents. 


Corn per bush. 
Cents. 


Pork per pound. 
Cents. 


191^ 


1.50 


38 


4.52 


15 


. . . . 1 78 


40 


4.76 


17 


2.00 


42 


5.00 


20 


2.38 


45 


5.35 


22 


2 62 


50 


5.95 


25 


2.96 


55 


6.54 


30 


3.57 


60 


7.14 


33 


3-92 


65 ^ 7.74 


35 


4.00 


70 i 8.57 



FATTENING POWER OF FOODS. 723 

By reversing the preceding Table we obtain the price of corn at different 
prices per lb. for pork. The utility of the Table is apparent. For in- 
stance, if corn is selling at 50c. per bushel and pork for only 6c. per lb. , 
it would be most profitable to sell the corn ; but should corn be selling at 
40c. per bushel and pork for 6c. per lb., it would be the most profitable to 
sell the latter. The Table must be regarded as an approximation 
merely, as the results will vary according to the sample of grain, breed, 
constitution, age, digestion, condition, habits, health, &c., of the animal. 

In fattening i)igs, peas to begin with are the most valuable food to fill 
up the flesh on the bones ; this well accomplished, corn is the most efficient 
in the formation of fat. A mixture of peas and corn, or peas and barley, 
will give better results than either of these grains fed separately. Peas 
contain in 1,000 parts — 

264 parts gluten, and 496 of starch, gum and sugar. 

Com 123 " " " 716 " '* 

Barley 64 " " ** 684 " " " 

Gluten and albumen are^es/i-forming, starch, gum, and sugar, are/a^- 
forming elements. From numerous experiments, Mr. Harris, in his work 
on the pig, deduces the following : that 

A moderately fat heifer or steer will dress 59J per cent. meat. 
" " mutton sheep " " 59| " " 

u a pig a u 32^ 

Tlie preponderance in favor of the pig is immense. It is remarked by 
an eminent cattle feeder, Mr. Glyde, "that an ox requires two per cent 
of his live weight per day : if he works, 2J per cent ; a milch cow 3 per 
cent; a fattening ox, 5 per cent at first, and 4J per cent when half fat, and 
4 per cent when fat ; grown sheep, 3^ per cent to keep them in their 
store condition." An ox, to replace the daily loss of muscular fibre, re- 
quires from 20 to 24 ozs. of dry gluten or vegetable albumen daily. This 
would be supplied by — 

120 lbs. of turnips or 17 lbs. clover hay. 
115 " wheat straw or 12 lbs. peas. 
75 " carrots or 12 lbs. barley. 
67 ** potatoes or 10 lbs. oats. 
20 " meadow hay or 5 lbs. beans. 

The Society of Shakers, at Lebanon, N. Y., noted for pork raising, say : 
*' For fattening animals, swine particularly, we consider three of cooked, 
equal to four of raw meal," 

" Unless food be thoroughly deprived of its vegetative powers before it 
enters the stomach, the whole nourishment which it is capable of afford- 
ing cannot be derived from it. The most effectual mode of destroying 
the living principle is by the application of heat, by steaming or boiling." 
— Louden' s Encyclopedia of Aqriculture. 

" As to the steaming of food for cattle, there is abundant experience to 
recommend it. The process of cooking renders soluble that which would 
otherwise be imperfectly digested. It removes, in some cases, what 
would otherwise be unwholesome, and it renders savory what would 
otherwise be distasteful." — Morton's Cyclopedia of Agriculture. 

If 30 lbs. of hay is required per day to keep 1 cow in passable order 
during a Canadian winter, numerous experiments establish the fact 
that 22 lbs. of steamed hay will answer the same purpose equally well. 
This, with 20 head of cattle, will effect a saving of 160 lbs. per day, or 
$150 during 5 winter months, with hay at SlO i)er ton. 

Augustus Whitman, in the Country Gentleman, writes : " While 28 
lbs. per day of good hay are required to keep dry cows (weighing from 
1,150 lbs. to 1,450 lbs.) in an even condition of flesh, upon 20 lbs. of 
steamed food a handsome gain is made. The trial that furnished tlie 



724 RESULTS OF COOKED FOOD. 

data for the statement was made a year since, when six dry cows, in con- 
dition as nearly alike as could be found, Avere divided into three pairs, 
and each pair fed differently from the others for 3 weeks ; note was then 
made of the result, and the trial continued another 3 weeks, giving to 
each pair what another pair had previously been allowed. The result 
was, that upon 28 lbs. per day of good dry hay, two cows weighing 1,184: 
lbs. and 1,456 lbs. respectively, just about held their own ; while another 
pair weighing 1,362 lbs. and 1,120 lbs. respectively, upon 20 lbs. per day 
of steamed feed, gained 54 lbs. and 36 lbs. Reversing the feed for the 
second three weeks, the last named barely held their own, while the first 
gained 40 lbs. and 30 lbs. respectively. 

" I should say that the cattle on long hay had all they would eat at the 
three regular feeds, and the quantity consumed was found to be at the 
close of the trial equal to 28 lbs. per day, as above stated. You will very 
properly ask, what is the mixture made of ? 

" My steam box (in three divisions) holds enough to fill 200 feed boxes 
of about one bushel each, and requires to i)ack it well 900 lbs. of dry 
fodder. This is made up of 300 lbs. good hay and 600 lbs. of corn stover, 
dried fodder, corn or oat or barley straw. This is cut tolerably fine and 
well mixed, and when packed in layers for steaming is thoroughly wet 
and seasoned with 180 quarts wheat shorts, 60 quarts cotton seed meal, 
and 60 quarts corn meal. 

*'The rule for feeding now observed, and that has been used for the 
past winter, is somewhat changed from previous years, and is a boxful 
of steamed feed morning and noon, and 5 lbs, dry hay at night. The two 
boxes of feed contain 3 lbs. good hay, 6 lbs. straw (or its equivalent), 1 
lb. shorts, and If lbs. meal (half each cotton seed and corn), and upon 
this good gain is made, as the monthly record shows." 

A cheap and serviceable steamer may be improvised by making a box 
of well jointed 2 in. pine, about 7 or 8 feet long by 2J ft. wide, with a 
bottom of No . 16 sheet iron, nailed securely on to the lower edge of the 
sides and ends, and turned up a little outside of them, say, J an inch. 
Place a false bottom i:)erforated with numerous holes, about 3 ins. above 
the fast bottom, and arrange a tight fitting cover for the top. Set the 
box on brick work over a suitable fireplace, so that the wooden edges of 
the box will be safe from the fire, and give a proper draught by a suitable 
chimney erected at the opposite end from fireplace. 

The space between the lower and false bottom being partly filled with 
water, the cut hay or other provender is packed tightly in above the false 
bottom, the cover is shut tight, the fire is lighted, and the steam enters 
the perforations in the false bottom and cooks the contents of the box. 

Hon. G. Geddes, of Syracuse, N.Y., says : — "That there is no branch 
of farming that was less understood and promised tnore advantages, than 
the preparation of food. He had thoroughly proved years ago that 
cookng, independent of grinding, at least doubled the value of food." 

Geo. a. Moore, of Erie Co., said he had fed 200 sheep on eookedfood, 
and he had fully satisfied himself that the value of food was tripled by 

COOKING. 

Professor Mapes says ( Transactions American Institute, 1864, p. 373) : 
' ' The experiment, often tried, has proved that eighteen or nineteen pounds 
of cooked corn is equal to fifty jwunds of raw corn f®r hog feed.. Mr. 
Mason, of New Jersey, found that pork fed with raw grain cost 12^ cents 
per pound, and that from cooked 4 J cents. Cooked corn stalks are as 
soft and almost as nutritious as green stalks. Cattle can be fattened at 
about half the expense upon cooked food as upon uncooked." 

Experiments made by Mr. Owen Merchant, of Warsaw, N. Y. , proved 
that a yoke of poor oxen, valued at about ^40, were fatted on cooked 



RESULTS OF COOKED FOOD. 725 

potatoes and bran in five weeks and three days, and made extra beef, 
Avhicli was sold in the market for first quality. 

James Buckingham gave in the Prairie Fanner an experiment with 
raw and cooked meal, and found that a hog fed on IJ bushels raw meal 
gained 19 pounds, and another fed on one bushel cooked meal gained 22 
iwunds. 

S. H. Clay, of Kentucky, found by experiment that a bushel of raw 
corn makes 5^ pounds of pork, whilst a bushel of cooked meal makes 17^ 
ponnds. 

Mr. A. Avery, of Syracuse, N.Y., says, after two years' trial : — ** I 
think I have saved ^10 per head on keeping (say ^600 on the stock feed), 
besides having the milch cows in better condition than ever before.'* He 
savs again, in April, 1869, " This you see gives me a clear profit of 
$537.25 on 4^ months' feed. 

Messrs. Dewey and Stewart, ot Owosso, Mich., says: — We have fed 
G4 head of cattle, 7 horses, and 340 sheep, fattened 22 head of cattle and 70 
sheep. We think we have saved one-third the expense in wintering this 
stock. 

By Professor Yoelcker's analysis, 1 ton of wheat straw contains: — 
35 lbs. of oil, 26 lbs. albumen, 

390 " digestible, 85 " mucilage. 

Experiments by E. W. Stewart, of New York, proved a bushel of 
wheat straw with two quarts middlings or meal was equal to the same 
weight of cut hay, and was worth 25 per cent, more than uncut hay. It 
was also found that the animals would eat 25 per cent, more hay uncut 
than cut. The same experiment was then made with corn meal, and Ih 
pints was found to make a bushel of straw equal to hay. 

Mr. Skinner, of New York, says he " fed 44 head of milch cows on 
steamed straw and shippings, and 26 head on hay not steamed. The 
straw was cut and steamed with the shippings. Each cow received 10 lbs. 
of straw and 8 lbs. of {shippings, and the expense, including labor and 
fuel, was 29 cents per head, dailj^ The 26 cows on hay cost 35 cents per 
head, daily, showing a balance of 6 cents per day each in favor of the 
straw and shippings. Those fed on the straw were full and plump, were 
gaining flesh, and doing better than those fed on hay." 

In Alcsath, Hungary, similar trials were made about the year 1839 on 
a very large scale, resulting in a decided success. The trials were made 
208 draught oxen, 108 days — daily profit of steaming $13 00 
2,000 old wethers, 120 '* " " 12 50 

34 stud horses 180 " " " 1 42 

The profit on 180 days' winter feeding on the above animals being S4,850, 
an amount quite worth saving. Cooking largely increases the bulk of the 
grain, a great advantage in preparing it for feeding cattle. 
4 measures of com have been increas'ed to 13 
4 '* barley " " 10 

4 " bran " " 14 

Thomas J. Edge writes to the Practical Farmer:—''! found that 5 
bushels of whole corn made 47| lbs. of pork. Five bushels {less miller's 
toll) of corn ground and made into thick slop with cold ivaier, made 54^ 
lbs of pork. The same amount of meal well boiled and fed cold, made 
83J lbs. of pork. The corn cost $1.30 per bushel; the pork made from the 
ichole corn barely paid, for the corn, while the same amount of gromid 
corn cooked, paid the whole cost of the cooking and a little more than $1 
13er bushel over," In this instance the pork 'sold at $14 per cwt. In a 
second experiment 10 bushels of corn on the cob, fed in the usual way, on 
the ground, made 29^ lbs. of pork, while the same amount of shelled, 
ground by horse-power and well boiled, made 64 lbs. of pork. 



726 



RESULTS OF COOKED FOOD. 



J. D. IsETT reports in the Practical Farmer^ that *' he formerly fed 
his team horses 70 lbs. of chop for each horse per week, besides the hay 
they would eat, and that by cooking his chop he found that his horses 
did" better, and looked better, kept in better spirits, and in every Avay 
were better, fed on 50 lbs. per week than on the large amount uncooked, 
making a saving, as he claims, on 8 weeks, of $57.60. 

Note. — In steaming hay, chaff, straw, &c., the fodder should first be cut 
and then moistened by a large sprinkling pot or hose, adding water at the rate 
of at least 3 gals, to 5 bushels of feed while it is being stirred up with a fork; 
then, if bran, meal, or other more concentrated food is to be fed with it, it 
should be sifted on evenly, and mixed. Sift in a little salt at the same time. 
Food thus prepared and fed to horses affected Avith the heaves will often effect 
a thorough cure. The steaming process has also a wonderful transforming 
power in rendering mildewed, musty, smutty, and rusted straw, hay, corn, 
fodder, &c., into first-class, nourishing fodder. Every offensive odor and re- 
pulsive taint is completely dissipated by the steaming process. 

In the Practicul Farmer for Dec, 1868, " Agricola " writes, " I have 
demonstrated to my own satisfaction, with the use of the Prindle 
Steamer * and careful weighing, that while 5 bushels of boiled mnsh will 
make 84 lbs. of pork, 3 bushels of meal and 5 bushels of potatoes will make 
72 lbs. of pork." 




PRINDIiE S AGRICULTURAL BOILER. 

In doing business on a large scale, it is much the best way to use an 
Agricultural Boiler, like that of Prindle' s, represented in the cut, which 
illustrates the method by which the steam is transmitted to the barrel or 
box containing the fodder to be cooked. The uses of such a contrivance 
are manifold. It may be used to great advantage as a small still for dis- 



* Note — Farmers will be pleased to learn that this unequalled Agricultural 
Steamer and Farmer's Boiler, is the invention of Daniel R. Prindle, him- 
self a practical farmer, of East Bethany, N.Y. It was victorious at the 
World's Exhibition at Philadelphia in 1876. Full information, circulars, «&c., 
obtained free, by addressing the inventor as above, or the manufacturers, 
Barrows, Savery & Co., Philadelphia, Pa. 



TIMBER MEASUREMENT. 



727 



tilling essential oils, refining coal oil, boiling clothes, warming bath tabs, 
heating small rooms, scalding hogs, &c. These boilers, made by Savery 
& Co., Philadelphia, are provided with vsafetj^ valves, flexible pij)es, &c., 
and may be procured in the United States from Robert C. Reeves, dealer 
in Agricultural implements, &c., 185 and 187 Water Street, New York. 
Another Boiler, somewhat similar, is sold by William Rennie, Toronto, 
Ont. 

KuMDER OF Feet ix Length of the following Dimensions of Timber 

REQUIRED TO MAKE 1000 FEET OF BOARD AND CUBIC MEASURE RE- 
SPECTIVELY. 



Size. 



X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 

8 xll 

8 xl2 
9x9 

10 xlO 

9 xll 
9 x 12 

10 xlO 

10 xl2 

11 xll 
xl2 
xl2 
xl6 
x 18 

18 x20 
20 x22 
22 x24 



No. of ft. in 
length to 
make 1000 

ft. cubic ra. 



11 
12 
14 
16 



5,760 
4,800 
4,114.3 
3,600 
3,200 
2,880 
2,618.2 
2,400 
4,000 
3,428.7 
3,000 
2,666.8 
2,400 
2,181.8 
2,000 
2,938.9 
2,571.4 
2,285.8 
2,057.3 
1,870.1 
1,714.3 
2,550 
2,000 
1,800 
1,636.4 
1,500 
1,777.9 
1,600 
1,455.5 
1,333.4 
1,440 
1,200 
1,190 
1,091 
1,000 
642.10 
500 
400 
327.3 
272.8 



_, 


No. of ft. 




No. of ft. 


1 




in length 
to make 




in length 


1 


Size. 


Size. 


to make 


1 




1000 feet 




1000 feet, 






board m. 




board m. 
200 




2x6 


1,000 


6 XlO 




2x7 


857.2 


6 xll 


181.10 




2x8 


750 


6 xl2 


166.8 


1 


2x9 


666.8 


7x7 


214.11 




2 xlO 


600 


7x8 


214.3 




2 xll 


545.0 


7x9 


190.6 




2 xl2 


500 


7 XlO 


171.5 




2^ X 5 


960 


7 xll 


155.10 




2\ X 6 


800 


7 xl2 


142.10 




2i X 7 


685.9 


8x8 


187.6 




2J- X 8 


600 


8x9 


166.8 




2i X 9 


533.4 


8 XlO 


150 




2^ XlO 


480 


8 xll 


136.4 




3x5 


800 


8 xl2 


125 




3x6 


666.8 


9x9 


148.2 




3x7 


571.5 


9 X 10 


133.4 




3x8 


500 


9 xll 


121.3 




3x9 


444.4 


9 xl2 


111.2 




3 XlO 


400 


10 XlO 


120 




3 xll 


363.7 


10 Xll 


109.1 




3 xl2 


333.4 


10 xl2 


100 




1 X 5 


600 


11 xll 


99.2 1 




1 X 6 


500 


11 xl2 


90.9 




4 X 7 


428.7 


12 xl2 


83.4 




4x8 


375 


12 xl4 


71.5 




4x9 


333.4 


12 xl6 


62.5 




4 XlO 


300 


12 xl8 


55.6 




4 xll 


272.8 


12 x20 


50 




4 xl2 


250 


16 xl8 


41.8 




5x6 


400 


20 x20 


30 




5x7 


342.10 


20 x24 


25 




5x8 


300 


22 x24 


22.8 




5x9 


266.8 


18 x24 


27.10 




5 XlO 


540 


18 x20 


33.4 




5 xll 


218.2 


14 xl6 


53.7 




5 xl2 


200 


15 xl8 


44.5 




6x6 


333.4 


16 x20 


37.6 




6x7 


285.8 


13 x 14 


66.11 




6x8 


250 


30 x40 


10 




6x9 


22^.2 


36 x36 


9.3 





To MEASURE Lumber 
BY THE Board Rule.— 

Place the rule across 
the board to be meas- 
ured, with the far end 
flush with the off side of 
the board, and note the 
width in inches; then 
measure the length of 
board and turn the rule 
to same length, examin- 
ing the section or col- 
umn of that length, and 
the contents will be 
found indented on the 
rule just over the nigh 
edge of the board. 

Rule to measure 
Logs or Round Tim- 
ber.— Multiply the 
length, taken in ft., by 
the square of one quar- 
ter of the mean girth, 
measured in inches, and 
this product divided by 
144 will give the requir- 
ed contents in cubic ft. 
In measuring tapering 
timber take the girth 
about one-third the dis- 
tance from the large to 
the small end. 

Rule for any Size. 
— Multiply the number 
of ft. in the face of the 
timber to be measured, 
by the thickness in 
inches, and the result 
will be the contents in 
ft. of board measure. 



The foregoing table will be found extremely useful to every timber 
merchant, mill owner, lumberman, and farmer. For other tables relat- 
ing to Timber measurement, the reader is referred to the series com- 
mencing with page 617. 



728 



GEOLOGICAL FACTS. 



t trOuviirin .■I'^vH;!: 



g..i:^.^lioceliev$4z'-- 



-! ".=^;'lIiocene - -^j^ 



\^^^^i'OCimtii^f^/=^~: 



'«" ^''Chalfcs" 






^^^^S^we^ s---^^^ 






GEOLOGICAL FACTS; AGE, ORIGIN AND ULTIMATE 
DURATION OF THE EARTH. 

Geology is a nol)le science of but recent origin ; 
it treats of the structure and mineral construc- 
tion of the earth's crust, the varied strata wliich 
compose it, the fossils they contain, and the 
tremendous forces employed in their formation. 
The diagram displaj- s the order in which the differ- 
ent strata are super-imposed on each other ; they 
extend to an estimated depth of 82,600 feet or up- 
wards of 15 miles, from the surface down to tlie 
granite. The granite, styled hj geologists, the 
primitive, crystalline, or igneous rocks, owing to 
their evident origin from the action of fire, forms 
tlie foundation of the stratified rocks, and at one 
period the surface of the globe was entirely com- 
posed of these rocks in an incandescent condition 
like molten iron. Gradually cooling during the 
lapse of ages, a crust was formed, water was con- 
densed from the atmosphere, and the formation 
of the stratified or aqueous rocks began. As an 
instrumentality in creation, w^ater seems to have 
been endowed with absolute power, for its irre- 
sistible potency appears to be oninipresent in the 
formation of everything terrestrial. Each strati- 
fied layer bears manifest proof of having at one 
time composed the surface of the earth on Avhicli 
we dwell, and a duration of time, estimated b}^ 
Prof. Agassiz to be not less than 15,000,000 of 
years have been required to produce the different 
strata that have been formed since first the dry 
land appeared. The substances of which the 
stratified rocks consist have all been dei^osited by 
the action of water ; each imbeds in its rocky 
prison enormous quantities of the fossil remains 
of organized forms of animal and vegetable life, 
which at one time, although at periods inconceiv- 
bly remote, flourished in the sunshine, on the 
blooming surface of the earth. 

The following table shows the relative i^osition 
in which these various strata exist with respect to 
each other, computing from the granite upwards 
together with the estimated thickness of each, but 
it must not be imagined that they can all be found 
in any one joarticular part of the earth. Some 
will always be found missing, the existence and 
absence of such deposits being caused by the 
alternate submersions and dessications which have 
existed at different times on every part of the 
earth's surface. All land and stratified rocks 
have been formed by tidal and sub-marine action, 

^ and whatever the strata may be in any given place, 

Metiinoiplifd.'-^^"! ^^^6 order of their succession is always the same. 
^-%.— . r^^^ Primary comprises the Azoic and Cambrian 
or bottom rocks, the Silurian, the Devonian or 
Old Red Sandstone, the Carboniferous or Coal 
Sj'stem, and the Permian . The Secondary, which succeeds, comprises 




^jXr^ Cambrian^ 



^yi^t^vt] 



Seco:ndary 



GEOLOGICAL FACTS. 729 

the Trias and Oolite, and the cretaceous or Chalk formation. The 
Tertiary consists of the Eocene, Miocene, Pliocene and the Pleistocene, 
or superficial deposits. 

Feet. 

f Azoic (lifeless) and Cambrian rocks 26,000 

I Silurian, LoAver and Upper 30,000 

Primary \ Devonian, or Old Red Sandstone 9,000 

I Carboniferous, or Coal 10,000 

[ Permian 2,000 

Trias and Oolite 2,500 

Cretaceous, or Chalk * 1,100 

( Eocene, or lower tertiary ] 

Tfrttat?v I Miocene, or middle tertiary ! « onn 

lERTiARi ] Pliocene, or upper tertiary f ^'""" 

[ Dilimum, or superficial deposits J 

86,600 

1st. The primitive or igneous rocks (granite) contain no organic re- 
mains, they bear evidence of having existed at one time in a molten state 
by reason of intense heat. These rocks protrude through the earth in 
many places, forming mountains, &c., in numerous localities, the upheaval, 
as many su]3pose, being caused by volcanic forciss operating from be- 
neath. 

2d. The Cambrian, Azoic, metamoi'pJiic^or transition rocks are partly 
crystalline, but manifestly stratified, and composed in great part of the 
disintegrated material of the underlying granite, with slight deposits of 
sea shells. The " Azoic " rocks denote those devoid of all traces of or- 
ganic life. 

3d. The Silurian formation resting on the Cambrian, contains remains 
of Zoophytes, Mollusks, and Crustaceans, all of them submarine ^ire/te- 
6ra^e animals of a very low order. The Zoophile is a sort of starfish 
fixed on the top of a slender stalk, rising from, and adhering to the 
bottom of the water, supplied with long tentacles or fingers, armed with 
suckers stretching forth on all sides to seize their prey and convey it to 
a stomach of a simple organism with one orifice. The mollusks are 
pulpy, boneless creatures with or without shells, like the modern oyster, 
muscle, snail or slug. Of the Crustaceans the most highly developed were 
the trilobites, now quite extinct, but at this time existing in great profu- 
sion and variety; the nearest existing resemblance to the "trilobites is 
to be found in'^the lobster, crab, shrimp, or crayfish families. Of the 
vegetable creation no traces are to be found in* this formation bej'ond 
the casts of some specimens of Fucoids or sea-weeds. In the Silurian 
formation no vertebrated animals have been anyivhere discovered. To this 
class belong all those animals furnished Avith a vertical spine or backbone, 
with connecting skeleton, as Fishes, Reptiles, Birds, Mammals and the 
Human race. No dry land, or land vegetation existed during this epoch. 

4th. The Devonian or Old Red Sandstone formation, resting on the 
Silurian, contains the fossil remains of nearly 200 varieties of vertebrate 
fishes. All these fishes were cartilaginous, clad in strong integuments of 
bone composed of enamelled plates, instead of the scales w^hich cover the 
existing races of the deep. Owing to the intense internal heat of the globe, 
the water composing the seas during this period were in a tepid or warm 
condition, hence the need of this defensive exterior on the finny tribes. 
As the globe cooled doAvn and tlie alternations of summer heat and 
winter cold set in (as evidenced by the appearance of annual season rings 
in the fossil trees)these fislies disappeared and others came into existence. 
The dawn of the Old Red Sandstone epoch \\iis heralded by tremendous 



730 GEOLOGICAL FACTS. 

and wide spread Tolcanic explosions causing the upheaval of the imdeily- 
ing granite, lifting with it the super-imposed Cambrian and Silurian strata, 
thereby forming mountains and dry land above the surface of the waters. 
Land vegetation soon followed. Vertebrate fishes were created, their 
armored condition attesting a very high temperature on the earth during 
the whole period. This formation contains 67 species of Zoophytes, 48 
of Crustacea, 88 of conchifera, 82 of mollusca, &c., but no quadrupeds. 

5th. The carboniferous system, resting on that of the OldKed Sandstone, 
contains deposits of Shale, Sandstone and Limestone, interspersed with 
Ironstone and coal. The internal heat of the earth w^as still of a high tem- 
perature during thi^ epoch, vast volumes of carbonic acid gas were 
emitted from the ground, hot, hazy, damp vapors filled the atmosphere, 
the conditions of shade, heat and humidity, extending even into the frigid 
zones, generated a growth of Ferns, Calamites, LepidodendKi, Sigillaria 
and Stigmaria of prodigious extent and the most astonishing dimensions. 
These different growths, compared with which the most luxuriant tropical 
vegetation of modern times are but as a howling wilderness or a barren 
desert, existed at widely different periods ; each underwent a complete 
submersion under water, sand and gravel, and it is to the great masses of 
vegetable matter which composed these primeval forests that the coal 
measures owe their origin. The transmutation of the vegetable into the 
mineral substance of coal has occupied incalculable ages, but on close in- 
spection the vegetable structure is plainly visible, and no doubt can exist 
of its organic origin. 

The fossil remains imbedded in the limestone sections which alternate 
with coal seams mainly resemble those of the preceding ages. Rep- 
tiles of the Batrachian or frog species, and terrestrial animals in the 
forms of insects of a low order, chiefly of the Scorpion, Cockroach, 
Cricket and Beetle tribes, now first appear. The festering heat was unsuit- 
able to higher organisms, no sunbeam could penetrate the dense mists, 
silence held universal sway, while a profuse, flowerless and almost fruit- 
less vegetation, unparalleled in immensity by anything ever known in the 
history of this planet, tenanted the sombre and death-like solitudes. These 
forests grew with amazing rapidity until the soft and pulpy masses fell 
beneath their own weight and succeeding forests sprang from their pros- 
trate trunks. A terrible revulsion of nature takes place ; these precious 
materials are destined for the future use of man. Water, the main-spring 
of all terrestrial activity, the irresistible agent of creative power, comes 
upon the scene with overwhelming force, these forests are submerged, 
and covered with strata of sand and gravel, long since transmuted into 
sections of rock. Thus the bosom of the earth was made the store-house 
of those vast treasures of coal and iron which daily minister to the wants 
of man. 

6th. The Permian system is superimposed on the Carboniferous forma- 
tion. Violent subterranean convulsions appear to have dislocated the coal 
beds about the commencement of this epoch, and on the broken masses the 
Permian system of sedimentary rocks were deposited. The ancient order of 
fishes occur in this formation for the last time, the Trilobite disappears from 
existence, and undoubted traces of an air-breathing oviparous reptile of 
the Saurian (lizard) family appear. Fossil footsteps of four-footed ani- 
mals, apparently those of "^tortoises, exist, and for the first time we dis- 
cover the annual season rings in the fossil woods, thus attesting that the 
unclouded sunbeam had free access to vegetation. This formation com- 
prises, 1st. The red conglomerate. 2d. The magnesian limestone. 3d. 
The variegated sandstone. 4:th. Muschelkalk ; and 5th. LTppermost, 
Variegated marl. The petrifactions of the vegetables, zoophytes, Crus- 
tacea, fishes and fresh water-shells are numerous. With the Permian 



GEOLOGICAL FACTS. 731 

system closes the Primary or Palseozoic class of rocks which form the 
earth's crust, and the primeval forms of organized animal life disappear. 

7th. The Secondary Period.— The Trias and Oolite stjstem rests on the 
Permian formation. The Trias is a deposit of shelly limestone and varie- 
gated sandstones. The Oolite, which rests on it is also a series of calca- 
reous or limestone beds principally composed of conglomerate, or collec- 
tions of small round grains or spheroids resembling a cluster of minute 
eggs, or the roe of a fish. This epoch has been styled " The Age of Rep- 
tiles,'* from the enormous number of fossil remains visible in this form- 
ation. One species of frog seems to have equalled a large hog in size. 
The Icthyosavrus, an amphibious animal, often exceeded 30 feet in length, 
with a head and teeth resembling those of a crocodile, and eyes as large 
as a man's head, with a huge voracious stomach, and four fins like the 
paddles of a whale. The half digested remains of fishes and other rep- 
tiles found in its stomach attest its carnivorous habits, terrible ferocity, 
and tremendous strength. The Plesiosaurus "united to the head of a 
lizard the teeth of a crocodile, a neck of vast length resembling the body 
of a serpent, a trunk and tail having the proportions of an ordinary quad- 
ruped, the ribs of a chameleon, and the iDaddles of a whale." The struc- 
ture would i^ermit it to plunge downwards at the fishes below it or seize 
birds on the wing above it. The Megilosaurus was an enormous reptile, 
measuring from 40 to 50 feet in length, resembling the crocodile of the 
present daj''. The Iguanodon was still larger, attaining a length of from 
60 to 70 feet. The Saurian monsters, the Pterodactyles, resembled a 
gigantic bat or vampire, with strange dragon-like wings, extending in 
some cases, 27 feet, by means of which it could soar aloft, but per Cuvier, 
it must be classed in the Saurian or Lizard tribe, inasmuch as the beaks 
are armed with teeth." Most of them had the nose elongated like the 
snout of a crocodile, and armed with conical teeth. From their wings 
projected fingers terminated by long hooks, forming a powerful iDaw, and 
their eyes were of vast size, enabling them to fl.y by night. In the lower 
Oolite, fossil remains of small animals of the Marsupial family have been 
found. Of this class are the Kangaroo and Opossum species, forming the 
connecting link between the reptile and mammal tribes. The footprints 
of birds of vast size have been found in quarries of laminated flagstones, 
the foot of the largest measured 18 inches in length, distance between the 
footsteps was from 4 to 6 feet, indicating legs about 7 feet long. Remains 
of reptiles in immense numbers are everywhere abundant ; butterflies, 
dragon-flies, ants, &c., existed in swarms, trees of Cypress, Palm and Pine 
species flourished with the ferns, conifers and calamites of the coal 
period, and flowering shrubs and fruit-beariiig plants grew in profusion. 
The extensive coal beds existing throughout the Oolite system afford 
evidence of a rank vegetation. 

8th. The Chalk or Cretaceous system, formed by deposits in deep seas, 
constitutes the last bed of the Secondary period. It is largely composed 
of organic remains, calcareous shells of animals so minute that a cubic 
inch would embrace ten millions of them. The fossils embrace Birds, 
Reptiles, Fishes, Mollusks, Zoophytes, Crustaceans and marine substances 
from the sponge to the alligator. The existing classes of fishes are found 
for the first time in this formation, and the ancient races disappear. 

9th. The Tertiary System, resting on the chalk formation, has been 
divided into three eras, viz : The Eocene or Loioer Tertiary, The Mio- 
cene, or Middle Tertiary, and the Pliocene, or Upper Tertiary. Some- 
times a fourth era is added named the Pleistocene, embracing the super- 
ficial deposits. The Eocene, or lowest layer marks the origin of the 
recent or now existing races of quadruped Mammals. The Palsetherium, 
now extinct, is described as partaking of the various character of the 
RMnr)f'oro,=!. the Horpe, and the Tapir -. the AnaplotJipriKm, evidently a 



782 GEOLOGICAL FACTS. 

marine animal, resembled an Ass in form, and embraced several species. 
The Adapis resembled an enormous Hedgehog, and the Cheiropotamus a 
Peccary. The Miocene or middle deposit contains the remains of the 
extinct Dinothermm Giganteiim, an enormous herbiv^orous animal, which 
must have been 18 ft. in length, furnished with a trunk like an elephant, 
and tusks like those of a walrus. In ascending to the Pliocene or upper 
deposit, we find the organic remains of the Mammoth, Mastodon, Megal- 
onyx, and Megatherium, all of immense dimensions and quite superior as 
regards size and strength to the Elephant, tlie Rhinoceros, the Hippopota- 
mus, and the Sloth, which rei^resent them at the present day. Besides 
these, bears, tigers, hyenas, and other flesh eating animals, some of them 
extinct, abounded in vast numbers, and the Whale, Seal, and Morse 
species now appear for the first time. For a distance of 10 or 12 miles 
around Charleston, S.C., there exists in the post pliocene beds of the 
tertiary formation, about 8 or 10 feet below the surface, and in the beds 
of rivers, such enormous quantities of the bones of animals that 800 to 
1,000 tons can be excavated from a single acre. Over 300,000 tons were 
shipped from that locality in 1876. 

According to Lyell, there are now 50,000 species of fossils recognized, 
but they are believed to be of very distant epochs. The fossil species 
distinct from living species, are mammalia, 120, birds, 25, amphibia, 50, 
fishes, 400, and moUusca 3,100, in all 4795, besides vegetables ; the number 
is constantly being increased by new discoveries, miners are conversant 
with an immense number of fossilized vegetables, none of them resembling 
the plants of present growth. If coals are cut into thin slices their vegetable 
structure can be detected with the microscope, and numerous cells per- 
■ceived that are filled with a yellow bituminous liquid that causes the 
flame seen in common fires, and whose gaseous products form illuminating 
gas. The trunk of a tree, measuring 60 feet, was lately found in a quarry 
in Lothian. It penetrated tlirough 10 or 12 strata of white sandstone, but 
its back had become pure coal, and forests of standing trees have been 
discovered in Yorkshire and in Ireland, in stone. 

In the English coal measures, 300 species liave been detected, compris- 
ing ferns, palms, calamites, reeds, cactiie, lepidodendrons, &c., at least 
50,000 years old : the last named, which now grow no higher than 3 ft., 
were in the lowest coal measures, great trees, whose fragments are 45 
feet. In the magnesian limestone, over the coal, only 8 species of fuci, 
or marine plants, have been found. A fossil forest has been discovered 
under the banks of tlie Tiber, petrified with calcsinter, mixed with vol- 
canic dust. Below the coal beds a large tree has been found 3 ft. in diam., 
and 36 ft. long, and in many cases the entire trunks of fossilized trees 
form roofs over the coal strata. As submersions destroj^ed the primeval 
forests, so we have the resulting strata ; but myriads of ages have failed 
to render all of them perfect coal, hence the different varieties of that 
product. 

The coral reefs furnish evidence of an antiquity of the globe far exceed- 
ing any received estimate. The formations are of very slow growth, not 
exceeding 6 inches in a century, and are composed of the remains of dead 
polypes united with gluten, forming rocks of great density and cohesion. 
The great coral reef of New Holland is 350 miles, continuously, and then 
in parts 1,000 miles, and from 20 to 50 in depth. East of New South 
Wales is a reef 500 miles long, and more than 200 fathoms perpendicular, 
yet these mountain masses of limestone in the ocean are formed by pol- 
ypes, insignificant in size, but infinite in numbers, composed of simple 
gelatinous bodies, or small stomachs in shells of carbonate of lime, which 
cohere together with great tenacity after death. Within half a mile of 
many coral reefs tb.ere are no soundings to the depth of several hundred 



GEOLOGICAL FACTS. 733 

fathoms. The Ammonites, a fossil shell in a spiral form, curved like a 
ram's horn, existed in various shapes during the secondary and transition 
periods, but became extinct, perhaps, 100,000 j^ears ago. The nummulite, 
a fossil Cephalapod, resembling a coin, were so numerous as to form im- 
mense mountains of limestone, and yet so ancient that they are abundant 
in the stones of the pyramids and sphuix, yet even then as embedded fos- 
sils. 1234 species of fossil shells have been described in France and Eng- 
land, mostly extinct species : other thousands have been found in other 
countries, mostly extinct. 

The Geological Society of London has a slab 2 ft. square in which is 
embedded 250 fishes. Fossil sea turtles have shells 8 ft. long. There arc 
beds of sea shells 2,000 ft. high on Mount Etna, and strata of grey clay, 
filled with shells, much higher. Shells and organic remains abound in 
Chili, from 9 to 1,400 ft. above the sea level. Workmen near Eureka, 
Nevada, while blasting in the solid rock, 40 ft. below the surface, found 
imbedded in a piece of it a petrified wasp's nest, the texture of 
which, though turned to stone, was plainly visible. On breaking it open, 
some cells, larva, and two perfectly formed wasps were found, also pet- 
rified. The rock is of a granite sandstone of sedimentary formation. 
The Atlaiitosaurus, an enormous monster from Colorado, is per Prof. 
Marsh, the largest land animal as yet discovered. It was some 50 or GO 
ft. in length, and, when erect, at least 30 ft. high. It doubtless browsed 
upon the foliage of the mountain forests, portions of which are preserved 
with its remains. 

The islands of the Icy Sea, per Pallas, are full of elephants and rhinoc- 
eros' bones, and the islands opposite the Lena are almost composed of them 
and fossil wood. A mammoth, a carnivorous animal, much larger than 
an elephant, was found in Siberia in the ice, perfect in its eyes, flesh, hair, 
skin, &c., with long mane and tail of stout black bristles ; many others, 
together with elephants, have been found in Siberia, and Hudson's Bay, 
a positive proof that the temperature of the Tropics existed at one time in 
these regions. The bones of the Mastodon of North America, as arranged 
in Peale's Museum, form a skeleton 18 ft. long, 11 ft. 5 ins. high, with 
tusks, 10 ft. 7 ins. The Iguamadon, an enormous herbivorous leptile, dis- 
covered by Mantell, is 70 ft. long, the body is 4 ft. 9 ins. in diam., with a horn 
of bone, and a tail 52 J ft. The bones of the Mammoth are quite numerous 
in the United States ; the molar tooth weighs 8 lbs. , and the joint of the 
bone of the leg is a foot in diam. 

The Era of Superficial Deposits. — This may be called the modern 
age of geology, but what human being will presume to say when it began? 
The formations of gravel, sand, clay, peat, marl, coral reefs, &c.,have 
been formed since this epoch commenced, and vast changes caused by 
submersions and convulsions have taken place all over the globe. These 
silent but irresistible forces, the tools of creative i30wer, are incessantly 
at work rendering the world a fit habitation for man, and as we approach 
this momentous period of the world's history we also discover for the 
first time, evidences of the existence of those i)lants and cereals which 
furnish his daily bread. Agassiz has recorded his opinion, that the order 
of the Rosacese to which belong the apiole, pear, the plum, and the various 
fruits of that description, as well as the raspberries, strawberries, bram- 
bleberries, and roses in all their varieties, were introduced, contempora- 
neously with, or only a short time before, the first appearance of the 
human race. The gradual transformation of varieties since the ferns of 
the coal period, is indeed immense. 

During the glacial period, in which the climate of Greenland extended 
as far south as New York, the world was covered with immense moving 
masses of ice, whicli in their progress from north to south moved rocks 



734 GEOLOGICAL FACTS. 

hundreds of miles and remodelled the topography of various countries. 
The effects of these glacial movements were the pulverization of the 
various rocks, thus forming sand from sandstone, calcareous soil from 
limestone, and clay from granite and gneiss, transforming barren rock 
into fertile soil. 

The alluvial deposits contain remains which indicate a vast antiquity. 
The skeleton of a whale was dug up in the vicinity of Niagara a few 
years ago, a sure indication that that region formed at one time the bed 
of an ocean. All the land about the Clyde rests upon beds of shells, 
bones of stags, elephants, &c., and at Yealm Bridge, and Ketley, near 
Plymouth, there are caves containing bones of rhinoceroses, elephants, 
hyenas, bears, foxes, wolves, dogs, horses, oxen, sheep, &c. Agassiz 
describes 300 new species of fossil fish found in England, of which 50 
exists in London clay. A bed of oyster shells 9 miles long and 18 feet thick 
exists in the interior of Norfolk ; a pair of stags' horns have been found on 
the shores of the Mersey, near Liverpool, at 30 feet, and pieces of timber 
at 40 feet. Palms and cocoa nuts have been found imbedded in the 
London clay, clearly indicating the existence at one time of a tropical 
climate in what is now the temperate zone. An old Roman port off 
Romney marsh is now several miles out at sea, and proofs are abundant 
that Great Britain was at one time united to the continent. 

No doubt exists that the Falls of Niagara were at one time precipitated 
into an ocean over Queenston Heights, and Sir Charles Lyell computes 
that a period of at least 30,000 to 35,000 years have elapsed while the 
falls have been cutting their way through seven miles of rock to their pre- 
sent position ; the retrograde movement is still going on, slowlj^ but surely, 
every day. 

A volcano now extinct, near Mount D' Orr in tlie interior of France, 
emitted a flow of lava at a comparatively recent period, which filled 
up the channel of a river in its course. The water rose, passing over 
the impediment in its course, and has up to this time cut a channel 
50 feet deep through the lava bed. From the remains of an old 
Roman bridge known to have been constructed about 2000 years ago, it 
appears that the erosion of the water into the lava has been con- 
siderably less than six inches during that period, which would indicate 
that it has required over 200,000 years to cut the channel to its present 
depth of 50 feet. 

Myriads of ages have elapsed while the rushing waters have been 
cutting out those tremendous ravines in the hard rock, known as 
the Canyons of Mexico, Texas, Colorado, and the Rocky Mountains. 
The great Canyon of the Colorado river is 298 miles long and 
the sides rise perpendicularly above the water to a height of 5000 or 4 
6000 feet. 

On Oak Orchard creek and the Genesee river, between Rochester and 
Lake Ontario, are enormous chasms, worn by the water, 7 miles long. 
On the Genesee, south of Rochester, a cut exists from Mount Morris to 
Portage, sometimes 400 feet deep. In the Rocky Mountains, near the 
source of the Missouri river, there is a gorge 6 miles long and 1200 feet 
deep. In the Mississippi, at St. Anthony's Falls, the river has eroded a 
passage through limestone rock 7 miles long, to which distance the 
cataract has receded. In the passage of the Connecticut river at Brattle- 
boro and Bellows Falls, it can be proved that the river was once at least 
700 feet above its present level. 

From these and thousands of other proofs which might be cited, the in- 
ference is unavoidable that vast periods have elapsed since the beginning 
of the present geographical distribution of sea and land, but step by step, 
during the slow but majestic march of Time, we can always see that every 



ORIGIN, ETC., OF THE EARTH. 735 

instrumentality employed by creative power has been in the continual 
effort to brin^r order out of chaos and fit the earth as a liabitation for man. 



FIAT LUX. 

GREAT L.IGHT ON A DARK SUBJECT. 

Age, Origin, and Ultimate Duration of the Earth.— More than 
140 years have elapsed since Emanuel Swedenborg penned the startling 
announcement, the first of the kind ever made, that our earth, together 
with her sisterhood of planets, derived their origin from matters and sub- 
stances evolved from the atmospheres and solar energy of the sun of our 
system. In his Principia, written in 1734, and again in hisWorship and 
Love of God, in 1745, he remarks that the sun is the centre of a vortex; 
that it rotates upon its axis ; that the solar matter concentrated itself into a 
belt, zone, or ring, at the equator, or rather ecliptic; that by the attenua- 
tion of the ring it became disrupted ; that upon the disruption, part of the 
matter collected into globes, and part of the matter subsided into the sun 
forming solar spots ; that the globes of solar matter were projected into 
space ; that consequently they described a spiral orbit; that in proportion 
as the igneous matter thus projected receded from the sun it gradually 
experienced refrigeration and consequent condensation ; that hence fol- 
lowed the formation of the elements of ether, air, aqueous vapor, &c., 
until the planets finally reached their present orbit ; that during this 
period the earth experienced a succession of geological changes which 
originated all the varieties in the mineral kingdom, and laid as it were 
the basis of the vegetable, and afterwards of the animal, kingdom. 

These were alarming propositions to i)ropound at a time when it wa^^ 
almost universally accepted as a literal truth that the world was created 
out of nothinr/ in the space of six natural days about 6000 years ago, yet 
since Swedenborg' s time scientists have abundantly demonstrated the 
truth of what he taught, and this so clearly that at this day no enlighten- 
ed mind will dispute the facts. 

Swedenborg assei-ted that the whole starry heavens was one vast sphere, 
and its suns or stars, including their systems, to be pails of a sphere con- 
nected with each other. He writes, "Possibly there may be innumer- 
able other spheres, and innumerable other heavens, similar to those we 
behold, so many indeed and so mighty, that our own may be respect- 
ively only a point." The Essay in his immortal Principia, expressly 
called "The Theory of the Siderial Heavens," giving full details of the 
system, was published in 1733, long before the advent of monster tele- 
scopes, twenty-two years before Kant, twenty-four j^ears before Lambert, 
twenty-six years before Boscovitch, thirty-four years before Mitchell, 
and forty-four years before Herschel gave the result of their confirmatory 
discoveries to the world. 

The grandest and latest discovery of modem astronomy is the motion 
of the so-called fixed stars, yet long before this discovery was announced 



.730 OUlGINj ETC., OF THE EAKTII. 

Swedeuborg asserted that the whole universe was in motion, and that the 
paths which the countless suns with their sj^stems were traversing Avas the 
Milky-Way, and that the point at which they entered was at the j^oiith, 
and that at which they emerged was at the north. The truth of this 
theory has been demonstrated and accepted within the last thirty years 
by Humboldt, Herschel, and other eminent observers. The knowledge of 
these movements enable astronomers to predict, with absolute certainty, 
the different changes the various constellations will undergo during the 
lapse of ages to come, and dejQne the reasons and causes of such 
changes. 

The fact is well attested that our sun is only one of a million which trav- 
erse the Milky Way. In the crowded part of the Milky Way, Sir W. Her- 
schel, the prince of astronomers, had fields of view in which, during a 
quarter of an hour, he saw 116,000 stars pass through the field of view of a 
telescope of only 15^ aperture ; and at another time, in 41 minutes, he saw 
258,000 stars pass through the field. It consists mostly of stars of the 
10th or 12th magnitude, but too numerous to be seen by the naked eye, 
which can only discriminate stars of the 6th or 7th magnitude ; power- 
ful telescopes reach even to a 16th magnitude. He calculated the length 
of the visual ray of the telescope he used. It reached stars 497 times 
the distance of Sirius ; now Sirius cannot be nearer than 100,000 X 190,- 
000,000 miles, therefore Dr. Herchel's telescope, at least, reached to 100,- 
000 -f 190,000,000 4- 497 miles = 9941 billions miles. He saw stars 42,000 
times more distant that Sirius ; and a cluster 11 trillions of miles distant. 
He says there are nebulae from which light is 48,000 years travelling ! 
Light travels 192,000 miles in a second, or 6J trillions of miles per annum, 
then in 48,000 years this would be 304,000,000,000 of millions of millions 
of miles distant ; if the cluster ceased to exist we should not know it for 
48,000 years ! Such distances can indeed be written, but can never be 
conceived by the mind of man. 

It is a trifling matter to reduce these figures to writing, but quite an- 
other thing to realize their full significance. 

To assist our conception of what constitutes a "billion," we will take 
as a unit a second of time, of which 60 flit away in a minute, or 86,000 in 
a dRj. Not the one-sixteenth part of that number have come and gone 
since the commencement of the Christian era to the beginning of 1878, for 
it takes exactly 31,687 years, 17 days, 22 hours, 45 minutes, and 5 seconds 
«to constitute a billion of seconds of time. 

The immensity and grandeur of the Heavens penetrates every enlight- 
ened mind with indescribable emotions of awe and reverence for the 
Almighty energies of that Adorable Intelligence who created and sus- 
tain s'the whole. 

Touching the stability of the solar system, it was feared by many, 
eminent for their attainments and acquirements in every branch of 
human learning, that owing to the mighty changes and apparent derange- 
ments which were occurring in the planetary orbits, that impending ruin 
and destruction would ultimately render the earth uninhabitable for man. 
At a time Avhen the belief was prevalent that certain destruction awaited 
the whole universe, Swedenborg announced to the Avorld his theory that: 
" As the solar system is carried along through the Milky- Way, and after- 
wards compelled to diverge therefrom, the planetary orbits will change 
their form and eccentricity to a certain amount, and then return to 
their original condition, when they Avill again change and again return, 
and so on to eternity." This beautiful and harmonious theory, so well 
calculated to terminate every groundless fear, has since been proved and 
demonstrated by La Grange, and this doctrine of a cyclar return of the 
solar system is now known among the learned as La Grange's theory 



ORIGIN, ETC., OF THE EARTH. 737 

of the stability of the solar system ; nevertheless this doctrine was ex- 
pounded m Swedenborg's Prlncipia forty-four years before La Grange 
put his forth, seventy-one years before Mayer, and ninet^^-one years 
before Bessel. 

Irregularities in planetary motions correct themselves, because every 
motion, included in the motion of the Sun, is itself subordinate, and 
therefore must ultimately conform. The planets being acted upon by the 
common force of the sun, they often interfere on the same side witli tho 
sun's force on that side, and this begets irregularity or disturbance, 
oddly called their own attractions. 

La Grange proved that the mass of each planet into the square-root of 
the line of apsides, and into the square of the eccentricity, give sums that 
are invariable. It will be seen from the preceding article that the worlc 
of creation has been progressing during incalculable myriads of age«, and 
we may rest satisfied that it forms no pai-t of the Divine economy to 
destroy what it has been millions of years in building up. The agencies 
employed in the creation of the universe are identical with those which 
now exisit for its preservation. Harmony and perfection are everywhere 
real entities; derangement and disorder are apparent only. That the 
sun's apparent path through the ecliptic is really caused by the motion of 
the earth in its orbit around the sun, may be seen from the globes in the 
figure, representing the earth in twelve different positions, corresponding 



!#*"J^*^, 










;ittarjus* : 


--.;•;■..:....:,: Vij-go^^:^ 


>P^^ .dV\- 


^:-.--u .. 


^piO^^^:^-^ 


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^ : Ljbv^ 


^:^^hiv. . 




■ ;: V \;a' ,' :--"- ; •' v 


■. ■ " '.' ._• -, ■. '••■- 




T '^. 






- --■.'■- ■^'-•Oi**----,. i,«.-srirA'— .. . ,' i. . 


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• .,-> . ..-<•-, -.-^ . . • j ..- .■ 


-■.:■■ -3 -i^ -^-■•'-~--- - 



to the twelve months. In the various globes, N is the north pole, DCL 
the equator, S the place of the Sun, and C S and all lines from C parallel 
to this the direction of the plane of the ecliptic. The inclination of the 
earth's axis to the plane of its orbit is 23° 28^ and this, with its annual 
revolution around the Sun, causes the change of seasons known as 
Spring, Summer, Autumn and Winter. Besides the diurnal and annual 
movements of the earth, there is also an onward movement of the whole 
solar system through space, in an orbit of its own, at the rate of 154,000,- 
000 miles per annum. 

Swedenborg asserts that there is an internal or spiritual sense concealed 
within the letter, or natural sense of the Word, comparable to the 
soul or spirit of man, which fills the human body just as the hand fills a 
glove. This sense he unfolds by means of the science of correspondences, 
the knowledge of which he claims was revealed to him. For instance, 
wherever the end of the World is foretold or predicted in the Word, he 
saj^s that by this we are not to understand the end of tlie natural world, 
but the church or dispensation existing in the world, the latter being 



738 ORIGIN, ETC., OF THE EARTH. 

used in a symbolic sense to represent the former. If after this statement 
any one persists in adhering to a literal interpretation, let him take a 
good concordance and examine under the words "ever" and "forever" ; 
he will find to his amazement that there are just as many ]oroofs to sustain 
the theory of the everlasting duration of the earth as there are to prove 
its destruction ! In this case what can a man gain by refusing his assent 
to the truth as unfolded by Swedenborg ? 

In his work descriptive of the Last Judgment, which Swedenborg avers 
has already taken i^lace, not in this, but in the spiritual world, during the 
year 1757, the following passage occurs : 

"That the procreations of the human race will continue to eternity, 
is plain from many considerations, and of which tha following are the 
principal : — I. That the human race is the basis on which heaven is founded. 
II. That the human race is the seminary of heaven. III. That the ex- 
tension of heaven, which is for angels, is so immense that it cannot be 
filled to Eternity. lY. Tliat they are but few respectively, of wliom 
heaven at present is formed. V. That the perfection of heaven increases 
according to plurality. VI. And that every Divine work has respect to 
Infinity and Eternity. The angelic heaven is the end for which all things 
in the universe were created, for it is the end on account of which man- 
kind exists, and mankind is the end regarded in the creation of the visible 
heaven, and the earths included in it; wherefore that Divine worlr, 
namely, the angelic heaven, primarily has respect to Infinity and 
Eternity, and therefore to its multij)!! cation, without end, for the Divine 
Himself dwells within it. Hence also it is clear, that the human race will 
never cease, for were it to cease, the Divine work would be limited to a 
certain number, and thus its respectiveness to Infinity would perish. 
The Lord did not create the universe for His own sake, but for the sake 
of those with whom He will be in Heaven ; for spiritual love is such, that 
it wishes to give its own to another; and as far as it can do this it is in its 
bemg, in its peace, and in its blessedness: spiritual love derives this from 
the Divine Love of the Lord, which is infinitely such ; from hence it fol- 
lows that the Divine Love, and hence the Divine Providence, has for its 
end a heaven, which may consist of men made angels, to whom He can 
give all the blessed and happy things which are of love and wisdom, and 
give them from Himself in them." L. J. 6. 

It will console and comfort mrpy houest but simple-minded thinkers 
who believe otherwise, to be tild that although these startling facts 
seem to jar with terrific force against their cherished articles of faith, 
and even to oppose revealed truth, it is nevertheless most true, that 
they do not, even in the slightest degree, enter into conflict with revela- 
tion. There is a science of spiritual truth and there is a science of natural 
truth ; there is the Book of Revelation and there is the Book of Nature ; 
the same Omnipotent Hand has written both, each must be understood 
in a sense peculiar to itself, and when so understood, tliere can be no con- 
tradiction between them. Wherever contrariety or discordance appears, 
the error, if any exists, is in man himself and in his natural proneness 
to receive appearances as truths. During a depth of time not to be 
penetrated, mankind inferred, from the apparent motion of the sun, 
planets, and stars, that they revolved around the earth once in 24 
hours, but now every school-boy knows that this idea is a fallacy, and an 
outrage on natural truth, the real truth being that in every passing 
hour we are moved by the earth's rotation on its axis 1,037 miles, 
and in its orbit 66,092 miles, the diurnal motion causing the apparent 
motion of the heavenly bodies around the earth. Many readers 
infer, from a perusal of the first chapter of Genesis, that it is 
simply a narrative of the creation of the world on which we dwell, yet 



ORIGIN, ETC., OF THE EARTH. 739 

still it must be said, that although this belief is all but universal among 
the great masses of society, it is nevertheless as gross an outrage on 
spiritual truth as the first noted fallacy is on natural truth. The sublime 
narration recorded in Genesis does not treat of natural creation, for being 
Divinely composed it is to be understood in a sense entirely different 
from merely human vrritings. This style is such that it describes spirit- 
ual things by means of pure correspondences, similitudes, types, and 
symbolic imagery drawn from earthly things. The subject treated of is 
indeed concernmg a new creation, but one more momentous by far than 
even the creation of a world. Many modern theologians are afraid to 
enter on an interpretation of this chapter on account of its alleged conflict 
with the known facts of science, but the theology that could be endanger- 
ed by such an investigation is worthy of no man's acceptance. Under- 
stood naturally, what reflecting mind could conceive of the existence of 
light, evening and morning, day and night, and grass, before the creation 
of the Sun ; in such case what could exist but universal darkness and 
Arctic desolation ! In the first chapter, v. 21, " every living thing that 
moveth " is described as being created and "brought forth abundantly 
after their kind,'* by the waters; in chap. ii. v. 19, " every beast of the 
field and fowl of the air " is described as being " made out of the ground." 
Understood literally, or in the sense of the letter, these statements are 
contradictory to every rational idea, but when interpreted according to 
the law of correspondences they are divinely true even as to their minutest 
details. 

At this day, amidst the crash of creeds framed \)j self-derived intelli- 
gence, when many are announcing from the pulpit the impending ruin 
of our planet, when brazen infidelity proclaims from the plat form to ap- 
plauding audiences that there is no hereafter, and scoffs at sacred things, 
it must gratify every lover of truth to- learn that there exists in Sweden- 
borg's theological writings a system ot doctrine and scriptural interpreta- 
tion absolutely impregnable against everj^ assault of the enemy. From 
the wonderful story of Genesis to the sublime visions of the Apocalyi)se, 
the searcher after truth will find the veil of mystery lifted from a thou- 
sand questions which have for ages iDuzzled the wisest commentators. The 
system of interpretation is unerring in its logic, inflexible in its allegiance 
to truth, and astonishing in its minuteness of detail. In an article in a 
recent number of the Galaxy, in relation to the contest between science 
and religion, the writer says : " The modern school of Free Thouglit has 
found its one serious opponent, and its only one, in Emanuel Swedenborg, 
whose writings, first issued more than a century since, have had an ef- 
fect on the whole tone of thought and metaphysics, such as few people 
suspect, and hardly any realize. 

" It must be remembered that Swedenborg published his first (theolog- 
ical) book in 1749, and that his theological activity covered the voiy 
period wherein the French and English school of scientific inquiry, skep- 
ticism, and free thought, was beginning to be most active. 

" In the midst of this period of intellectual bustle and activity, the 
Seer of the North, secluded in his lonely study among the Swedish 
forests, with nothing before him but a Hebrew Bible and Greek Testa- 
ment, was calmly writing those wonderful books which he asserts to be 
the result of direct revelations from the Deity. 

" The only system that remains able to-day freely to admit the most un- 
compromising results of scientific inquiry without fear or question, and 
at the same time to hold to the absolute truth of Holy Writ in every jot 
and tittle, appears to be that proclaimed by Swedenborg. 

" The system of theology it propounds is purely and uncompromisingly 
monotheistic. An Arab could not quarrel with it on that score. It is, 



740 ORIGIN, ETC., OF THE EARTH. 

at the same time, so purelj'- Christian that the most zealous evangelical 
of the extremest type can find no fault with it, making as it does the 
Saviour and Redeemer its grand central figure. 

" Finally, it is able to concede to the boldest of materialists, the most 
acute of historical critics, the most ardent evolutionist, the most dogmatic 
of palaeontologists, the most abstruse of metaphysicians, everything 
which they can possibly claim to have proved, every truth, however con- 
trary to current theological opinion, which they can establish, while at 
the same time it holds to the absolute truth of every word of Holy Scrix)- 
ture. 

*' Nothing seems to shake its faith in the slightest ; it shuns no in- 
quiry and needs no explanation of any fact, everything being plain, the 
Bible its only standard." 

In the Cyclopsedia of Biography, by Parke Godwin, we read : "Swe- 
denborg was no impostor, but a learned and pious man, and his books 
richly repay the most careful study." 

The iV"o?ico?2/or?7iisi (English) assures us that: "He (Swedenborg) is 
received by all thinkers courteously, and by very many cordially. The 
storm of violent denunciation or angry ridicule which was launched against 
him by theologians a generation ago, is scarcely remembered now, and is 
not likely to be revived. All are agreed that he was a genuine and sin- 
cere man, who believed his own words, and did not wilfully deceive or 
invent." 

Hon. Theophilus Parsons, late Professor in the Cambridge Law School, 
says : '' I regard him (Swedenborg) as a man of remarkable ability, and 
great and varied culture ; taught, as no other man ever was taught, 
truths which no other man ever learned ; and thus instructed that he 
might introduce among men a new system of truth or doctrine, excelling 
in character and exceeding in value any system of truth before known." 

Speaking of Swedenborg and his writings, Henry James, the author of 
*' Substance and Shadow," says : " Such sincere books, it seems to me, 
were never before written." 

Bishop Hurd (author of Lectures on Prophecies) says : " It has been 
said by some, and received implicitly without further examination by 
others, that Swedenborg, after receiving his extraordinary commission, 
was mad, and became totally deprived of his natural senses ; but this in- 
sinuation is such a palpable contradiction of truth, and such an insult to 
common sense — being overruled by every page of his writings as well as 
by every act of his life after that period — that we should have thought it 
altogether unworthy of notice were we not aware that it operates power- 
fully with many, even at this day, to prejudice them against a character 
which otherwise they would revere, and against writings from which they 
would otherwise receive the most welcome instruction." 

The venerable Thomas Carlyle, having looked upon the great seer all 
his life as a visionary lunatic, now says that he stands rebuked. He looks 
upon Swedenborg as one of the loftiest minds in the realm of mind, one 
of the spiritual suns that will shine brighter as the years goon ; and that 
more truths are compassed in his writings than that of any other mau. 
His great prescience with regard to modern scientific discoveries, since 
made known, is astonishing. 

George Dawson, M. A. writes : ** Emanuel Swedenborg had the privi- 
lege which belongs to all men who devote their lives to thought, that as 
the world grows older, they get more reverenced, better known, and 
better loved. If I were going to be shut up in prison three years, Swe- 
denborg' s books would be my choice, and at the end of three years it 
would be six more before I should find them uninteresting, strange, or 
drv." 



ORIGIN, ETC., OF THE EARTH. 741 

Dr Porteous writes : ''The incomparable depth, splendor, and vast- 
ness of Svvedenborg's genius are shown in this, that he alone has ever 
dared to tread the threefold realm of natural, mental, and spiritual phi- 
losophy. Few men have approached the hem of his garment in respect to 
moral purity, his teaching and example are calculated to make men 
meek, gentle, and charitable, and his followers catholic, intelligent and 
pious. " Examine all the philosophical systems extant and take all the re- 
ligious literature of the last century, and place them in one scale, and 
take the voluminous works of Swedenborg, and place them in the other 
scale, and the philosophy and libraries of the world will kick the beam.'* 
R. M. Patterson, late Professor in the university of Pennsylvania, says 
respecting Swedenborg' s Principia : " It is an extraordinary production of 
one of the most extraordinary men that has ever lived, manj^ of the exper- 
iments and observations presented in this work are believed to he of much 
more modern date, and are unjustly ascribed to much more recent authors.'^ 

"There is in Swedenborg' s writings a marvellous insight, a vision of 
the higher truths of philosophy and religion, to which few men have at- 
tained." — N. Y. Independent. 

" The majority think and speak of Emanuel Swedenborg as a mystic 
and dreamer, w hen in fact, he was a practical man, an inventor, and pub- 
lic benefactor. The metrical system, now nnder discussion, was first 
suggested by him, and the Dutch are indebted to him for important im- 
provements in their docks and dykes." — Literary World. 

" Swedenborg' s writings teem with the grandest and profoundest 
truths." — North American, 

Count Yon Hopken, for forty years an intimate friend of Swedenborg's, 
and for many years Prime Minister of Sweden, advised the king " that 
no religion could be better, as. the prevailing and established one, than 
that deduced by Swedenborg from the Sacred Scrij^tures, and this on the 
two following accounts : 1st. This religion in preference to, and in a high- 
er degree \h?a\ any other, must produce the most honest and industrious 
subjects ; for this religion places properly the icorship of God in 7(ses. 
2d. It causes the least fear of death, as this religion' regards death 
merely as a transition from one state into another, from a worse to a 
better situation ; nay, upon his principles, I look upon death as being of 
hardly any greater moment than drinking a glass of water." 

T. S. Arthur, the world renowned author, writes : " Only in the reve- 
lations made for the New Church, in which the plenary inspiration and 
inner and Divine Sense of the Word, and the true doctrine of the Lord and 
his Providence, are fully explained and made known for the salvation of 
mankind, can be seen in rational liglit, the truths on whicli Christian 
unity and harmony can be established, and by which the growth of natu- 
ralism, skepticism, and irreverent infidelity can be arrested and de- 
stroyed." 

The Rev. Prof. Yon Goerres (Roman Catholic) writes : — " Swedenborg 
was not a man to be carried away by an unbridled imagination, still less 
did he ever manifest, during his whole life, the slightest symptoms of 
mental aberration. Throughout the entire course of his learned re- 
searches and activity, we everywhere discover the pious and religious 
man, who, in all his sayings and doings, was intent upon good." 

Edwin Paxton Hood, in the preface to his Life of Sioedenborg, writes: 
*'That he conceives he has derived much benefit from the study of the 
works of Swedenborg, and has much reason to be grateful to that illus- 
trious, venerable and much misunderstood, and comparatively unknown 
man." 

Design and Work (English) says of the Apocalypse Eevealed : "A 
careful perusal of many of its 900 and odd pages has led us to cease won- 



742 ORIGIN, 

deriiig at tlie favcf: with whicli this modern edition has been received, 
and to recommend others to follow our example. Many a sermon have 
we listened to on tlie Revelations. Several works, dealing with the gor- 
geous panorama unfolded before the internal vision of the Seer of Pat- 
mos, how we travelled through, wondering at tlie inventive faculty as 
displayed by commentator and preacher, but too often feeling that a 
stone had been given us instead of bread. Whoever takes earnestly to 
the consideration of the pages of the ' Swedish Seer,' will find that there 
is more in his text-book than he has given it credit for ; that it contains 
truths inimitable ; that in th^ir expounding no meretricious aids are re- 
quired ; that it appeals, not to the eye or the ear, but to the deei^est 
depths of the human heart and mind. AV^hosoever will read it patiently 
and carefully must rise up from its perusal a wiser, a more charitable, al- 
together a bietter man." 

The Chicago Advance writes : " We confess to having read for years 
some portion of his works with intellectual and spiritual profit, and we 
imagine at least that we can trace his influence in the conceptions and 
reasoning of many modern authors of disthiction, who do not always give 
Swedenborg the credit he deserves." 

The writer of tliis book has no j)ecuniary interest whatever in the 
sale of Swedenborg' s writings, but conceives it to be his duty to present 
these testimonials in vindication of a most deserving and worthy man, 
whose writings have been greatly misrepresented and misunderstood. 
A hundred years hence such a vindication will be unnecessary. It is a 
veritable truth that Swedenborg has rendered greater services to man- 
kind than any other man ever did or ever can render, and this fact is 
becoming better known every day. When he began to write and i^ro- 
mulgate his system of doctrines, a noted Lutheran bishop and doctor got 
np a complaint against him. The doctor, whose name was Ekebom, had 
the honesty to say of himself, that he was very careful not to examine 
Swedenborg' s works. Swedenborg, however, was a man of good character 
and connections, and led such a blameless, quiet, calm, and peaceful life, 
that it was found impossible to arouse popular sentiment against him. 

Since Swedenborg' s day, two men, wlio have all the animosity, but 
lack the honesty, of Dr. Ekebom, viz : Dr. Pike, of Derby, Eng., and 
Enoch Pond, of Bangor, Me., Theological Seminary, have rendered them- 
selves notorious by the publication of pamphlets containing the most 
horrible libels on Swedenborg and his writings. These detestable publi- 
cations, which have been answered and refuted time and again, present 
a combination of reckless assertion, dovrnright lies, malignity, and igno- 
rance, which is perfectly amazing. Each publication may be described 
m the expressive language of Edwin Paxton Hood, as "a fountain of 
mud," and both combined are highly flavored with the peculiar sanctity 
which pervades the devotional exercises of Holy Willie. 

We have still another notable detractor in "^ Mr. William White, Avho 
many years ago wrote a Life of Swedenborg, in which he rendered full 
justice to the subject of the memoir. Of late years he resumed his task 
by dipping his pen in ink (or rather in venom), and dashing off a vast 
amount of trash in the shape of baseless absurdities regarding Swedenborg 
and his followers, which he styled a " Life of Swedenborg." In order to 
understand the animus which pervades this work, it is necessary to know 
that Mr. White was at one time agent for the London Swedenborg Society, 
and while thus occupied he engaged in the sale of the so-called spiritist pub- 
lications. The sale of these books is held by the Swedenborg Society to 
be utterly incompatible with the objects which it has in view, but Mr.- 
White resisted the efforts of the Society's Committee to remove him 



OF TUE EARTH. 7^3 

from office, and compelled them to bring a suit in Chancery to effect 
their purpose. The final judgment was decisive against him, and it was 
while smarting under this reverse that his two- volume Life of Sweden- 
borg was written. The Avork in question is composed throughout in a 
vindictive spirit, and the malevolent x^roduction owes its origin to a 
malicious feeling of the worst kind, nevertheless it is most true that 
slander has greater swiftness than truth, and the groundless assertions of 
a defamer are frequently accorded greater credence than the veritable 
assertions of a truthful man. 

In an elaborate article which appeared some time ago in the columns of 
the EnrflUh Mechanic, the editor of that journal presented a list of 
Swedenborg's inventions, which, including a notice of his mechanical and 
philosophical works, occupied nearly two quarto pages. The following is a 
partial list of the latter : — 1. An Introduction to Algebra. 2. Attempts to 
find the Longitudes of places by Lunar Observations. 3. A. proposal for 
a Decimal System of Money and Measures. 4. A Treatise on the Motion 
of the Earth and the Planets. 5. Proofs, derived from Api^earances 
in Sweden, of the Depths of the Sea, and the Greater force of the Tides 
in the Ancient World. 6. On Docks, Sluices, and Salt Works. 7. Some 
Specimens of Work on tlie Principles of Natural Philosophj-, comprising 
New Attempts to explain the Phenomena of Chemistry and Physics by 
Geometry. 8. New Observations and Discoveries respecting Iron and 
Fire, and particularly respecting the Elemental Nature of Fire ; together 
with a New Construction of Stoves. 9. A New Method of Finding the 
Longitude of Places on Land or Sea by Lunar Observations. 10. A New 
Mechanical Plan of Constructing Docks and Dykes. 11. A Mode of Dis- 
covering the Powers of Vessels by the Application of Mechanical Prin- 
ciples. 12. Miscellaneous Observations connected Avith the Physical 
Sci&nces — Parts 1-3. 13. Part 4. Principally on Minerals, Iron" and 
Stalactites in Baman's Cavern. 14. On the Depreciation and Rise of 
the Swedish Currenc3^ These were some of his works published be- 
tween 1722—1733. 

These were succeeded by, 1. The Principia: or, the First Principles of 
Natural Things, in 3 folio Vols, with Plates. 2. The Economy of the 
Animal Kingdom considered Anatomically, Physically, and Philosophi- 
cally, 2 Vols., with Plates. 3. The Animal Kingdom, Parts i., ii., iii., 2 
Vols. 4. The Animal Kingdom, Parts v., vi. 5. Outlines of a Philosoph- 
ical Argument on the Infinite and the Final Cause of Creation. 6. Some 
Specimens of a Work on the Principles of Chemistry, with other Trea- 
tises, 8vo, 21 Plates, comprising 159 figures. 7. Miscellaneous Observa- 
tions Connected with the Physical Sciences. Svo, 9 Plates, comprising 
86 Figures. 8. Posthumous tracts on various subjects. 

In 1785, the Commissioners appointed by the King of France, for the 
examination of the subject of animal magnetism, affirmed that there did 
not exist any theory of the magnet ; and the Count de Buffon, in his 
work on Natural History, affirmed that nothing had been written on the 
formation of the planets. Both these errors were refuted in a most 
scholarly and elegant letter addressed to the Commissioners by the Mar- 
quis de Thome, in which he directed public notice to Swedenborg's elab- 
orate and profound works on these subjects, concluding his letter as fol- 
lows, '' This, gentlemen, is what I thought it my duty to make public for 
the benefit of society, from a regard for truth, and in gratitude to him, 
to whom I am indebted for the major part of the little I know ; though 
before I met with his writings, I had sought for knowledge amongst 
almost all the writers, ancient and modern, who enjoyed any reputation 
for possessing it. I have the honor to be, &c. , 

"Paris, Aug. 4, 1785. Marquis de Thomk.** 



744 ORIGIN, ETC., OF THE EARTH. 

Ralph Waldo Emersoii writes: — '* Swedenborg's writings would be a 
sufficient library for a lonely and athletic student. Not every man can 
read them, but they will richly reward him who can. The grandeur of tlie 
topics makes the grandeur of the style. One of the missourians and 
mastodons of literature, he is not to be measured b}^ whole colleges of 
ordinary scholars. He anticipated in astronomy the discovery of the 
seventh i)lanet ; anticipated the views of modern astronomy in regard to 
the generation of earths by the sun ; in magnetism some important ex- 
l^eriments and conclusions of later students; in chemistry, the atomic 
theory, in anatomy the discoveries of Schlienting, Monro, and Wilson, 
and first demonstrated the office of the lungs." 

The celebrated Berzilius writes: — " I have looked through the Animal 
Kincfdom, and am surprised at the great knowledge displayed by Swedeji- 
borg in a subject that a professed metallurgist would not have been sup- 
posed to make an object of study, and in which, as in all he undertook, 
he ivas in advance of his ar/e." 

To sum up, it may be stated that his mechanical and philosophical works 
would be equivalent to about 25 volumes of 500 pages each. This genera- 
tion is most deeply indebted to the incomparable genius of this extraor- 
dinary man for very important improvements in the construction of 
docks, blast furnaces, stoves, the smelting of metals, and a host of inven- 
tions which are usually credited to others. 

The reader may infer, from a perusal of the foregoing list of books, 
that the labor involved in their production might well entitle the writer to 
rank as a first class literary giant in any age or nation, but wonderful to 
say, the most extraordinary performances of this most remarkable man 
are still to be recounted. 

In the year 1743, Swedenborg was 54 j^ears of age, and here we find 
him relinquishing his philosophical pursuits, and devoting himself ex- 
clusively to theology and to the unfolding of the new doctrines which he 
now declares were first revealed to him. His Worship and Love of God, 
published in 1745, seems to mark the commencement of this new era in 
his Life. The following is a list of his theological works arranged ac- 
cording to the order in which the original books were written and pub- 
lished by the Author. 

1. 1749-56. Arcana Ccelestia, The Heavenly Arcana ivhich are contained 
in the Holy Scriptures, or Word of the Lord ,* unfolded : beginning with 
the Book of Genesis; together loith the Wonderful things seen in the 
World of Spirits and in the Heaven of Angels. English Ed. 12 vols. 8 
vo. £2 85., any vol. separate, 4s. American Ed. 10 vols. $1.50 per vol. 
2. 1758. Concerning Heaven and its Wonders ; and concerning Hell, 
being a Relation of things heard and seen, English Ed. 3^ . American 
do. Sl.25. 3. 175*8. An account of the Last Judgment and the Destruction 
of Babylon ; shoioing that cdl the Predictions in the Ajjocalypse are at this 
day fulfilled, being a relation of things heard and seen, 8 vo. Eng. Ed. 
8d. American do. 75c. 4. 1758. On the White Horse mentioned in the 
Apocalypse, chap, xix., loith References to the Arcana Conlestia on the sub- 
ject of the Word, and its Spiritual or Internal Sense. With an Appendix. 
English Ed. 4d American do. 10c. 5. 1758. On the Earths in our Solar 
System, and on the Earths in the Starry Heavens ; with an account of 
their inhabitants, and also of the Spirits and Angels there, from ichat has 
been seen and heard. Eng. Ed. 8 vo. , Sd. American Ed. 60c. 6. 1758. 
On the NeioJerusalem and its Heavenly Doctrine, as revealed from Heaven, 
to ichich are prefixed some Observations conceryiing the New Heaven and 
the New Earth. Eng. Ed. 8 vo. Is. American do. paper, 10c. 7. 1763. 
Anqelic Wif^dom concerning the Diinne Love and the Divine Wisdom 
Eng. Ed. Demy 8 vo., 2s. * American do. $1. 8. 1763. The Four lead- 



ORIGIN, ETC., OF THE EARTH. 745 

ing Doctrines of the Neio Church, signified iri Rev. xxi. hy the Neic Jeru- 
salem; being these respecting the Lord. His Divine and Human Natures^ 
and the Divine Trinity ; the Sacred Scripture ; Faith ; and Life. Eng. 
Ed. 8 vo. 25. American do. Si. 9. 1764. Angelic Wisdom concerning 
the Divine Providence. Eng. Ed. 8 vo. 3s. American do. $1.50. 10. 
1765. The Apocalypse Revealed; in tvhich are disclosed the Arcana there- 
in foretold; and lohich have hitherto remained concealed. 2 vols. Eng. 
Ed. 8s. American do. $3. 11. 1768. Conjugal Love and its Chaste De- 
lights ; also Adulterous JjOVc and its Insane Pleasures Eng. Ed. 46*. 
American do. $1.25. 12. 1769. A Brief Exposition of the Doctrines of 
the Neio Church meant hy thi Neio Jerusalem in the Apocalypse. Eng. 
Ed. lOd. American do. 40c. 13. The Intercourse bctu'een the Soul and 
the Body, which is supposed to take place either hy Physical Influx, or hy 
Spiritual Influx, or by Pre-estahlished Harmony. Eng, Ed. 4d. Ameri- 
can do. 10c. 14. 1771. The True Christian Religion ; or, the Universal 
TJieology of the Neio Church, foretold hy the Lord in Dan. vii, 13, 14, aiid 
in the Apocalypse xxi, 1, 2. Eng. Ed. 7s. American do. $2.50. 

These prices include postage to destination. The hooks may he ob- 
tained hy addressing the Piihlishing Society's Manager, E. H. Swiis^ney, 
No. 20 Cooper Union, New York, or the London Society's Agent, James 
Spiers, 36 Bloomsbury St., London, W. C, Eng. 

Swedenborg's " Tn/e Christian Eel ig ion*' und the ^^ Apocalypse Pe- 
vealed,*' may he obtained absolutely free hy any Protestant clergyman 
or student who may enclose the postage for "^ same to the celebrated pub- 
lishing house of J. B. Lippincott & Co., of Philadelphia. The requisite 
funds for this purpose are supplied by a retired Philadelphia merchant 
of princely means and large-hearted liberalitj^, who takes an ardent in- 
terest in the work, and has made ample provision for its permanent con- 
tinuance even after his hands have laid it down. No clergyman or 
student need hesitate to enclose the postage and send for these books, for 
they will be sent without fail. The New Church Tract and Publication 
Society, T. S. Arthur (the well-known author), President, George Burn- 
ham (of the Baldwin Locomotive works). Treasurer, offer Swedenborg's 
"Heaven and Hell," through J. B. Lippincott & Co., to clergymen on 
the same terms. In ordering these books in this way, enclose 20c. for 
postage on the first named, 18c. for the second, and 13c. for the last 
noted work, and forward all orders to J. B. Lippincott & Co. , 715 and 
717 Market St., Philadelphia. 

Up to Jan. 1, 1878, this well-known firm have received and filled 
requests from clergymen for 14,000 copies of the " True Christian 
Religion,'' 8,000 copies of the '^Apocalypse Revealed," and 12,000 copies 
of ''^Heaven and Hell." Requests are still coming in, books are still going 
out, and hundreds of letters have been received attesting the lively grati- 
tude of the recipients to the donors of these books for their inestimable 
gifts. In addition to this unusual traffic of supplying costly books free of 
charge, J. B. Lippincott & Co. publish elegant editions of many of Swe- 
denborg's theological writings, which they supply to purchasers in the 
usual way of business. Lists and prices furnished by addressing or 
applying as above. 

32 



7 4 O 



TABl.ES, ETC., FOR PRINTERS. 




IMPORTANT RULES, TABLES, &c., FOR PRINTERS. 
A Thousand Ems, Measuring Type or Matter. —This is done by 
multiplying the number of solid ems contained in the leuf/tJi of any 
quantity of type, by the number contained in the width of the measure. 
The gauge for measurement is an em of the type in which the matter 
calculated is set. A thousand ems is the space that so many letter m's 
would occupy. It takes over 2,000 average letters to occupy the space of 
1,000 ems. In Britain the matter is measured by ens. To determine the 
number of ens in a line, lay as many of the letter m flat wise in the stick 
as will make the measure. The following Table shows the number of 
ems contained in a pound of each of the following sizes of tj'-pe. 

1 lb. Million contains 35G ems. 
" Nonpareil '' 520 

•< Agate " 690 ** 

'' Pearl " 800 

Table showing number of ems in 100 square inches of the sizes of type 
from Pica to Agate inclusive. 



lb. 


of 


Pica contains 


130 


em 


»< 


(< 


S. Pica ** 


170 


<< 


<( 


<( 


L. Primer'' 


200 


(( 


<< 


<( 


Bourgeois" 


270 


t( 


(< 


it 


Brevier " 


290 


it 



Pica 3,600 

Long Primer 6,625 

Brevier 8,836 



Nonpareil 14,400 1 Minion 10,404 

Small Pica 4,9001 Agate 19,600 

Bourgeois 6,889| 

The above list is based on the supposition that lines of the length of 6 
ems pica, 7 ems small pica, 7.5 ems long primer, 8.3 ems bourgeois, 9.4 
ems brevier, 10.2 ems minion, 12 ems nonpareil, and 14 agate, are equal 
to an inch. This is not strictly true, but the variation is so little that it 
will not make a difference of 1,000 ems in 100 ordinary sized pages. 

In one square inch there are — 



36 ems Pica, 

50 '' Small Pica. 

56V4 *' Long Primer 



144 ems Nonpareil. 
200^ '* Agate. 
225 " Pearl. 

as different type founders 



r2V4 ems Bourgeois. 
87 " Brevier. 
113% " Million. 

The above is an approximation merely, 
slightly vary the size of their type. 

Metal for Backing Electrotype Plates.- 
antimony 1. 

To MAKE Writing Ink Ineraseable even by Acids. — To good 
gall ink add a strong solution of Prussian blue in distilled Avater. The 
ink writes greenish blue but afterwards turns black, and cannot be 
erased without destroying the pape 



-Lead 91 i)arts, tin 4, 



TABLES, ETC, FOR PRINTERS. 



747 



r 



ARRANGEMENT OF TYPE IN AMERICAN UPPER CASE. 



* 


t 


+ 


§ 


II 


IT 


,.©0 fi> 


^ 


© 




♦ 


/ 





V4 


¥2 


% 


Vs 


% 


% 


78 


S 


£ 




3 


- 


.j^ 


- 


Vs 


% 


% 


-1 


(E 


se 


oe 




— 




3 


& 


M 


CE 


A 


B 


C 


1- 


E 


F 


G 


A . 


B 


C 


D 


E 


F 


G 


H 


I 


M^ 


L 


M 


N- 





H 


I 


K 


L 


M 


N 





P 


Q 


R 


S 


1. 


V 


W 


P 


Q 


R 


S 


T 


V 


W 


X 


Y 


Z 


J 


U 


] 


) 


X 


Y 


Z 


J 


Jj 


ffi 


ffl 





ARRANGEMENT 


OF 


TYPE IN AMERICAN LOWER CASE. 




& 


fl 


5em 4em 
6p. sp. 


_. 


k 


e 


'R 


^ 


R 


5 


6 j 7 


8 


3 
9 


l3 , 


c 


d 


i 


s 


f 


g 


if 


9 





! 
z 


1 


m 


n 


h 





y 


P 


w 


> 


en 
qds. 


em 
qds. 


X 

q 


V 


u 


t 


3 cm 
spaces . 

i 


a 


r 


) 


- 


2 & 3 em 
quadrata. 



Weight of leads required for any work. These calculations apply to 
any measure, and are based on the use of six-to-pica leads. The first 
Table is for solid matter which requires to be leaded. 
1,000 ems Pearl require 71/2 ozs. leads. 1,000 ems Bourgeois, 13% ozs. leads. 
1,000 " Agate " 81/2 " '* 1,000 " L. Primer, loVa " <* 
1,000 " Nonpareil 91/2 ** *♦ 1,000 '' S. Pica, IGVo " « 
1,000 *< Minion "• lli/g " " 1,000 " Pica, 19 " « 

1,000 " Brevier '< 13 '* " 

Example. —It is estimated that the matter to be set will make 20,000 
ems Small Pica solid. Required, the weight of leads necessary to lead 
this matter. 1,000 ems of solid Small Pica require IGJ ounces of leads. 
16^ X 20 = 330 ozs. = 20 lbs, 10 ozs. 

The second Table gives the weight of the leads contained in 1,000 ems 
of leaded matter. 

1,000 ems Pearl contains 5^^ ozs. leads. 1,000 ems Bourgeois contains 11 ozs. Ids 
1,000 ♦' Agate " 6 " " 1,000 " L. Primer " 12V, " 

1,000 " Nonpareil " 71/2 *' " 1,000 " S. Pica 
1,000 " Minion " 9 '* «' 1,000 " Pica 
1,000 *' Brevier " lOVg ♦' '' 

Example. — A page of leaded Long Primer contains 2,000 ems. Re- 
quired, the weight of leads necessary to lead thirty-two pages. 1,000 ems 
of leaded Long Primer contain 12^ ounces of leads . 127^ X 2 = 25 ozs. 
per page. 25 X 32 == 800 ozs. = 50 lbs. 

Or, a column of Nonpareil contains 8,000 ems. Required the weight of 
leads necessary to lead six columns. 1,000 ems of leaded Nonpareil con- 
tain 7h ounces'of leads. 7-| X 8 = 60 ozs. per column. CO X 6 = 360 ozs. 
= 221138. 8 ozs. 

An allowance must of course be made for additional leads used for 
blanking out and in standing matter. 



14 

16^2 



748 



TABLES, ETC., FOR PRINTERS. 



The following table gives the weight of leads in 1000 ems of leaded 
matter : — 

LEADED MATTER— 

1000 eras Pearl contains 6^4 ozs. leads. 



1000 
1000 
1000 
1000 
1000 
3000 
1000 
1000 



Agate 

Nonpareil — 

Minion 

Brevier 

Bourgeois. . . 
Long Primer. 
Small Pica., 
Pica 



6 


<< 


7y. 


(( 


9 


tt 


ml/ 


a 


iuy2 




11 




12V. 


n 


14 


it 


161/2 


u 



Table showing the Quantity of Paper Required for any 
Job from 50 to 10,000 Copies. — No allowance for waste or surj^lus 
copies. For any number not noted in Table, say 36 to the sheet, use 
double the quantity given in column headed 18. 



m"^ 


2 


3 


4 


6 


8 


9 1 12 


15 


16 


18 


20 


24 


32 


o.^Si 


to sht 


to 6ht 


to Bht 


to sht 


to sht 


to sht 1 to sht 


to sht 


to sht 


to sht 


to sht 


to sht 


to sht. 


&3g 


ll 


ll 


& 1 


2 1 


1 1 


£ 1 


£ 1 


1 1 

a* to 


2 ^ 




1 1 


&I 


qrs 
shts 


50 


1- 1 


0-17 


0-13 


0-9 0-7 


0- 6 


0- 5 


0- 4 


0— 4 


0— 3 


0-3 


0— 3 


0-2 


100 


2- 2 


1—10 


1-1 


0—17 0—13 


0-12 


0- 9 


0- 7 


0- 7 


0- 6 


C— 5l 0— 5 


0- 4 


200 


4— 4 


2-19 


2- 2 


1-10 1- 1 
1-18 1- 8 


0-23 


0-17 


0-14 


0-13 


0-12 


0—10: 0— 9 


0- 7 


2.50 


5- 5 


3-12 


2-15 


1- 4 


0—21 


0-17 


0—16 


0—14 


0-13 


0-11 


0- 8 


300 


6-6 


4-4 


3- 3 


2— 2, 1—14 


1-10 


1- 1 


0-20 


0-19 


0-17 


0-15 


0-13 


0-10 


400 


8- 8 


5-14 


4- 4 


2-19 2- 2 


1-21 


1-10 


1- 3 


1- 1 


0-23 


0-20 


0-17 


0-13 


.500 


10-10 


6-23 


5- 5 


3-12 2-15 


2- 8 


1-18 


1-10 


1- 8 


1- 4 


1- i 


0-21 


0—16 


600 


12-12 


8-8 


6- 6 


4- 4 3—3 


2—19 


2- 2 


1-16 


1-14 


1-10 


1- 6i 1- 1 


0-19 


700 


14—14 


9-18 


7- 7 


4-211 3-16 


3- 6 


2-11 


1-23 


1-20 


1-15 


1-11 1-6 


0-22 


750 


15-15 


10-10 


7-20 


5- 5 3-22 


3-12 


2-15 


2- 3 


1-23 


1-18 


1-14 


1-8 


1-0 


800 


16-16 


11-3 


8- 8 


5-14 4- 4 


3-17 


2-19 


2- 6 


2- 2 


1-21 


1-15 


1-10 


1~ 1 


900 


18-18 


12—12 


9- 9 


6— 6 4—17 


4- 4 


3-3 


2-12 


2- 9 


2-2 


1-2J 


1-14 


1-5 


]000 


20-20 


18—22 


10-10 


6-23 5- 5 


4-16 


3-12 


2-19 


2-15 


2-8 


2- 2 


1-18 


1- 8 


1250 


26- 1 


17- 9 


13- 1 


8-17 6-13 


5—19 


4— 9 


3-12 


3- 7 


2-22 


2-15 


2— 5 


1-16 


1.500 


,31- 6 


20-20 


15-15 


10-16 7-20 


6-23 


5- 5 


4-5 


3-22 


&-12 


3- 3 


2-15 


1—23 


]7.50 


,36—11 


24- 8 


18- 6 


12— 4 9—3 


8- 3 


6- 2 


4-22 


4-14 


4-2 


3-16! 3- 1 


2-8 


2(X)0 


41-16 


27-19 


20-20 


1.*^— 22 10—10 


9- 7 


6-23 


5-14 


5- 5 


4-16 


4- <| 3-1? 

5- 5I 4- 9 


2-15 


2500 


52- 2 


34-18126- 1 


17-10 13- 1 


11-15 


8-17 


7-0 


6-13 


5-20 


3-7 


3000 


62-12 


41—16 


31— 6 


20-20 1.5-15 


1.3-22 


10-10 


8- 8 


7-20 


6-23 


6- 61 5- 5 


3-22 


•iOOO 


83- 8 


55—14 


41—16 


27-19 20-20 


18-13 


1.3-22 11- 3 


10-10 


0- 7 


8- 8, 6-23 


5-5 


5000 


104-4 


69-11 


52- 2 


.34-18 26- 1 


23- 4 


17— 9 1.3-22 


1.3-1 


10-14 


lO-lol 8-17 


6-13 


10000 


208- 8 


138-22 


104- 4 


69-11 


52- 2 


46- 8 


34-18 


27-19 


26- 1 


23-4 


20-10 


17— 9 


13- 1 



Names and Sizes of Books as Classifedby Publishers.— The 
number of folds and pages in a single sheet when manufactured. 

Name of book. f^dlTln'tflfaUl ««»*-"• 

Folio 2 leaves 4 pages. 



. 8 

16 '* 

.24 *' 

.32 '' 

.36 *' 

.48 " 

.64 " 



Quarto or 4 to 4 

Octavo or 8vo 8 

Duodecimo or 12 mo 12 

16mo * 16 

18 " 18 

24 <* 24 

32 " 32 

Best Printers' Ink. — Boil 3 gallons best clear old linseed oil down to 
a thick tarnish ; add while hot 12 lbs. of powdered rosin, 3J lbs. dry 
brown soap shavings, 5 ozs. indigo ; 5 ozs. Prussian bine, and 10 lbs. best 
lampblack ; stir all well together, let it stand a week and grind. 

For other inks, roller compositions, &c., see pages 545-6 and 579. For 
paper tables see page 577. 

* J^ote.— This book is a 16 mo., there being 32 pages to the sheet. The 
terms /oZio, quarto f octavo, etc., denote the number of leaves in which a sheet 
of paper is folded . 

The marks A, B, C ; 1, 2, 3 ; lA, 2A ; 1*, 2* etc., occasionally found at 
the bottom of pages, are what printers term sicpiature marks, thus, 3*, being 
printed for the direction of binders in folding the sheets. 



TABLES, ETC., FOR PRINTERS. 



749 



One pound of leads or slugs covers four square inches. Hence, when 
the space to be filled by leads or slugs is known, it is only necessary to 
divide the number of square inches by four, and the result will give the 
required weight in pounds. — Proof Sheet. 

How TO Estimate. — To ascertain the quantity of plain type required 
for a newspaper or magazine, or any other work, find tlie number of 
square inches and divide the same by four, the quotient will be the ap- 
proximate weight of matter ; but as it is impossible to set the cases clear, 
it is necessary to add 25 per cent, to large fonts, to allow for dead letter. 

Bill of Type. — English type founders call 3.000 
lower case m's a bill, and proportion all other sorts 
by them ; so that a bill of pica, including accents 
and italic, weighs 800 lbs. For every lb. of italic 
there are 10 lbs, of Roman. From the annexed 
table an idea can be obtained of the number of let- 
ters contained in 800 lbs. pica. 



Scheme for EifOLisn 
Wood Type.— The following 
table will be useful in ordering 
wood type. Wood type should 
always be ordered by the "a," 
if for large Poster letters. A 
' 3 A," font is generally suf- 
ficient, while for smallet'letters 
it is always advisable to order at 
least a " 5 A " font. Of con- 
densed letters especially there 
should always be a large font. 







1 


o 


^ 


"i 


^ 


u 




85 


< 


ej 


CO 


■^ 


•* 


— 


— 


— 


3 


4 


4 


2 


3 


3 


2 ! 


3 


3 


2 


3 


3 


4 


5 


5 


2 


3 


3 


2 


3 


3 


2 


3 


3 


8 


4 


4 


1 1 


3 


2 


1 


2 


2 


4 


5 


5 


2 


3 


a 


3 


4 


4 


3 


4 


4 


2 


3 


3 


1 


2 


2 


3 


4 


4 


4 


5 


5 


4 


4 


4 


!2 


3 


3 


2 


3 


3 


<> 


3 


3 


1 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


1 


2 
2 
4 
2 
2 
4 
1 
2 
3 


2 




























1 





Figures are usually 
put up with Fonts of 
4 A and upwards, 
and always with 
Lower Case, so that 
when a Font of 4 A 
is ordered the Lower 
Case, and Figures 
will always be sent 
unless otherwise or- 
dered. 



f^(N 



o 

02 O) 

go 



a 8.500 

b 1,600 

c 3,000 

d 4,400 

e 12,000 

f 2,500 

g 1,700 

h 6,400 

i 8,000 

i ..... 400 

k ..... 800 

1 4,000 

3,000 



n 8,000 

8,000 

p 1,700 



q 500 

r 6,200 

3 8,000 

t 9,000 

u 3,400 

V 1,200 

w 2,000 

X 400 

y 2,000 

200 

200 

400 

500 

150 

100 

100 

60 

150 

9f 

6' 



. 4,500 
. 800 
. 600 
. 2,000 
. 1,000 
. 200 
. 150 
. 700 
. 300 
. 150 
. 100 
. 100 
. 100 

§ 100 

II 100 

IT 60 

1 1,300 

2 1,200 

3 1,100 



4 
6 
6 
7 
8 

9 1.000 

1,300 



...1,000 
...1,000 
...1,000 
...1,000 
...1.000 




Accents 

average 150 

each. 



300 
200 
250 
250 
300 
200 
200 
200 
400 
150 
150 
250 
200 
300 
200 
200 

90 
200 
250 
326 
150 
150 
200 

90 
150 

40 



3 em spaces 18,000 

4 *< " 12,000 

5 *• " 8,000 

Hair " 3,000 

em Quads 2,.500 

en Quads. . 5,000 

Large Quadrats 80 Ibs^ 



750 NAMES AND SIZES OF TYPE. 

NAMES AND SIZES OF TYPE. 

Geeat Peimee. — In conversa- 
tion, study purity of language : 
avoid vulgar dialects like the fol- 
lowing samples : 

English. — English Rustic. Measter 
Goddin used to zay as how children costed 
a sight 0^ money to breng um oop, and 
'twas all very well whilst um was leetle, 
and zucked the mother, but when um 
begind to zuck the vather, 'twas nation 
akkerd! 

Pica. — Rector, " These pigs of yours are in 
excellent condition/' Jarvis. " E'as, sur^ they 
be. Ah ! sur, if we was all on us only as fit to 
die as them are sur, it would be good for we." 

Small Pica. — Scotch Elder. '' O ! Sandy, if ye 
wad only tak' soond advice, an' drink watter instead 
o' whiskey, it wad be better for your puir wife an' 
bonnie bairns ; d'ye no ken whaur a' the drunkards 
gang tae ? " Confirmed Sot. " Yes, Maister Tamson, 
richt weel I ken that, they aye gang whaur they get 
the best whiskey." 

Long Primer. — Cockney Hair-Dresser. " They say, sir, 
that the cholera is in the Hair, sir ! " Gent, (very uneasy) 
*' Indeed ! ahem ! then I hope you are very careful about 
the brushes you use." Hair-Dresser : " Oh, I see you don't 
Aunderstand me, sir; I don't mean the 'air of the 'ed, but 
the Aair hoi the ^atmosphere ! " — Punch. 

Cockney Servant Girl. " Well mam — Heverythink con- 
sidered, I'm afraid you won't suit me. I've always been 
brought up genteel ; and I couldn't go nowheres where there 
aint no footman kep'. " Servant Man, Thompson (who 
is very refined), " Ho yes, mum, I don't find no fault with 



NAMES AND SIZES OF TYPE. 7r>l 

you, mum, nor yet with master — but the truth his mum, the 
hother servants is so oi^rid vulgar and hignorant, and speaks 
so hungrammatical, that I reely cannot live in the same 
'ouse with 'em, and I should like to go this day month, if so 
be has it won't illconwenience you ! " — Punch, 

Bourgeois. — Mrs. Brown (an Aberdeen widow on the north 
side of forty). " Hoo's a' wi' ye this mornin', Mester Miller ; come 
in an' sit doon, I was just thinkin' o' ye ; some lang-tongued 
hizzies were sayin' that it was a perfec' shame that a man like 
you, wi' grey hair, an' a long fite beard should mak' a feel o' 
yerser getting married fan ye should be thinkin' o' deein\ Its 
a peer world to live in if a man canna tak' a wife fanever he 
likes. Na, na, I ken plenty, some o' them no far aff, that wad 
be prood to get ye. Eh, sirs, the life o' a peer, lone woman, or a 
lone man is a weary, sair dree o' dool an' sorrow ; dinna ye 
think sae, Mester Miller ? " Miller ; (a widower on the look out 
for another wife.) '' In my long pilgrimage through this vale o' 
tears, my experience has been, that a man is muckle the better 
o' a woman, and a woman is muckle the better o' a man I " 

Brevier. — Wilkins. "Well Tummas, did you 'ear as how Measter 
Smith hurted hisself on the leg just above the hancle." Tummas, 
" O did um, that be very bad for lie, and I be very zarry to 'ear it. 
Las' week my son Jan war a drivin' a nail, an' tlie 'ammer, he flew 
out'n 'is 'and an' struck I very 'ard on the nose, the blood corned, 
an' if it 'ad struck much 'arderit would 'ave killed I on the spot sure." 
Blarney. Yankee (just arrived). ''Guess your legal fare is just 
Sixpence." Dublin Carman : " Shure, me Lord, we take some chape- 
Jacks at that — but its meself wouldn't dishgrace agintlemana' your 
Lordship's quality' by dhrivin' 'm at a mane pace through the public 
shtreets, so I tuk it upon myself to give your lordship a shillings worth 
both of shtyle and whip cord.'' 

Mixiox. — Vermont Tombstone Agent to Smithy in the bacTciooods :— 

" Good morning', Mister; I was told over tew that you had lost 

your wife, and I have jest cum ten miles over meowntains, woods, an' 
swamps to get an order for a tewmstun' for her. Was awful sorry- to 
hear of your great loss, but I can sell you the cheapest an' best tewmstun' 
in the hull creation." Smith. " Waal, stranger, I reckon I can stand my 
loss if she can stand her'n; but you see as how the critter isn't ready for 
a tombstone yet, she's onlv scooted with another man." 

Nonpareil.— ^/i<7^is^ Rustics. Sam: I zay. Jack, be you a politiciaiier? 
Jack.—''W&8 I be.'" >S'a77i.— '' Wall I zav, Jack, what be a politlcianer ? 
Jack.—" Zounds, Sam ! doant'ee knaw iiothink about un ? " Sam.—^&w I 
doan't." Jack.— Wall, I doaii't knaw as I can tell'ee, Sam, fur I doan't 
exackerly knaw mysel* ! " 

PEXTti..— English Showman. "Walk in to the show my hearties, walk in and see the great 
Hafrican lions, rhinoceros and helephants as was caught in the desert ahout 15 miles from 
either sea or land, and the great 'ippopotamus and catterwallapus as lives in the hocean. Them 
as don't go in can't win. and them as stays out there ham't in here, and can't see the great 
Hindian tiger, leopard, the hanacondas from Brazil, the grizzly bear, the buffalo that swings 
his vast preposterous over the Rocky Mountings and Western prarers, and the great dens of 
performing hanimals from hall hover the world ! 

Do yees raily think. Squire, that there is anny chancce of war wid this country an' Roosha? 
Squire. Well things did look a little queer lately ; but why do you ask ? Well, me raison for 
axin' is, d'ye moind now, wan o' these days I'll have to be afther sellin' me pig. and if there's 
goin' to be anny war, bacon 'ill roise to a foine price as thrue's me name's Tim O'Farrell ! 



752 TYPOGRArHICAL MARKS 

^ t JThdtjgh a' "^^riety of opinions exist as to 

tHe individual'bywj{om\the,art.of printing was ^ 
first discoverecl ; yet all authorities concur in 
^dmitiing Peter Schoeffer to 1)8 the person 3 (y:> , 
^ who invented cast metal ^j/joe^,. having .learned ^ 

^ the art-rf of cuUlnj the letters frcm the Gut- 
^; / iembergsy he is also supposed to have been 
^^ the first whoen graved on copj)er^plates. TheV-/ 

following testimony is preseved in the family, ^ / 
fl^w by ■Jo.^JF'red.^^JFaustusy^f- Ascheffenburg: _, 
^^□>* Peter: Schoeffer, of Gernsheim, perceiving ^^ ^^ 
11 y his master Fausts design^- and being himself ^ ' ^^*^« 
^2^^^ (^desirous\ ardentlv ) to improve ihe artv found 
out (by the good providence of God) ihe 
method of cutting { (ncidcn iM) the characters <d^/, 
in A' Tnalrh^j ihai ihe letters* might easily be 
^// singly casi'j jnslead of bieng cut' He pri-^^^^^A 
^*i vatel/ cut mairic£s\ for the. whole alpliab'et:y\i5 
DFaust was so jileased with tfie contrivanp^ 
/that .he promised Peter to give him hj^^nly ^j/^ 
16 /({^ughiet Christina' in jnarriage ^^^romises '^ y 
/^}iich he sooniafter pefformed^A/ ^g 

^^ Oif/O^^^' ^^^^® wer^ many dij^iculties at first ^^ || 

17ith these tetter^ s\b theFe had been before ^^om^ 
20 I VJith. wooden ones, t)2:e metal being too soft^^^^^ 
to supjgort ih.e'iop<^ of the iinipression: buts^-^ / 
this defect was soon remedied j by mixing 
a substance with the metal which sufficiently^^ 
e hardepM it^ 



EXEMPLIFIED 753 




The designated errors being corrected, tho foregoing matter will read 
as follows : 

Though a variety of opinions exist as to the individual by whom 
printing was first discovered; yet all authorities concur in admitting 
PETER SCHOEFFER to he the person who invented cast metal t7/pes, 
having learned the art of cutting the letters from the Guttembergs ; h» is 
also supposed to have been the first who engraved on copper-plates. The 
following testimony is preserved in the family, by Jo. Fred. Faust us, of 
Ascheffenburg : 

* Peter Schoeffer, of Gernsheim, perceiving his master Eaust's de- 
sign, and being himself ardently desirous to improve the art, found out 
(by the good providence of God) the method of cutting {incidendi) the 
characters in a matrix, that the letters might easily be singly cast, in- 
stead of being en ^. He privately ciii matrices for the whole alphabet: 
and when he showed his master the letters cast from these matrices, 
Faust was so i)leased with the contrivance, that he promised Peter to give 
him his only daughter Christina in marriage, a promise which he soon 
after performed. But there were as many difficulties at first with these 
letters, as there had been before with wooden ones, the metal being too 
soft to support the force of the impression ; but this defect was soon 
remedied, by mixing the metal with a substance which sufficiently har- 
dened it.* 

EXPLA^rATIO^^s of the corrections. 

The following rules, from Mackellar's American Printer (a most re- 
liable work), will be found of inestimable value to typographical men and 
all who write for the press: 

A wrong letter in a word is noted by drawing a short perpendicular 
line through it, and makmg another short hue in the margin, before 
which the right letter is placed. (See Xo. 1.) In this manner whole 
words are corrected, by drawing a line across the wrong word and mak- 
ing the right one in the margin opposite. 

A turned letter is noted by drawing a hue through it, and writing the 
mark No. 2 in the margin. 

If letters or words require to be altered from one character to another, 
a parallel line or lines must be made underneath the word or letter, — 
viz. for capitals, three lines; small capitals, two lines ; and Italic, one 

31* 



754 ON CORRECTING PROOFS. 

line ; and, in the margin opposite tlie line where the alteration occurs, 
Caps, Small Caps, or Ital. must be written. (See No. 3.) 

When letters or words are set double, or are required to be taken out, 
a line is drawn through the superfluous word or letter, and the mark No. 
4 placed opposite ii; the margin. 

Where the punctuation requires to be altered, the correct point, mark- 
ed in the margin, should be encircled. (See No. 5.) 

When a space is omitted between two words or letters which should be 
separated, a caret must be made where the sei^aration ^ught to be, and 
the sign No. 6 placed opposite in the margin. 

No. 7 describes the manner in which the hyphen and ellipsis line are 
marked. 

AVhen a letter has been omitted, a caret is put at the place of omis- 
sion, and the letter marked as No. 8. 

Where letters that should be joined are separated, or where a line is 
too widely spaced, the mark No . 9 must be placed under them, and the 
correction denoted by the marks in the margin. 

Where a new paragraph is required, a quadrangle is drawn in the 
margin, and a caret placed at the beginning of the sentence. (See No. 10.) 

No. 11 shows the way in wiiich the apostrophe, inverted commas, tlie 
star and other references, and superior letters and figures, are marked. 

* Where two words are transposed, a line is drawn over one word and 
below the other, and the mark No. 12 placed in the margin; but where 
several words require to be transposed, their right order is signified by a 
figure placed over each word, and the mark No. 12 in the margin. 

Where words have been struck out that have afterward been approved 
of, dots should be marked under them, and Stet written in the margin. 
(See No. 13.) 

Where a space sticks up between two words, a horizontal line is drawn 
under it, and the mark No. 14 placed opjjosite, in the margin. 

Where several words have been left out, they are transcribed at the 
bottom of the page, and a line drawn from the place of omission to the 
written words (see No. 15) ; but if the omitted matter be too extensive to 
be copied at the foot of the page. Out, see copy, is written in the margin, 
and the missing lines are enclosed between brackets, and the word Out 
is inserted in the margin of the copy. 

Where letters stand crooked, they are noted by a line (see No. 16); 
but, where a page hangs, lines are drawn across the entire part affected. 

When a smaller or larger letter, of a different fount, is improperly in- 
troduced into the page, it is noted by the mark No. 17, which signifies 
wrong fount. 

If a paragraph be improperly made, a line is drawn from the broken- 
off matter to the next paragraph, and JSfo *^ written in the margin. (See 
No. 18.) 

Where a word has been left out or is to be added, a caret must be 
made in the place where it should come in, and the word written iu the 
margin. (See No. 19.) 

Where a faulty letter appears, it is marked by making a cross 
under it, and placing a similar one in the margin (see No. 20); though 
some prefer to draw a x)erpendicular line through it, as in the case of a 
wrong letter. 

Paper Varnish. — All varnished gums composing the same, and dis- 
solved in turpentine, have a greasy nature. Paper must be first sized, or 
if dissolved by any other spirit, 8 oz. of gum sandarach, 2 oz. of Venice 
turpentine, 32 oz. of alcohol. Dissolve by gentle heat. Or a harder var- 
nish, reddish cast, 5 oz. of shellac, and 1 oa. of turpentine, 32 oz. of alco- 
hol, or Canada balsam dissolved in turps. 



PERFORMANCE OP PRESSES, ETC. 



VOO 



Average Daily Performance of Presses. — The estimates of 
the following Tables are for miscellaneous work, done in the usual man- 
ner, with little making ready and under the favorable conditions of a 
busy season. It is supposed that the presses are at work full 10 hours ; that 
feeders and pressmen are expert and diligent ; that paper, rollers, steam 
power, ink, etc., are in perfect order, and that there are no detentions or 
accidents. 



Make 
Ready 
Time. 


Style of Press.— No. of Forms. 


Time of 
Press 
Work. 


Rate per 
Hour. 


Daily 
Perform- 
ance. 


HQurs. 


Card Press- 


Hours. 




Impr. 


1 
4 
6 


1 form of 7,500 impressions. 
4 '• 1,000 '^ 
8 *< 250 ** 

Small Machine Press- 


9 
6 
4 


833 
G6G 
500 


7,500 
4.000 
2,000 


1 

5 
8 


1 form of 6,000 impressions. 
5 " 500 '' 
8 " 100 " 

Hand Press. 


9 

5 
2 


66G 

500 
400 


6,000 

2.500 

'800 


1 
4 


1 form of 1,500 impressions. 

'< 250 '* 

Medium Cylinder, 


9 
G 


15G 
166 


1,500 
1,000 


1 
5 

7 


1 form of 7,500 impressions. 
5 " 750 <* 
8 '' 250 ' '' 

Double Medium Cylinder. 


9 
5 
3 


833 
750 
666 


7,500 
3,750 
2,000 


2 
5 

7 


1 form of 5,000 impressions. 
3 " 1,000 " 
6 « 250 " 

Mammoth Cylinder. 


8 
5 
3 


666 

GOO 
500 


5,000 
3,000 
1,500 


3 
5 

7 


1 form of 4,000 impressions. 

2 *' 1,250 ♦* 
4 " 250 


7 
5 
3 


570 
500 
333 


4,000 
2,500 
1,000 



-De Vinn€'s Price List, 




THE BULLOCK SELF -FEEDING PERFECTING PRESS. 

The press represented by the cut is one of the most wonderful inven- 
tions of modern times in the department of printing machinery. The 
space occupied by the Bullock Perfecting Press is about 12 feet long 5J 
ft. high. As indicated by the name, it is a self-feeder, drawing its sup- 
plies from a large cylindrical roll, or web of paper, placed either on the 
press itself, or near it, drawn in by tension, passing in, first, between an 
impression and a type cylinder, where it is printed on its first side ; and, 
then, secondly, passing immediately to a second set of t^^pe and impres- 



756 



JOBBING TRESSES. 



sion cylinders, where it is printed on the other side. Passing onwards 
the xjaper is severed by a knife into sheets of the desired size, and deliv- 
ered in perfect condition (with the most astonishing rapidity) by means 
of a fly, upon the receiving board, with no other aid than that furnished 
by the machine itself. 




GORDON'S IMPROVED FRANKLIN PRESS. 

Concentrated Ink Pastes to Write with Water. — 1. Black 
Ink. Take 4 parts of bichromate of potash, pulverized, and mixed with 25 
parts of acetic acid, 50 parts of liquid extract of logwood, J part of picric 



ESTIMATZS, jLTC, FOR PRINTERS. 757 

acid, 10 parts of pulverized sal sorrel, 10 parts of mucilage, and J part of 
citrate of iron, and mix well. The liquid extract of logwood is prepared 
by mixing 3 parts of an extract of common commercial qzality with two 
parts of water. 2. Red Ink. Take 1 part of red aniline mixed with 10 
parts of acetic acid, 5 parts of citric acdd, and 25 parts of mucilage, all 
well mixed. For use, mix 1 i^art of the paste with 16 parts of water. 3. 
Blue Ink, Take 2 parts of aniline hlue mixed with 10 parts of acetic 
acid, 5 parts of citric acid, and 40 parts of mucilage, all well mixed. For 
use, mix 1 part of the paste with 8 parts of water. 4. Violet Ink. Use 
the same ingredients in the same proportions, as blue, with the differ- 
ence, that violet aniline is used instead of blue aniline. 5. Green Ink. 
Take 1 part of aniline blue, 3 parts of picric acid mixed with 10 parts of 
acetic acid, 3 parts of citric acid, and 80 parts of mucilage. For use, 1 
part of this paste is mixed with 8 parts of water. 6. Copyinc/ Ink. Take 
6 parts of pulverized bichromate of potash, mixed with 10 parts of acetic 
acid, and 240 parts of liquid extract of logwood, and add a pulverized 
mixture of 35 parts of alum, 20 parts of sal sorrel, and 20 parts of muci-. 
lage. Mix well. For use, 1 part of this paste is mixed with 4 parts of 
hot water. 

These inks are described as leaving no sediment, as drying quicker on 
I)aper than the ordinary inks, and as being non-corrosive. 

Colored Inks for Rubber and other Stamps. — Red. Dissolve 
J oz. of carmine in 2 ozs. strong water of ammonia, and add 1 dr. of 
glycerine and J oz. dextrin. Blue. Rub 1 oz. Prussian blue with 
enough water to make a perfectly smooth paste ; then add 1 oz. dextrin, 
incorporate it well and finally add sufficient water to bring it to the 
proper consistence. Violet, Alcohol 15 ozs., glycerine 15 ozs., aniline 
violet 2 to 4 drs. ; mix, dissolve, pour the solution on the cushion and dab 
on with a brush. 

The following estimates relating to the consumption of ink, &c., are se- 
lected from Be Vmne's Price List, a work of incomparable utility to 
printers, published by Francis Hart & Co., ^ew York. 

Black Inks. — On common news and rough book work, the value of 
black ink at 40 cents, used and wasted in printing a wet-down sheet of 
size 24 X 38 inches, or thereabouts, is a little less than 17 cents per 1000 
impressions, or about 4 cents * a token of 250 impressions. If the sheet 
is over-colored, it will cost 6 cents; if it is under-colored, or if printed on 
damp calendered paper (an unusual quality of this class of work), it will 
not cost 3 cents per token. 

For ordinary book work, using ink at 60 cents, on smooth paper of 
size 24 X 38 inches, the average cost of ink used and wasted will be 
about 6 cents per token ; on dry and rough paper, it will reach 10 or 13 
cents. 

Fine book or pamphlet Pressworkon damp sheets of calendered paper, 
of size 24 X 38, using ink at Sl.OO, should have its average value rated at 
10 cents per token for an ordinary edition. Upon a short edition, for 
which ink is specially put in the fountain, and of which much is wasted, 
the cost will be from 15 to 25 cents per token. If the paper is a soft and 
spongv Book, cost for either quantity will be still higher. 

Illustrated Catalogues, prmted on medium sheets, 19 x 24 mches, 
on dry calendered paper, with cuts of large size and blackness, will use 



* It is a popular belief that the ink used for this class of work, on this size 
does not exceed 3 cents per token. This is the ordinary reckoning, which is 
for use only. But the waste of this quality of ink is rarely ever less than 
one-fifth, and it often approximates more closely to one-third of the amount 
purchased. 



758 ESTIMATES, ETC., FOR PRINTERS. 

of wood-cut ink at S2.5u per pound, on an edition of 1000, at the rate of 
60 cents to 31.00 per token. If the edition is of 5000 impressions, the 
value of ink used will range from 40 cents to 70 cents per token. If cuts 
are very large or black, tliey may consume ink, on an edition of 1000 
copies, at the rate of $1.50 per token. If ink at $3.00 or $5.00 is used, in 
place of ink at $2.50, the price will increase, but not in true proportion— 
the more expensive color is finer, and has more extending capacity. 
These are prices for cuts of machinery. The amount of color on this 
work is largely under the control of the pressman. He can use it freely 
or sparingly, at will, but with a corresponding effect of strength or weak- 
ness in the work. 

Book Illustrations. — The ordinary illustrations of books and news- 
papers, when not too frequent, or too black, do not sensibly increase the 
consumption of ink. It is not usual to make account of the value of 
ordinary ink on this class of work. But when the cuts are numerous 
and are black, and fine inks are used, the value of color used cannot be 
overlooked. On a large edition of work of this class, the average value 
of ink at $2.00, on a sheet 24 x 38 inches, will be 50 cents per token. 
Upon an edition of 1000, the cost of the same ink would be more than 
$1.00 per token. A Double Royal sheet 29 X 43 inches, on an edition of 
20,000, with ink at $3.00, with many cuts, has been worked at a cost of 
53 cents per token for ink : but this is a rare result, the economy being 
due as much to the skill of the pressman as to the length of the edition. 
If the edition had been 1000, the value of the black ink used and wasted 
would have been at the rate of $1.50 per token. 

Posters. — An ordinary poster, 12 x 19 inches, will consume of black 
ink at 25 cents per pound, at the rate of 30 and 40 cents per 1000 impres- 
sions, the quantity used depending upon the size of the type and the 
quality of the paper. Under the same conditions, a poster 19 x 24 inches, 
will consume black ink of same quality at the rate of 75 cents and $1.00 
per 1000 impressions ; a poster 24 X 38 inches, from $1.25 to $2,00 per 1000 
impressions. The value of the color used increases with the size of the 
sheet, and for this work, in greater proportion. The larger form has 
larger type, and the larger press wastes more color. 

Tint Blocks. — A solid tint Block cut on pine, for a sheet 24 x 38 
inches, with a few white lines, will use of 25 cent ink, at the rate of $3,00 
per 1000 impressions. If finer inks are used, the advance in price will be 
nearly in strict proportion. For a sheet 24 x 38, of smooth, thick paper, 
dry, printed on a metal tint-plate, with ink at $1.00 pei pound, the cost of 
ink will be $10.00 per 1000 impressions. For this class of work, a pound 
of fine ink will do more Avork than a pound of cheap ink. On common 
flat work, a good black ink will permit a liberal reduction of body with 
varnish. 

Blue Inks. — Many qualities of this color are used. The leading 
varieties are best known to printers as light, dark, ultramarine and 
bronze blues. The light has a limited use for flat surfaces and tints ; the 
ultramarine, for flat surfaces, tints, posters, and to some extent, in its 
finer qualities, on fine type ; the dark and bronze blues are most used for 
fine and light work, for which they are well adapted, having strong body, 
and in extending property being nearly equal to fine black ink. 

Ultramarine Is the favoring color for bright showy work. It is very 
bulky for its weight, and works well upon all flat surfaces. It is not a 
finely-ground color. The best colors only are used for type, but they do 
not work with the freedom and smoothness of dark or bronze blues. 
The prices range from 50 to $3.00 per pound. 

Flat Surfaces.— A flat-faced label, 9 x 14 inches, will consume of 
pure ultramarine blue at $1.00 per pound at the rate of $3.00 per 1000 



ESTIMATES. ETC.. FOR PRINTERS. 759 

impressions. A flat tint block, 18 X 22 incnes, on fair paper, will use of 
this color, when somewhat reduced with varnish, at the rate of $9.00 per 
1000 impressions. A flat tint block of pine wood, made for paper 24 x 38 
inches, will use of ultramarine at 75 cents, largely reduced with varnish, 
at the rate of $15.00 per 1000 impressions. 

Posters. — For a poster, 12 x 19 inches, on ordinary News, the value 
used of ultramarine ink at $1.00 will be at the rate of $2.00 per 1000 im- 
pressions ; for a poster, 19 X 24 inches, on ultramarine blue at 75 cents, $3,05 
per 1000 impressions ; for a poster, 24 x 38 inches, on ultramarine blue 
at 75 cents, at the rate of $6.00 to $8.00 per 1000 impressions. Ink at 50 
cents per pound would diminish the value of the color used, but not in 
ratio with the reduced price. The cheaper color is thinner, not so well 
ground, and is consumed more freely. If it is used on any but the largest 
tj^pe, it will not i^rove of marked econom}-. 

Dark blue and bronze blue are little used for posters or flat tints. If 
used in bulk, without reducing, they will be much more expensive than 
ultramarine. When used on this kind of work, they are usually thinned 
with white ink, varnish, turpentine, benzine, etc., and sometimes with 
magnesia. When used on light, open and flne w^ork, the value of dark 
or bronze blues, may be rated as about double that of the same quality 
as black ink. 

Red Inks. — Under this heading may be classified many qualities of 
scarlet and crimson color. The leading qualities are vermilion, lake 
and carmine. 

Vermilion red, a pure scarlet, is the basis of the better qualities of 
the cheap reds in greatest use. Commoner qualities, such as are sold at 
75 cents and $1.00 per pound, are largely mixed with cheaper colors. In 
its pure state, vermilion is the densest, and, in extending property, the 
weakest of all colors. A pound of vermilion red at $3.00 per pound is 
about half the bulk of fine black at $1.00 per pound. Where the black 
will yield color for 1000 impressions, the vermilion red will be used up 
with about 350 impressions. The value of the red color, extending 
capacity considered, is about ten times as great as that of fine black. 

Lake red, a deep crimson, is inferior to black in extension, but will 
give treble the service of ordinary vermilion. It is too expensive for 
most bold work, or for flat surfaces, nor does it produce as good an 
effect as pure vermillion. It is largely used for fine work, for which it is 
well fitted. 

Carmine, an intense and glowing crimson, is but little inferior to tlie 
finest black in extending properties. It is one of the most expensive 
colors, and can be used to profit and with effect only on light and open 
work. For flat and solid work, the effect produced is but little superior 
to that of the finer lakes, and is seldom Avorth the extra cost. 

Posters. — The value of red ink at $1.00 per pound, that will be used 
and wasted in printing 1000 posters, 12 X 19 inches, may be rated at 
$3.00 ; on 1000 posters, 19 x 24 inches, the value of color may be esti- 
mated at $5.00 and $6.00 per 1000 ; on a poster, 24 X 38 inches, at $9.00 
and $12.00 per 1000. The color is weak, and the use of light or bold- 
faced type will make serious differences in the consumption of color. On 
double-medium i)osters, the value of the color may be averaged at $1.00 
per 100 impressions. 

Flat Surfaces. — A flat label 9 x 14 inches, with ordinary amount 
and size of lettering cut for white, such as is used for soap boxes, etc. , 
will consume of pure red ink at $1.00 per pound, at the rate of $4.50 and 
$5.00 per 1000 impressions. If the plate is flat, without lettering, at the 
rate of $6.00 per 1000 impressions. A flat tint poster for paper 19 x 24 
inches, with letters cut in whits as above, will use of red ink at $1.00 per 



760 PATENT OFFICE KULES, ETC. 

pound, that has been somewhat thmned with varnish, at the rate of $9.00 
and SlO.OO per 1000 impressions. If pure color is used, it will consume 
color to the amount of $14.00 or $15! 00. A flat tint poster for paper 24 x 
38 inches, cut on pine, with lettering as above, will consume of red ink at 
$1.00 per pound, thinned with varnish, at the rate of $18,00 and $25.00 
per 1000 impressions. If dry paper is used, as is necessary for registered 
work it could not be rated at less than $20.00 ; for damp xmper, carefully 
managed, it may be less than $18.00, but this is unusual. 

Coloring of Paper.— Gr«?/ is usually obtained by mixing mineral 
or vegetable black with the bleached pulp, but the tones produced by 
these primitive means are generally dull. Vegetable black made from 
the chestnut tree gives the best result. Chestnut black can be made 
from the bark of the young sprouts of this tree, generally cultivated to 
make hoops for casks ; after taking off the bark it is dried, ground, and 
made into a decoction for coloring paper, and which can be made either 
gray or black. Logwood also may be used. Iron Gray is made with 
chestnut or logwood. For two cwt of paper, 4 lbs. of ext. of chestnut, 
4 lbs. sulphate of iron, dissolved in 9 gals, of boiling water, then stirred 
and mixed with the pulp, adding a small quantit}^ of red lake and ultra- 
marine. The size is mixed with 8 per cent, of sulphate of aluminum, 
this may be much varied, \yith small quanities of ext. of logwood and 
sulphate of iron a light gray is obtained; by adding yellow and Prussian 
blue, a greenish slate color ; by adding white, suppressing the blue, and 
keeping the lake, a chamois tone ; by adding to this last formula a little 
umber, bistre. Logwood is used with all colors when it is wished to 
darken tlie shades. With fine pulp il is best to replace the ext. of log- 
wood by the iDroduct obtained from the tree noted at the beginning of 
this notice. 

Solvents for Rubber. — These are bisulphide of carbon, coal nap- 
tha, rectified oil of turpentine, chloroform, and ether, which must be 
free from alcohol. 

INFORMATION CONCERNING PATENTS. 

United States Patents and Fees. — No patent will be granted if 
the whole or any part of wiiat is claimed has been patented or described 
in any printed publication in this or a foreign country, or been invented 
or discovered in this country. 

Prior Invention abroad will not prevent issue of a patent, unless the in- 
vention has been there patented or described in some printed publication. 

To prevent a subsequent inventor from obtaining a patent, an inven- 
tion must have been reduced to ax^ractical form, either by construction of 
a model or machine, or drawing, by which a mechanic could make the 
same. 

Merely conceiving an idea of an invention is not a discovery, and patent- 
able. 

Foreign Patents.— The taking out of a patent in a foreign country does 
not prejudice a patent previously granted here; nor does it prevent obtain- 
ing a patent here subsequently. "When a patent is granted here it will 
extend only seventeen years from date of foreign patent. 

Every foreign inventor must have in use, or for sale in the United 
States, a copy of their patentable article, within eighteen months from 
date of patent. 

Duration of Patent is seventeen years. Extensions are prohibited on 
all patents granted since 1861. Applications for extension must be filed, 
and requisite fee paid, ninety days before expiration of the patent. 

Granting of Patents. — Patents, on payment of same official fee, are 
granted to all persons, including Avomen and minors, unless inhabitants 



PATENT OFFICE KULES, ETC. 761 

of countries which discriminate against the inhabitants of the United 
States. 

Application for a patent must be made in the name of the inventor., who 
can alone sign the papers ; an attorney for inventor can not do so. 

Heirs of an Inventor can obtain a patent, papers to be signed \)j execu- 
tor or administrator of inventor. 

Joint Inventors are entitled to a joint patent. 

An Inventor can assign his entire right, before a patent is obtained, so as 
to enable the assigiiee to take out a patent in his own name ; but the assign- 
ment must be first recorded, and specification sworn to by the inventor. 

Oaths may be taken, in this country, before any one authorized by law 
to administer oaths ; in a foreign country before any minister plenipoten- 
tiary, charge d' affairs, consul, commercial agent or notary public of the 
country in which oath is taken, being in all cases properly attested by of- 
ficial seal of such notary. 

Stamps . — A stamp of value of fifty cents is required for each power of 
attorney, each sheet of an assignment to be stamped five cents, each cer- 
tificate of magistrate five cents. 

Draicinc/s to be in duplicate, one on stiff paper, one on tracing cloth, to 
be 20 inches top to bottom, 15 inches wide ; tracing to have 1 inch margin 
on right hand side, for binding. 

Models to be of hard wood, or metal, not more than 12 inches in any 
dimension ; name of the inventor to be engraved or painted conspicu- 
ously on it 

For an Improvement, only model of part to be patented is required, to 
show nature and operation of invention. 

Designs, no models required ; either drawings or photographs, both in 
duplicate, with negative of photograph. 

New Articles of manufacture, sample of article ; medicines, or medical 
compounds, sample of same, and minute statement of exact proportions 
and ingredients. 

Caveats. — The filing of a caveat i^re vents, during its existence, the 
issue of a patent, without the knowledge of the caveator, to any person 
for a similar device. The caveator is entitled to receive official notice 
during one year, for any petition for similar or interfering invention filed 
during that time. The caveator, when so notified, must complete his 
own application within three months from date of notice. 

A caveat runs one year : can be extended by paying $10 a year. 

Caveats can only be filed by citizens of the United States, or aliens who 
have resided here one year" and declared their intention of becoming 
citizens. 

UNITED STATES PATENT FEES. 

On filing each caveat $10 00 

On filing eacli original application for a patent, except for a design. 15 00 

On issuing each original patent 20 00 

On every appeal from Examiners-in-Chief 20 00 

On application for a reissue 30 00 

On application for extension 50 00 

Granting an extension 50 00 

Filing each disclaimer 10 00 

Certified copies of patents and other papers, 10 cents per J 00 words. 

Recording every assignment, agreement, power of attorney, and 
other papers, of 300 words or under 1 00 

If over 300 and under 1,000 words 2 00 

If over 1,000 words 3 00 

Drawings, cost of making same 

Patents^f or designs— for three and one-half years 10 00 

" ** for seven years 15 00 

** *• for fourteen years 30 00 



762 



FACTS ABOUT HUMAN LIFE. 



In addition to the above, Messrs. Munn & Co., Patent Solicitors, N.Y., 
charge for written report of special examination at Patent office, if inven- 
tion has been patented in this country, $5 ; for general information of 
infringements, reissues, claims, assignments, joint ownership, contracts, 
licences, name in which patent is recorded, abstracts of deeds of transfer, 
sketch of a drawing of patent, license made out, transfer of do., recording 
do., $5 for each case ; for procuring a patent, $25 to $35, or more ; for 
procuring a caveat, $10 to $15 ; for copies of patents or assignments, or 
drawings of any existing patents, $5 to $10 ; copy of any claim, $1. 

Foreign Patents. — Great Britain. — Duration, fourteen years, to first 
inventor or importer, cost, $350, of which $100 due at time of making 
application, balance in four months ; three years from date of patent, a 
further sum of £50 must be paid ; end of seven years, £100 additional. 
For designs to protect shape of article, three years, $100. 

France. — Term of patent, fifteen years, annual fee, $20. 

Belgium. — Term of patent, twenty years ; small annual fees. 

EXPENSE OF FOREIGN PATENTS, INCLUSIVE OF ALL FEES. 



Austria $250 

Bavaria 150 

Belgium 150 

Cuba 450 

France 150 

Great Britain 350 

India 400 

Italy 250 



Netherlands $150 

Portugal 250 

Prussia 200 

Russia .550 

Saxony 250 

Spain 400 

Sweden and Norway 600 



FACTS RELATING TO HUMAN LIFE. 

The following table exhibits the recent mortality statistics, showing the 
average duration of life among persons of various classes in the State of 
Massachusetts : 



Years. 



Men unemployed 68 

Judges 65 

Farmers , . .64 

Bank Officers 64 

Coopers 58 

Public Officers 57 

Clergymen 56 

Shipwrights 55 

Hatters 54 

Lawyers 54 

Rope Makers 54 



Years. 



Blacksmiths 51 

Merchants 51 

Calico Printers 51 

Physicians 51 

Butchers 50 

Carpenters 49 

Masons 48 

Traders 46 j Machinists 

Tailors 44lTeachers . . 



Years. 



Bakers 43 

Painters 43 

Shoemakers 43 

Mechanics 43 

Editors 40 

Musicians 39 

Printers 38 

36 

34 



Jewellers 44]Clerks 34 

Manufacturers 43 [ Operatives 32 

The average death rate in Europe is 1 out of every 42 inhabitants, or 
2.38 per cent. The principal European countries exhibit the following 
annual bills of mortality : — 



Austria 1 death to every 40 

Prussia 1 *' " ?3 

France 1 ** ** 32 



England 1 death to every 46 

Denmark 1 " ** 45 

Belgium 1 " '< 43 

Norway and Sweden 1 ** ** 41 

The death rate in the United States varies much from the above, from 
the highest, Arkansas, where the annual mortalitj^ is one death to every 
49 inhabitants, a trifle over 2 per cent of the population, to the lowest, 
Oregon, where the death rate is less than half of one per cent., or one 



9,848 


die 


in 90 


years. 


9,991 


n 


100 


((. 


9,999 


a 


104 


it 



FACTS ABOUT HUMAN LIFE. 763 

to every 209 inhabitants. The average yearly mortality in proportion to 
population is exhibited in the following table :— 

New England States 1 in 68 1 Pacific States... linlir, 

Middle States 1 '< 88 Atlantic States 1 '< 80 

Southern States 1 <' 70 Gulf States 1 " 6.T 

Western States. 1 <• 81 Mississippi Valley States 1 '' 80 

North- Western States. .. r 1 <'120| 

According to the Carlisle table of mortality, largely used as an author- 
ity in life insurance calculations in America "and Europe, of 10,000 chil- 
dren born — 

3,540 die in 10 years. 5,603 die in 50 years 

3,910 " 20 '* 6,357 *' 60 '< 

4,358 '' 30 <* 7,599 *' 70 " 

4,915 " 40 " 9,047 «' 80 " 

Leaving only one living at the age of 104: years. 

The tables of the British Government annuities are constructed on the 
principle that women live longer than men. Thus, a male of 15 can pur- 
chase an annuity of £15 per annum for £411 os. lOd., but a female of 
the same age must pay £438 lis. 4d. And, at 50, a man would pay £272 
17s. Id. ; but a woman £312 14s. lOd. 

Long life, as a general rule, awaits the man who is gifted with pru- 
dence, a good constitution, and the mental potency to banish corroding 
anxiety. These are inestimable gifts. Dr. Heberden, an illustrious 
London physician of the last century, whose practise lay chiefly among 
the wealthy classes, asserted that nine out of ten of his patients died of 
a broken heart. Cornaro, the noted dietist, who by prudent care of him- 
self, lived to 104, wrote, "lam likewise greatly indebted for the excel- 
lent health I enjoy to that calm and temperate state in which I have been 
careful to keep my passions. The influence of the passions on the 
nerves and health of our bodies is so great that none can be ignorant 
of it. Tie, therefore, who seriously wishes to enjoy good health, must 
leam to keep his passions in subjection to reason. Otherwise, all tem- 
perance will go for little." The man endowed by nature with the best 
prospect for long life is thus described by the famous Huf eland, in his 
work on longevity, published during the last century : " He has a well- 
proportioned stature, without, however, being too tall. He is rather of 
the middle size, and somewhat thickset. His complexion is not too florid ; 
at anj^ rate, too much ruddiness in youth is seldom a sign of longevity. 
Hair approaches rather to the fair than to the black. His skin is 
strong, but not rough. His head is not too big. He has large veins at the 
extremities, and his shoulders are rather round than flat. His neck is 
not too long. His belly does not project, and his hands are large, but 
not too deeply cleft. His foot is rather thick than long, and his legs are 
firm and round. He has also a broad chest and strong voice, and the 
faculty of retaining his breath a long time without difficulty. In general 
there is complete harmony in all his parts. His senses are good, but not 
too delicate. His pulse is slow and regular. His appetite is good, and 
his digestion easy. He has not too much thirst, which is always a sign 
of rapid self -consumption. His passions never become too violent or 
destructive. If he gives way to anger he experiences a glow of warmth, 
without an overflowing of the gall. He likes employment, particularly 
calm meditation and agreeable speculations ; is an optimist, a friend to 
nature and domestic felicity — has no thirst after either honors or riches, 
and banishes all thought of to-morrow.'* 

Mr. John Q. Adams was in excellent health, when, in his ninetieth 
year, he was visited by Charles Mackay, who thus explains the cause : 



764 FACTS ABOUT HUMAN LIFE. 

'' Men -and women/* he says, '' scarcely ever allow the fresh air of hea- 
ven to touch any j)art of their bodies, except their hands and face, and 
even to these the ladies are systematically unjust by wearing gloves and 
veils. The surface of the beautiful human form requires to be for a 
certain period of every day exposed to the action of the atmosphere. I 
take my air bath regularly every morning, and walk in my bed-room in 
piiris natuvalibus, with all the windows open, fof half an hour. I also 
take a water bath daily. I read and write for eight hours a day. I sleep 
eight hours, and devote another eight to exercise, conversation, and 
meals. I feel within myself a reserve of bodily strength, which, I think, 
will carry me to a hundred years, unless I die by accident, or am shot or 
hanged." 

Between 1840 and 1871 the annual mortality on the Cheviot Hills, in 
Scotland, was at an average of 15 per 1,000. In the hamlet of Harbottle, 
with 120 inhabitants there has been no death of a child for 20 years. A 
farmer and his three shepherds, who have occupied their x)resent situa- 
tion nearly 30 years, have among them 47 children, and not a single 
death has occurred in these families. In Alwinton, a parish on the south- 
ern slopes of the hills, the birth-rate in 1871, when it contained a popu- 
lation of 1,205, was 32.4 per cent., and the death-rate onlj^ 7.5. An abun- 
dance of good food, good water, good houses, and regular but not severe 
work, have brought about this orderly state of existence. 

Of a man who died near London at the advanced age of 110 years, it is 
reported that he had never been ill, and that he had maintained through 
life a cheerful happy temperament. He was uniformly kind and obliging 
to everybody ; he quarrelled with no one ; he ate and drank merely that 
he might not suffer from hunger and thirst, and never beyond what ne- 
cessity required. From his earliest youth he never allowed himself to be 
unemployed. These were the onl}^ means he ever used. 

Of a woman who died near Stockholm at the advanced age of 115 
years, it is on record that she passed her long life free from illness, always 
contented and happy, a devoted lover of cleanliness, had a daily habit 
of Avashing her face, hands, and feet in cold water, and as often as op- 
portunity afforded, bathed in the same ; slie never ate or drank any deli- 
cacies or sweet-meats ; seldom tea or coffee, and never wine. 

Another noted instance of long life was that of a man who died near 
St Petersburg, and had enjoyed good health until he was 120 years old. 
He was an early riser, and never slept more than seven hours at a time ; 
he was never idle ; he worked and employed himself chiefly in the open 
air, and particularly in his garden. Whether he walked or sat in his 
chair he always maintained an erect i)osition, never tolerating a stooping, 
leaning, or distorted attitude. 

Unquestionably, a properly selected vegetable diet Is the best fitted for 
the maintenance of health. A great percentage of the diseases which 
afflict humanity are generated by the use of pork, veal, and other meats 
in immoderate quantities, and prepared in preposterous forms witli lard, 
rich sauces, seasoning, &c. Of all animal food in common use pork is de- 
cidedly the worst. Its use as food frequently engenders an extremely 
painful disease, by many pronounced incurable, caused by a filthy para- 
site which exists naturally in the muscles of swine. See Trichina, page 
149. A farmer writing from Freeport to the Chicago Inter-Ocean de- 
nounces pork in the most trenchant style. He says "Pork grease will 
ruin a wagon axle, much more the human stomach, and the farmer who 
uses pork alone as a meat diet and pork grease as shortening, ruins not 
only his own constitution but that of his family as well. This is the 
experience of a farmer who has tried the use of pork for over fifteen 
years, with as many years of sickness in his family, and two years on 



FA.CTS CONCERNING FOOD. 



7G5 



beef diet and perfect health." '' Vegetable aliment, as neither distending 
the vessels, nor loading the system, never interrui)ts the stronger action of 
the mind ; while the heat, fulness and weight of animal food is adverse 
to its efforts." — Citllen. 

The following table shows the number of grains of warmth and 
strength evolved per lb. , from various articles of food. The carbon and 
nitrogen taken into the system form fat and flesh, the fat being con- 
sumed makes the bodj' stout, while the flesh represents strength or the 
muscles wliich yield it. 



Grains of Strength yielded by one 
pound of 7000*^ grains. 



GBAIKS. 

Beer or Porter 1 

Parsnips 12 

Turnips 12 

Whey 13 

Greens 14 

Potatoes 24 

Skimmed Milk S4 

New Milk 35 

Buttermilk 35 

Barley 70 

llice 70 

Bacon 78 

Bye Bread 89 

Baker's Bread 90 

Pearl Barley 91 

Fresh Pork 108 

Seconds Flour 120 

Corn Meal 125 

Fresh Fish 129 

Cocoa 130 

Oatmeal 140 

Mutton 140 

Fresh Beef 172 

Beef Liver 200 

Split Peas 250 

Cheddar Cheese 310 

Skim. Milk Cheese 360 



Grains of Warmth yielded by one 
pound of 7000 grains. 

GRAINS. 

Whey 150 

Turnips 238 

Beer and Porter 315 

Buttermilk 335 

Skimmed Milk 351 

New Milk 378 

Carrots 390 

Parsnips 425 

Potatoes 770 

Fresh Fish 980 

Beef Liver 1,220 

Bed Herrings 1,455 

Baker's Bread 1,990 

Fresh Beef 2,300 

Molasses 2,300 

Skim. Milk Cheese 2,350 

Cheddar Cheese 2,550 

Seconds Flour 2,700 

Rye Bread 2,700 

Rice 2,750 

Barley Meal 2,780 

Indian Meal 2,800 

Sugar 2,900 

Fresh Pork 3,100 

Bacon 4,200 ' 

Butter 4,700 

Lard 4,800 

Drippings 5,500 

In cookery 4 lbs. of beef lose 1 lb. by boiling, 1 lb. 5 ozs. by roasting, 
and 1 lb. 3 ozs. by baking ; 4 lbs. of mutton lose 14 ozs. by boiling, 1 lb. 
6 ozs. by roasting, and 1 lb. 4 ozs. by baking. As to the drinking cus- 
toms of society, statistics prove that every year in the United Kingdom, 
70,000, and in the United States, about 75,000 deaths result directly and 
indirectly from the nse of spirituous liquors. The benefits derived from 
their use are in a great measure merely imaginary, and their persistent 
use can only have one result, viz., premature death. An intemperate 
person of twenty years has a probability of life extending 15.6 ; one of 
30 to 11*6 years, while temperate persons would have a like probability 
of living 42 and 35 respectively. Comment is useless, if you wish health 
and long life, abstain. Liebig, the celebrated chemist, recommends the 
persistent use of a purely vegetable diet as a cure for this abominable 
vice, especially in its earlier stages, and Charles Napier, the noted Eng- 
lish scientist, ibas reported, as the result of experiments, 27 cases, in 
which the exclusive use of vegetables as food, had created repugnance 
^or alcoholic stimulants. Another remedy highly commended is to steep 
equal parts of the herbs valerian and wormwood together, and drink the 
liquid three times a day when the desire is felt. Still another remedy is 
tincture of cinchona (Peruvian bnrk) taken in 1 drachm (teaspoon ful^ 



fGG 



POPULATION OF THE GLOBE. 



doses every two hours. The dose may be increased to six teaspoonfuls 
and taken in that proportion 4 to 10 times per day. It will not destroy 
appetite for food, but in a few days the anti-periodic properties of the cin- 
chona begin to tell, and the patient not onlj^ loses all taste for the tinc- 
ture, but also all desire for everything in the shape of alcohol. 

THE LATEST CENSUS OF ALL THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 

Belim and Wagner estimate tlie total number of all men 1,423,919,000. They 
are distributed over the five parts of the world as follows , 

Number of inhabitants per square mile. 

Africa 199,921,000 13 ] 

America 85,519,800.. 6 | 

Asia 824,548,300 49 f- Averageall over the 

Australia 4,748,600 IVa earth, 28, 

Europe .309,178,500 82 J 

Reliable figures are exhibited for Europe, save Turkey. They show : 

Andorra 12,000 Montenegro 190,000 

Austria, 1876 37,700,000 Netherlands, 1875 3,809,527 



Belgium, 1874 5,336,634 

Denmark, 1876 1,903,000 

France, 1873 36,102,921 

Germany, 1875 42,723,242 

Great Britain, 1876 33,450,000 

Greece, 1870 1,457,349 

Italy, 1875 27.432,174 

Luxemburgh, 1875 205,158 

Monaco, 1873 5,741 



Norway, 1875 1,802,882 

Portugal, 1874 4,298,831 

Roumania, 1873 5,073,000 

Russia, (Europe) 1870 71,730,980 

Servia, 1875 1,377,068 

Spain, 1870 16,551,647 

Sweden , 1875 4,383,291 

Switzerland, 1870 2,669,147 

Turkey (Europe) 3,500,000 



Another estimate of the population and area of the Globe is as follows ; — 



Divisions. 



Europe . . 

Asia 

Africa . . . 
America . 
Oceanica. 



Area. 



Population. 



3,800,000 
15,000,000 
10,800,000 
14,700,000 

4,500,000 



296,713,500 

699.863,000 

67,414,000 

88,061,148 

25,924,000 



Pop. to Sq. M. 



80 

46 

5 

G 

5 



Total 48,800.000 1,177,975,688 24 

It is estimated that this aggregate of humanity speak 3,064 languages, 

and profess to believe in 1,000 various forms of religion. 

Of this vast multitude, 33,333,333 are estimated to pass into eternity- 

every year, 91,954 every day, 3,730 every hour, 60 every minute, and 1 

every second. The number of births is larger than the number of deaths. 
Still another estimate of the earth's poi^ulation, classified according to 

race and religion, is as follows : 



Races. 



Religions. 



Whites 550,000,000 

Mongoliaais 550,000,000 

Blacks 173,000,000 

Copper-Colored 12,000,000 

The Christians are classified as follows : 
Church of Rome, Protestants. 

170,000,000. 90,000,000. 

AREA OF OCEANS AND SEAS — APPROXIMATE ESTIMATES 



Pagans 676,000,000 

Christians 320,000,000 

Mohammedans 140,000,000 

Jews 14,000,000 



Greek and East Church. 
60,000,000. 



Oceans. Sq. miles. 

Pacific about 78.000,000 

Atlantic " 25,000,000 

Indian '•' 14,000,000 

Southern Ocean to 30*^ about. 25,000,000 
Northern about 5.000.000 



Seas 



Sq. miles. 



Mediterranean 1,000,000 

Black Sea 170,000 

Baltic 175,000 

North Sea ICO.OOO 



AREA OF SEAS, LAKES, ETC. 767 

In the British expedition under Capt. Nares, with the two steamers 
Alert and Discovery, to the Polar Sea, it was determined that the depth 
of that sea, at one point, was about 70 fathoms, that the ice was from 80 
to 120, and in many places 200, feet thick, and probably a century old ; 
that a powerful tide sets in from the Pacific under this ice and extends 
down the long channel as far as the northern part of Smith's Sound. A 
sledge party advanced over the ice to lat. 83° 20' 2&i N., the most north- 
erly point as yet ever trod by man. No traces of human life exists north 
of lat. 81^ 52', where the Esquimaux appear to have crossed the water, 
here only 15 miles wide, into Greenland, from the larg6 islands which 
fringe the North American continent on the north. On the Alert, mer- 
c^ary was frozen 47 days in all, and, in still weather, the minimum temp, 
was more than 70° below zero and the auroras were neither brilliant nor 
of frequent occurrence during the long Arctic winter, with its unparalleled 
intensity and duration of darkness produced by the absence of sunlight 
for 142 days. Birds do not migrate beyond Cape Joseph Henry, on the 
American coast of the Polar Sea, in lat. 82° 52' north, and the northern 
limits of the haunts of wild animals is about 82°. Dwarf oaks, sorrel, 
poppies, saxifrage, and between 20 and 30 species of flowering plants 
were found growing in the vicinity of lat. 82° north, together with fossil 
corals, a workable seam of good coal, and evidences of the former ex- 
istence of an evergreen forest in lat. 82^ 44'. 

Between the Tropics the temperature of the Ocean is from 77° to 84^, 
it diminishes to 45 5° at 1,000 fathoms depth. In the Arctic Sea the tem- 
perature rises from 8** to 10^ at 700 fathoms, and 6*^ at 200 fathoms. 
Divers report an entire absence of motion in the Ocean at a depth of 30 
ft., and the Solar rays penetrate 200 or 300 ft. Sea water is salt and bit- 
ter at the surface, but salt only at profound depths. The component 
parts, with slight variations, are water, muriatic acid, sulphuric acid, 
mineral alkali, lime, and magnesia. The deepest soundings on record is 
9 miles. Young estimates the Atlantic at 3 miles, and the Pacific at 4 
deep. Copper globes are compressed at 800 fathoms. Parry soimded in 
lat. bV N, long. 24^" W. but found no bottom at 1,020 fathoms. 

ESTIMATED LE^'^GTH OF SEAS, &C. 



Seas. Miles 

Mediterranean 2,000 

Carribean 1,800 

China 1 ,700 

Red 1,400 



Black 930 

Caspian G40 

Baltic 600 

Othotsk 600 

Japan 1,000| White 450 



Seas. Miles. Seas. Miles. 



Aral 250 

Hudson's Bay 1,200 

Baffin's Bay 600 

Chesapeake Bay 250 



ESTIMATED SIZE OF NOTED LAKES. 



Lakes Length Width ^ , Length Width 

j.aKes. mWq^. Miles. Lakes. j^.^^g^ Mi\e^. 



Superior 380 120 | Maracaybo 150 60 

Baikal 360 35 i Ladoga 125 75 

Michigan 330 60 } Great Bear ... . 150 40 

Great Slave 300 45 j Nicaragua 120 40 

Huron 250 90 j Champlain 123 12 

Winnipeg 240 40 i L.of the Woods 70 25 

Erie 270 50 j Geneva 50 10 

Ontario 180 40 i Constance 45 10 

Arthabaska 200 20 i Cayuga 36 4 

Many of the above lakes are very deep, and it is owing to this cause 
that they never freeze. 



768 



NOTED RIVERS AND MOUNTAINS. 



Rivers. 



LENGTH OF NOTED RIVEKS ON THE GLOBE. 

I Locality. | Miles. Rivers. | Locality. | Miles. 



Amazon 

La Plata S. America.. 

Aronoco ** 

Mississippi N. America. 

Missouri " 

Arkansas * 

RedRiver ** 

Columbia " 

Ohio " 

Colorado " 

Susquehanna .... ** 

James " 

Potomac " 

Hudson " 



.Brazil 3200 

2215 

1500 

3200 

4500 

2500 

2500 

1090 

1000 

1000 

400 

500 

400 

325 



St. LawrenceCanada I960 

St. John N. Brunswick.. . . 450 

Murray Australia 3000 

Mackenzie . . .Brit. Ter 2500 

Obi Siberia 2800 

Danube Austria & Turkey 1790 

Don Russia 1000 

Dneiper •< 1000 

Euphrates, . . . from Ararat 2020 

Rhine Germany 800 

Wolga from the Waldais 2100 

Lena Siberia 2500 

Maylviang Siam 1 TOO 

Hoang-Ho . . . China 3000 

Yang-tse-kia ^' 2500 

Ganges India 1650 

Brahmapootra " 1600 

Indus " 1770 



Nile Egypt and Nubia 2690 

Niger Africa 2300 

Jumna Hindostan 680 

Gogra " 500 

The Ganges, in India, derives its origin from a Himalayan glacier, it 
has a fall ot 4 inches to the mile, and rises from April till August 32 ft, 
creating a flood 100 miles wide. The Delta of the Ganges is 200 miles long, 
consisting of woods called Simderbunds. It pours down from 80 to 400- 
000 cubic ft. in a second. The force of the tides, ^thich rise from 13 to IG 
ft. hi^h, with the floods, frequently form and destroy islands 25 miles in 
diam. The Nile has advanced 1(3 ft. per annum since tlie time of 
Herodotus, and raises the soil of Egypt 4 his. in a century. The prodi- 
gious quantities of mud brought down by large rivers enlarges continents 
at their estuaries, and form deltas of alluvial land which eventually form 
plains of immense fertility. The Mississippi, the Amazon, the Nile, the 
Danube, the Po, the Ganges, and the Niger are striking examples of the 
truth of this statement. The Yellow River, in China, is said to carry 
down 2,000,000 cubic ft. of alluvium every day. The Euphrates covers the 
Babylonian plains to a depth of 12 ft. between March and June. 

THE HIGHEST MOUNTAINS ON THE GLOBE. 



Kunchainyunga, Himalayas 
Sorata, Andes, highest in America 
lUimani, Boh via ----_. 

Chimborazo, Ecuador 

Hindoo-Koosh, Afghanistan - - 
Cotopaxi, Ecuador --..-. 
Antisana, " - - . - 

St. Ehas, British America - 
Popocatapetl volcano, Mexico 
Mt. Roa, Hawaii - ... 
Mt. Brown, highest Rocky Mt. pk. 
Mont Blanc, highest in Europe - 
Mowna Roas, Owhyhee - - - - 
Mount Rosa, Alps, Sardinia - - 
Pinchincfl, Ecuador - - - - : - 
Mount Whitney, Cal . - - - 
Mount Fairweather. Russ.Poss. • 
Mount Shasta, California - - - - 
Pikes Peak, California - - • - - 
Mount Ophir, Summatra - - . - 
I remont's Peak, R. M. Wyoming 
Long's Peak, R. M. California - - 
Mount Ranier, Washington Ter. - 
Mount Ararat, Armenia - - - - 
Peakof Ten eriffe, Canaries - - - 



The mountains subtract 
than the roughness on the 



Feet. 
28,178 
25,380 
21,780 
21,444 
20,G00 
19,408 
19,lo0 
18,000 
17,735 
16,000 
15,900 
15,776 
15 700 
15,550 
15,200 
15,000 
14,796 
14,450 
14 320 
13,800 
13,570 
13,400 
13,000 
12,700 
12,236 



Miles. 
5X 
5 

^¥ 

s 

3 



25^ 
2% 



Miltsin, Morocco .--... 12,000 

Mount Hood, Oregon 11,570 

11,542 
11,000 



Feet. Miles. 



10,950 



2% 
2% 
2% 
2X 
2X 
2% 
2% 



no more 
coat of an 



Simplon, Alps 

Mount Lebanon, Syria 

Mount Perdu, France 

Mount St. Helen's, Oregon - - - 10'l58 

Mount Etna, Sicily - - - . - . 10,050 

Olympus, Greece . _ . - . 9,754 1% 

St Gothard, Alps 9,080 1^ 

Pilate, Alps 9,050 \% 

Mount Sinai, Arabia ...... 8.000 1^ 

Pmdus Greece - ..--.. 7,677 \\ 

Black Mountain, New Caledonia G,47G ^% 

MountWashington, N.Hampshire 6,234 IX 

Mount Marcy, New York - ■ - 5.4^7 1 

Mount Hecla, Iceland 5,000 1 

Ben Nevis, Scotland - - - • - 4,400 % 

Mansfield, Vt. 4,280 % 

Peaks of Otter, Va. 4,260 M 

Ben Lawers, Scotland . - - - 4,030 M 

Parnassus, Greece 3,950 % 

Vesuvius, Naples 3,932 % 

Snowdon, England 8,500 % 

Stromboh . . . 3,850 % 

Ben Lomond 3,280 % 

Mount Carmel ------. 2,000 

Gibraltar 1,470 

from the globular form of the earth 

orange. The highest elevations are 



NOTED 310UNTA1NS, TOWERS, ETC. 7G9 

-vrithin the tropics, the next in the temperate zones, the next in the frigid, 
and the limit of perpetual snow varies with the heat of the surface; "see 
page 119. The Andes chain extends 4600 miles from the Gulf of Darien 
to the Straits of Magellan. The same chain is continued northward, 
through Mexico, the United States, and the British Possessions by the 
Rocky Mountains and other immense elevations which form the hack- 
bone of the continent. These enormous mountain masses exert a 
genial action on the clirajite, form the source of rivers, and deteiToine the 
water shed of streams. The mountains of America afford incontestable 
proof that the New World, geologically considered, is really the oldest 
formation of the present distribution of land on the globe. "^ Irresistible 
subterranean forces are still active on the Andes ; from Cotopaxi south- 
ward, over 40 volcanoes are continually at work, causing havoc, and 
belching out lava, sulphur, &c. In many cases volcanic action impels 
mountainous waves from the sea, carrying vessels several leagues inland 
over cities, towns, &c. In 1746 an official account reported all the in- 
habitants of Callao, 4000, destroyed, 19 vessels sunk, and 4, including a 
frigate, were carried far inland over the city. Wafer saw 3 vessels 
which had been carried 5 or 6 leagues overland, A similar irruption 
took place on this coast only a few months ago, attended by fearful 
suffering and awful loss of life and property. The Andes contain no 
granite at a higher elevation than 8 to 10,000 ft, the tops being crowned 
with whinstone, and the crevices and fissures, many of them descending 
below the sea level, are even more astonishing than their heights. 

In Asia, the Himalayian ranges extend about 1400 miles, the mountain 
ridges being from 50 to 60 miles wide, extending from ]^. W. to S.* E. 
They foi*m the source of all the rivers of the JEastern seas, and have 
furnished the materials which compose the soil. There are 5 passes over 
them, some as high as 15,000 ft.; at 15,500ft., beds of fossil shells exist 
The European and Asiatic mountains are topped with granite. Regard- 
ing the Alps, and, the various snow levels over the globe, see pp. 118-19. 

In Scotland, the Grampian range includes Cairngorm, 4(;95 ft. ; Macdui, 
4,327 ; Shehallion, 3,550; Benmore, 3,870 ; Ben Lawers, 4,030; Cairntoul, 
4,225; Ben Avon, 3,967; Ben Nevis, the highest, 4,400 ft, has a precipice 
of 1,500 ft., and is always capped with ice and snow; north of the Cale- 
donian canal is anotlier range of great altitude, all vast masses of barren 
granite. In all there are about 45 elevations north of the Tweed, exceed- 
ing 2,000 ft. 

HEIGHT OF NOTED MO^^JMEN'TS, TOWERS, &C. 



Feet. 

Pyramid of Cheops, Egypt 543 

Antwerp Cathedral, Belgium 476 

Strasburg Cathedral, France 474 

Tower of Utrecht, Holland i&i 



Feet- 

Notre Dame Cathedral, Munich 34^ 

Dome of the Invalides, Paris 347 

Magdeburg Cathedral 337 

St. Mark's Church, Venice 328 



Steeple of St. Stephen's, Vienna- . . 460 Assinelli Tower, Bologna 314 

Pyramid of Cephenes, Egypt 456|Trinity Church, New York 283 

St. Martin's Church, Bavaria 456 Column at Delhi, India 262 

St. Peter's, Rome 448lPorcelain Tower, China 242 

Salisbury Spire, England 410 Canterbury Towar, England 235 

St. Paul's, London, England 404 Notre Dame Cathedral, Paris 232 

St. Peter's, at Hambro' 395 Bunker Hill, Monument 220 

Cathedral at Florence, Italy. 384 Leaning Tower, Pisa, Italy 202 

Cremona Cathedral, Italy 372iMonument, London 202 

Seville Cathedral, Spain » 360 i Monument, PL Vendome, Paris. . 153 

Pyramid of Sakkarah, Egypt 356;Trajan's Pillar, Rome 151 

Nearly 70 round towers, with cromlechs, exist in different parts of 
Ireland, from 30 to 135 ft. high. 
For other interesting items on this subject, see page 125. 



770 



AREA, &C., OF THE UNITED STATES. 



Population, growth, &c., of the united states and territouies. 






1819 
1836 
1850 
Sett 
■Sett 
1845 
Sett 
1818 
1816 
1816 
1859 
1792 
1812 
1820 
Sett 
Sett 
1837 
1859 
1817 
1821 
1866 
1864 
Sett 
Sett 
Sett 
Sett 
1802 
1859 
Sett 
Sett 
Sett 
1796 
1848 
1791 
Sett 
1862 
1848 






144,317 

52,240 

107,000 

led 163G 

led 1627 

54,477 

led 1682 

34,620 

63,867 

81,929 

107,206 

73,077 

76,556 

208,335 

led 1635 

led 1620 

200,000 

150,042 

75,512 

60,586 

60,000 

40,000 

led 1623 

led 1624 

led 1614 

led 1650 

41,915 

52.465 

led 1685 

led 1637 

led 1670 

77,262 

250,000 

85,539 

led 1607 

376,688 

210,596 



STATES. 



Alabama, 

Arkansas, 

Califoriua, 

Connecticut, 

Delaware, 

Florida, 

Georgia, 

Illinois, 

Indiana, 

Iowa, 

Kansas, 

Kentucky, 

Louisiana, 

Maine, 

Maryland, 

Masachus's 

Michigan, 

Minnesota, 

Mississippi, 

Missouri, 

Nebraska, 

Nevada, 

N. Hamps'e, 

New Jersey, 

New York, 

N. Carolina, 

Oliio, 

Oregon, 

Pennsylv'na, 

R. Island, 

S. Carolina, 

Tennessee, 

Texas, 

Vermont, 

Virginia, 

W. Virginia, 

Wisconsin, 



Total States, 1,950,171 



50,722 

52,198 

188,981 

4,750 

2,120 

59,248 

58,000 

55,410 

33,809 

55,041 

81,318 

37,630 

41,346 

35,000 

11,124 

7,800 

56,451 

83,531 

47,156 

65,350 

75,995 

81,539 

9,280 

8,320 

47,000 

50,704 

39,964 

95-274 

46,000 

1,306 

34,000 

45,660 

274,356 

10,212 

38,352 

23,000 

53,924 



territories. 

Arizona, 

Colorado, 

Dakota, 

District of Columbia, 

Idaho, 

Montana, 

New Mexico, 

Utah, 

Washington, 

Wyoming, 

Total Territories, 

Total U.S. and Ter., 



113,916 

104,500 

147,490 

60 

90,930 

143,776 

121,201 

80,056 

69,944 

93,107 

965,032 

2,915,203 



o.S 



996,992 

484,471 

560,247 

537,454 

125,015! 

187,748 

1,184.109 

2.539,891 

i;680,637 

1,194,020 

364,399 

1,321,011 

726,915 

626,915 

780,894 

1,457,351 

1,184,059 

439,706 

827,922 

1,721,295 

122,993 

42,491 

318,300 

906,096 

4,382,759 

1,071,361 

2,665,260 

90,923 

3,521,951 

217,353 

705,606 

11,250,520 

818,570 

330,551 

1,225,163 

442,014 

1,054,670 



9,658 
39,864 
14,181 
131.700 
14,999 
20,595 
91,874 
86,786 
23,955 

9,118 



442,730 



38,558,641 



292 






1.550,544 
'528,349 



857,039 



1,651,912 
1.334,031 

'598,429 



246,280 
62,540 



1,026,502 
4,705,208 



258,239 
925,145 



1,236,729 



Miles R.R. 



18G2. 



805 

38 

23 

630 

127 

402 

1,020 

2,998 

2,175 

731 



567 
351 
505 
408 
1,285 



823 
862 
838 



661 
633 

2,728 
937 

3,100 
4 

3,006 
108 
973 

1,253 
4511 
562 

1,379 
361 
961 



32,120 



32.120 



3872. 



1,671 

25 

1,013 

820 

227 

466 

2,108 

5,904 

3,529 

3,160 

1,760 

1,123 

539 

871 

820 

1,606 

2,235 

1,612 

990 

2,580 

828 

593 

790 

1,265 

4,470 

1,190 

3,740 

159 

5.113 

13G 

1,201 

1,520 

865 

675 

1,490 

485 

1,725 



59,587 



392 



375 

'498 



1,265 



60,852 



POPULATION, &C., OF VARIOUS COUNTRIES. 



771 



POPULATION, AREA, &c., OF THE PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES OF 

THE WORLD. 



Countries. 



China 

British Empire 

Russia 

United States and Alaska. 

France . . . , 

Austria and Hungary 

Japan 

Oreat Britain and Ireland. 

German Empire 

Italy 

Spain 

Brazil 

Afghanistan 

Turkey 

Arabia 

Mexico . . . , 

Turkestan 

Sweden and Norway 

Aram 

Persia 

Belgium 

Birmah 

Bavaria 

Siam 

Portugal 

Holland 

New Grenada 

Chili 

Laos 

Switzerland 

Peru 

Bolivia 

Argentine Republic 

Wurtemburg 

Denmark 

Venezuela 

Baden 

Greece. 

Guatemala 

Ecuador 

Paraguay 

Hesse 

Liberia 

San Salvador 

Hayti 

Beloochistan 

Nicaragua 

Malaya, etc 

Uraguay 

Honduras 

San Domingo 

Costa Rico 

Hawaii 



Populati'n. 



44G,500,000 

220,817,108 

81,925,400 

38,925,600 

36,469,800 

35,904,400 

34,785,300 

31,817,100 

29,906,092 

27,439,921 

16,642,000 

10,000,000 

6,000,000 

16,463,000 

8,500,000 

9,173,000 

4,800,000 

5,921,300 

6,000,000 

5,000,000 

5,021,300 

7,000,000 

4,861,400 

5,500,000 

3,995,200 

3,688,300 

3,000,000 

2,000,000 

2,000,000 

2,629,100 

2,500,000 

2,000,000 

1,812,000 

1,818,000 

1,784,000 

1,500,000 

1,461,300 

1,457,900 

1,180,300 

1,300,000 

1,000,000 

823,138 

718,000 

600,000 

572,000 

500,000 

350,000 

500,000 

300,000 

350,000 

136,000 

165,000 

62,950 



Area in 
sq. miles. 



3,741,846 

4,677,432 

8,003,788 

2,603,884 

204,091 

240,348 

149,399 

121,315 

100,207 

118,847 

195,755 

3,253,029 

226,000 

072,624 

1.200,000 

'761,526 

414,000 

292,871 

150,000 

635,964 

11,373 

205,000 

29,292 

189,000 

34,434 

12,680 

357,157 

132,616 

130,000 

15,992 

471,838 

497,321 

871,848 

7,533 

14,753 

368,238 

5,912 

19,353 

40,879 

218,928 

63,787 

2,969 

9,576 

7,335 

10,205 

162,000 

58,171 

60,000 

66,722 

47,092 

17,827 

21,505 

7,633 



Capitals. 



Pekin 

London 

St. Petersburg. 
Washington. . . 

Paris 

Vienna 

Yeddo 

London 

Berlin 

Rome 

Madrid 

Rio Janeiro. .. 

Cabool 

Constantinople 

Mecca 

Mexico 

Bokhara 

Stockholm 

Hue 

Teheran 

Brussels 

Monchovo 

Munich 

Bankok 

Lisbon 

Hague 

Bogota 

Santiago 

Changmai 

Berne 

Lima 

Chuquisaca. . . . 
Buenos Ayres. 

Stuttgart 

Copenhagen.. . 

Caraccas 

Carlsruhe 

Athens 

Guatemala 

Quito 

Asuncion 

Darmstadt 

Monrovia 

San Salvador.. 
Port au Prince, 

Kelat 

Managua 

Singapore 

Monte Video . . 
Camayagua. . . . 
San Domingo.. 

San Jose 

Honolulu 



Popula- 
tion. 



1,648,800 

3,251,800 

607,000 

109,199 

1,825,300 

833,900 

1,554,900 

3,251,800 

825,400 

244,484 

332,000 

420,000 

60,000 

1,075.000 

60,000 

210,300 

160,000 

136,900 

60,000 

120,000 

314,100 

5,000 

169,500 

150,000 

224,063 

90,100 

45,100 

115,400 

25,000 

36,000 

160,100 

25,000 

177,800 

91.600 

162,042 

47,000 

36,600 

43,000 

40,000 

70,000 

48.000 

30,000 

3,000 

15,000 

20,000 

15,000 

10,000 

57,000 

44.500 

12;000 

20,000 

2,000 

7,633 



In the foregoing table the figures relating to population, give, in the 
majority of cases, the census of 1870-71. 

In Europe the five Great Powers are the Empire and Monarchy of Gr 



772 



AREA, &C., OF BRITISH AMERICA. 



Britain and Ireland, the Empire of Germany, the Empire of Russia, the Em- 
pire of Austria, and the Republic of France. 

The second-rate Powers are the Kingdoms of Italy, Spain, Norway and Swe- 
den, and the Empire of Turkey in Europe. Regarding the latter it may be said 
that great changes are impending, owin§ to the adverse issue of the war with 
Russia, and the present threatening attitude of the Russian armies and the 
British fleet near Constantinople. 

The third-rate Powers are the Kingdoms of Belgium, Portugal, Bavaria, 
Denmark, Saxony, Greece, Holland, or Netherlands, the Republic of Switzer- 
land and the Duchies or lesser States. 

AREA, POPULATION, &C., OF BRITISH AMERICA. 



Name. 


Area in Eng. 1 Popula- 
gq. miles. tion. 


Capital. i 


Popula- 
tion. 


Hudson Bay Ter. ) 
Red River, 


1,800,000 


( 175,000 
\ 10,000 


York Factory, 




Fort Garry, 




Brit. Columbia, &c. 


344,500 


50,000 


New Westminster 


4,000 


Vancouver Island, 


13,250 


18,000 


Victoria, 


3,000 


Newfoundland, 


57,000 


124,288 


St. Johns, j 


25,000 


Prince Edw. Island, 


2,173 


80,857 


Charlottetown, j 


6,706 


Nova Scotia & Cape B., 


19,650 


330,857 


Halifax ) i 
Fred'n f j 


26,000 


New Brunswick, 


27,710 


252,047 


7,000 


Quebec, 


210,000 


. 1,111,566 


Quebec ) Ottawa 1 
Toronto ] 15,000l 


52,140 


Ontario, 


125,000 


1,396,091 


44,821 




2,599,283 





CAPACITY OF NOTED CHURCHES. 



Will Contain 
No. persons. 

St. Peter's, Rome 54,000 

Milan Cathedral 37,000 

St. Paul's, Rome 32,000 

St. Paul's, London 25,600 

St. Petronio, Bologna 24,400 

Florence Cathedral 24,300 

Antwerp Cathedral 24,000 

St. Sophia's, Constantinople 23,000 



Will Contain 
No. Persons. 

St. John's, Lateran 22,900 

Notre Dame, Paris 21,000 

Cathedral, Pisa 13,000 

St. Stephen's, Vienna 12.400 

St. Dominic's, Bologna 12,000 

St. Peter's, Bologna 11,400 

Cathedral, Vienna 11,000 

St. Mark's, Venice 7,500 



CAPACITY OF THEATRES, OPERA HOUSES, 



HALLS, 



Will Contain 
No. Persons, 

Gilmore's Garden, New York 8,443 

Stadt Theatre, '* 3,000 

Academy of Music, " 2.526 

Academy of Music, Philadelphia. 2,865 

Carlo Felice, Genoa 2,560 

Opera House, Munich 2,307 

Alexander, St. Petersburg 2,332 

San Carlos, Naples 2,240 

Adelphi Theatre, Chicago 2,238 

Music Hall, Boston 2,585 

Academy of Paris 2,092 

Imperial, St. Petersburg 2,160 

La Scala, Milan 2,113 

Covent Garden, London 2,684 

Boston Theatre, Boston 2,972 

Grand Ojiera Hall, New Orleans, 2,052 



&c. 

Will Contain 
No. Persons. 

St. Charles, Th., N. Orleans 2,178 

Grand Opera House, New York 1,883 
Booth's Theatre, *' l,8f)7 

Opera House, Detroit 1,790 

McVicar Theatre, Chicago 1,786 

Grand Opera House, *' 1,786 

Ford's Opera House, Baltimore.. 1,720 

Nat. Theatre, Washington 1,709 

De Bar's Opera House, St. Louis 1,696 

Cal. Theatre, San Fran. 1,651 

Euclid Av., Op. H., Cleveland. . . . 1,650 

Opera House, Berlin 1 ,636 

Opera House, Albany 1.404 

Hooley's Theatre, Chicago 1.373 

Coulter Op. H., Aurora, 111 1,004 

Opera House, Montreal 928 



MEASUREMENT OF TIME. 773 







,^ 



Measurement of time, table. 

60 seconds 1 minute. 

60 minutes 1 hour. 

24 hours 1 day. 

7 days 1 week. 

28 days 1 lunar month. 

28, 29, 30, or 31 days 1 calendar month. 

12 calendar months 1 year, 

365 days 1 com. year. 

366 days 1 leap year. 

365V4 days 1 Julian year. 

365 d., 5h., 48m., 49s 1 solar or tropical year. 

365 d., 6h., 9 m., 12 s 1 siderial year. 

365 d., 6.13 m., 49.3 s 1 anomalistic year. 

10 years 1 decade. 

IQ decades, or 100 years 1 century. 

equivalents. 
Yr. Da. Hr. Min. Sec. 

1 = 3651/4 = 8766 = l;25960 = 31557600 

1 = 24 == 1440 = 86400 

1 = 60 = 3600 

1 = 60 

Scale of units :— 60, 60, 24, 3651/4. 

The tropical (or solar year) and the sidereal years are the same, and 
the tropic is only an anticipated solar mark before the sidereal year is 
completed. The anomalistic year is an advance of the orbit as part of 
he solar system in space, and its excess over the sidereal year is the 
stellar measure of the aimual advance of the whole system; the mean 
velocities are uniform, and the times as the spaces. 
The diurnal revolution of the earth causes the difference in time, etc. , 
illustrated in the following 

LONGITUDE AND TEVIE TABLE. 

For every hour of time there is a difference of 15^ in longitude. 
" minute " " " 15/ " 

*' second '' " " 15^/ " 

" degree of longitude '* '* 4m. in time, 

" minute " '* *' 4 sec. '* 

" second '' " " A sec. *< 

360^ = 1 revolution of the earth, or 1 day, 
1440// =1 " <' " *' 

1440 -f- 360 = 4 minutes, or 1 degree. 

Add difference of time for places east, and subtract it for places 
WEST of any given locality. The greatest circumference of the earth's 
surface is 24,930 miles. i° of that circumference is l-360th of that num- 
ber, or 69J miles. Hence a geographical or nautical mile is equal to 1' 
of the earth's greatest circumference, or a trifle more, the l«t mile and 



774 



DIVISIONS OF THE CIRCLE, &C. 



49 rods. The following table exhibits the divisions of the circle, 
as used by geogra]Dhers, astronomers, surveyors, navigators, &c. : — 



60 seconds (^0 make 
60 minutes " 

30 degrees '*' 

90 degrees " 

4 quadrants or 
12 signs " 

C. 

1. = 



1 minute, 

1 degree, 

1 sign, 
f 1 quadrant, 
\ 1 right angle, 
) ^ ( circumference 
] \ or circle 



marked 



sig 
quad, 
r. a. 

cir. 



S. 
12 

1 



EQUIVALENTS. 

o / 

= 21600 

= 1800 

= 60 

1 



360 

60 

1 



= 1296000 

= 108000 

= 3600 

= 60 

circle is 180°, J circle is 90, J circle is 
60°. The distance around a circle is called its circumference. Tlie dis- 
tance across 
an arc. 



Note.— A full circle is 360°, J 



its diameter^ and any section of its circumference is called 




^m vDii^^ 



^ The above figure displays the various imaginary lines, consisting of 
the great and less circles, axis, and poles of the earth. The next figure 
exhibits the geographical division into zones, tropics, and circles. ^ 

Leap year, called Bissextile, comes every 4th year and contains 300 
days, by the addition of one day to February. Three leap years are 
omitted in 400 years, but 109 leap years in 450 years would be exact. In 
common business affairs, 30 days compose a month, and 52 weeks a year. 
The Lunar Cycle, or Golden Number, is a term of 19 years, after which 
the changes of the moon return on the same days of the month. The 
Solar Cycle is a period of 28 years, when the days of the week again 
return to the same days of the month. Owing to an error in the Julian 
calendar it w^as decreed by the British Government that the day follow- 
ing the 2nd of September, 1752, should be called the 14th day of Septem- 
ber, or that 11 days should be stricken from the calendar; hence, time, 
previous to this decree, is called Old Style (0. S.), and since. New Style 
(N. S). In Russia, time is still reckoned by the Old Style, hence their 
dates are 12 days behind ours. The legal or civil day begins and ends vt 



VARIOUS EPOCHS. 



775 



12 p.m. The astronomical day begins and ends at 12 m. As to Epochs, 
the Christian Era was first invented and introduced at Rome by Dionj^siiis, 
a monk, in 527, adopted in France, in 750; in Spain, in 1340; and in Portu- 
gal, in 1410. It was first used in books in 748. The birth of Christ, was, 
however, four years earlier, that is in 1878, really 1882 since his birth ; the 
chronology was not inquired into until the reign of Justinian. The 46 
years of the Julian calendar was the first of our era. The Hegira, or 
Flight, took place July 16,622, and is the Mohammedan era. Their year is 
12funar months, or 354 days, 8 hours, 48 minutes; and eleven days being 
lost a year must be allowed every 33, to reconcile their dates with ours. 
Greek Olympiads of 4 years began 776 B. C, and were continued until 
the 5th century. The era of the Selucida^ 311 B. C, of Alexander 323 

B. C, of the siege of Troy 1209 B. C, of the founding of Rome 754 B. C, 
of the battle of Actium 31 B. C, of the Caesars 38 B. C, of Tyre 125 B. 

C, of Abraham 2016, of Moses 1582, of Antioch 49, were also used by 
various early writers. The early Christians dated from the accession of 
Diocletian in A. D. 284. 




The Vulgate fixes the Epoch of Adam at 4004 B. C, which is adopted 
by the Romish Church. The Samaritan Pentateuch makes it 4700; the 
Talmud, 5344: Hales, 5411; the Greek Church, 5508; the Septuagint, 
5872; Pezron. 5872; Alphonso, King of Castile, 6934; the earlv Fathers, 
5502 and 5592: 200 other authorities estimate it from 6984 to 3268 B. C. 
The controversy is a hopeless one, owing to the prevalent ignorance regard- 
ing the true meaning of the first 12 chapters of Genesis, which are grossly 
misunderstood, owing to the prevalent opinion that they form a mere 
literal historical narrative concerning natural events, when the truth is 
really far otherwise. Rollin, the historian, traces up the history of 
several ancient peoples to within 100 years of the alleged time of the 
flood, and is much perplexed to account for the existence of mighty 
nations possessing well organized armies, embracing thousands of fight- 
ing men, at that early period. 

In India, the priests claim a duration of about 2,000 millions of years 
since the be.G^inning, and allege that Brahma was 17 millions of years 
creating. They m^ention also those deluges and periodical submersions 
required by the claims of geology. Sir Wm. Jones computes the first 
book of Vedas to be written about 2,800 B .C. In the year 1,000 A. C. 
the Arabs used the pendulum as a measure of time. A second calculated 
by the movement of a 39-inch pendulum is one with that motion, and 
the movement itself is a simple deflection of the combined motions of 
the earth in its orbit from oast to wcf^t, and on its axis from west to ca?^t. 



776 



ON TELEGRAPHY. 




DESCRIPTION OF THE TELEGRAPH AND HINTS TO LEARNERS. 

The cut represents a series of Grove's Batter}', such as are generally 
used in telegraphs. When a plate of platina and one of zinc are placed 
in an acid solution a current tends to flow from the platina to the zinc, 
through any conductor which may be so disposed as to connect the two. 
In the figure the galvanic series is represented, consisting of twelve pairs ; 
the zinc of each of whicli is connected with the platina of the next. It 
may be considered that a current is produced by each of these pairs, 
-which has, however, to flow in the same direction, and fall in with all the 
others. Hence their intensity is multiplied twelve times. It is by this 
means that the resistance to the passage of the current through very long 
conductors is overcome. Each pair of the battery consists of a pint glass 
tumbler, a cj^linder of zinc, a small porous cylindrical earthernware cell 
within the zinc, and a platinum strip suspended within the cell from an 
arm belonging to the zinc of the next pair. A solution of diluted sulphuric 
acid is used With the zinc outside the porous cell, and the cell itself is 
filled with nitric acid. The two acids are used on account of an increase 
of power depending on a chemical reaction. The zmc cylinder is amal- 
gamated with mercury to prevent its being acted upon by the acid when 
the battery is not in use. A solution of sulphate of soda is sometimes 
added to the sulphuric acid to assist in accomplishing the same object. 
Two screw cups rise from the battery, one of which is the j^ositive pole, 
or extremitj^ of the series, the other the negative ; to these the wires are 
attached which convey the current. 

The signal key is showed in the cut. "When the hand depresses the 
key it cornes in contact with the knob and metallic strip below, making 
connection between the screw cups, and completing the battery circuit. 

While the key is depressed a continuous current passes, but if it be 
depressed, and allowed to spring immediately up. only an instantaneous 
wave or impulse is commimicated. 




JAassETS Uegistee, 



The annexed cut shows the registering apparatus of Morse's Telegraph. 

Two screw cups are seen on the board for the insertion of the wires 

from the distant battery. Next the screw cup is seen a U shaped electro- 

nagnet, with coils of wire upon it, the ends of which, massing down 

through the board, are connected with the screw cups * over the poles 



ON TELEGRAPHY. 7// 

of the magnet is a little armature, or bar of soft iron, attached to the 
short arm of a lever, whose long arm carries a point or st^^le nearly iu 
contact with the grooved roller above. The action which takes place on 
depressing the signal key at the distant station is, a wave of electricity 
is transmitted through the wire of the telegraph, arrives at the electro- 
magnet, and circulates through the coils of wire surrounding it. The 
U shaped piece of soft iron immediately becomes a magnet, and attracts 
the little armature down to it, the long arm of the lever is thrown uj), 
and marks the strip of paper, passing between it and the roller. When 
the distant operator lets the signal key fly back and the current ceases, 
the iron of the electro-magnet loses all its magnetism, and the armature, 
with the lever, is carried back by the action of a little spring, being a dot 
impressed on a i^iece of paper. Should the distant operator hold down 
the key a continuous current will pass, and a line be marked in i)lace of a 
dot (-) on the pai^er which moves nnder the roller. 

When a long circuit is nsed, the resistance to conduction, measured 
by the amount of electricity which passes, is great, and would not give 
sufficient force to work the Morse instruments. To overcome this. Pro- 
fessor Morse uses one instrument called a Relay, which is similar in most 
respects to the main instrument, but of a more delicate electrical organiz- 
ation ; it has no work to do— simply to act as a contact maker, enabling 
a weak or exhausted current to bring into action and substitute for itself 
a fresh and powerful one from the local battery which is placed in the 
office with the printing instrument, and which supplies the electricity 
which moves the instrument. 

The greatest recorded velocity of a signal through a suspended copper 
wire is 1,752,800 miles per second, by Mr. Hipp. The lowest velocity 
through a buried copper wire, 750 miles per second, by Faraday. 

Morse's Alphabet, Numerals and Pauses. 

A - - 1' Period 



B P 



2-- 



C . » . Q " Comma 



D R 



j^_ <^ 4 Semicolon 

F T 5 



H V ^ 



Interrogation 
Exclamation ■ 



i X Q Parenthesis 



K 



Y-- - 



L 9 Italics 

M ^ 

K &- — ^ Paragraph 

HINTS TO LEARNERS. 
Compiled from Models Practice of the Electric Telegraphy by Frank L. 

Pope. * 
The characters of the American Morse Alphabet are formed of three 
elementary signals — 
The dot, whose duration is the unit of length in this alphabet ; 
The short dash, which is equal to thi^ee dots ; and 
The long dash, which is equal to six dots. 

The above are separated by variable intervals or spaces, four in num- 
ber : 

* D. Van NoBtrand, Publisher, 23 Murray street, New York. 

33=^ 



778 ON TELEGRAPHY. 

1st — The ordinary space between tlie elements of a letter, equal to one 
dot. 

2d— The space employed m the spaced letters, equal to tioo dots. 

3d — The space betvveen the letters of a word, equal to three dots. 

4th — The space between two words, equal to six dots. 

The dot signifies a point or a current of infinitely short duration, and 
involves time, wdiich varies according to circumstances, the length of the 
dot increasing with the length of the circuit. 

In long submarine lines the dot has to be made longer than the dash 
itself on short open air lines, and the same thing occurs in w^orking 
through repeaters. 

In commencing to learn telegraphing, the beginner should acquire the 
habit of making short, firm dashes, instead of light, quiclv dots. 

In the valuable Manual of Prof. Smith, publislied by L. C. Tillotson & 
Co., New York, six elementary imnciples are laid down as the basis for 
practicing the alphabet, viz : 

1st PiirN-ciPLE.— Dots close together: 

I S HP 6 



2d Principle.— Dashes close together: 
M 5 TF 



3d Principle. — Lone dots : 

E 

4th Principle. — Long dashes : 

T L or cipher. 



5th — Principle. — A dot followed bv a dash : 

A 

6th Principle. — A dash followed by a dot: 

N 

To send messages, place the first two fingers upon the top of the button 
of the key, with the thumb partly beneath it, the Avrist being entirely free 
from the talkie; the motion being made by the hand and wrist, the thumb 
and fingers being employed merely to grasp the key. The motion up and 
down must be free and firm. Tapping on the key must be strenuously 
avoided. 

Tlie dovmvKird movement of the key produces dots and dashes; the 
upward movement, spaces. 

Tlie beginner sliould first practice the 1st principle, making dots at 
regular intervals, of definite and uniform dimensions. 

2d Principle. — Make dashes, first at the rate of one per second, and 
slowly increase to three, the space between the dashes to be as short as 
possible. 

3d Principle. — Letter E, formed by a quick, but firm, downward move- 
ment of the key. 

4th— The usual tendency is to make T too long and L too short. The 
same character is used for L and the cipher, or ; occurring by itself, or 
among letters, it is translated as L ; when found among' figures it be- 
comes 0. 

5th — The Letter A may be timed by the pronunciation of the word 
again, strongly accenthig the second syllable. 

6th— The dash followed by a dot ; usually the student separates the prac- 



PHOTOGRAPHY MADE EASY. 779 

tice. The lever of the Morse instrument makes a sound at each movement, 
the downward motion producing the heavier one, or that representing dots 
and dashes ; /. e., the heavy stroke indicates the commencement of a dot 
or dash, and the lighter one its cessation. A dot makes as much noiee as 
a dash, the only difference being in the length of time between the two 
sounds. 

Technical Terms Used in the Telegraph Service. 

Line. — The wire Or wires connecting one station with another. 

Circuit. — The wires, instruments, etc., through which the circuit passes 
from one pole of the battery to the other. 

Metallic Circuit. — A circuit in which a return wire is used in place of 
the earth. 

Local Circuit. — One which includes only the apparatus in an office, and 
is closed by a relay. 

Jjocal. —The battery of a local circuit . 

Loop. — A wire going out and returning to the same point, as to a branch 
office, and forming part of a main circuit. 

Bindiiifi Screws or Terminals. — Screws attached to instruments holding 
the connecting wires. 

To Cross Connect Wires. — To interchange them at an intermediate 
station. 

To Put Wires Straight. — To restore the usual arrangement of wires and 
instruments. 

To Ground a Wire, or Put on Ground. — To make a connection between 
the line wire and the earth. 

To Open a Wire. — To disconnect it so that no current can pass. 

Reversed Batteries. — Two batteries in the same circuit, with like poles 
towards each other. 

To Reverse a Battery. — To place its opposite pole to the line ; or, in 
other words, interchange the ground and line wires at the poles of the 
battery. 

Escape. — The leakage of current from the line to the ground, caused by 
defective insulation and contact witli partial conductors. 

Cross. — A metallic connection between two wires, arising from their 
coming in contact with each other, or from other causes. 

PHOTOGRAPHIC PORTRAITURE MADE EASY 
By C. J. P. Handey. 

Author of "Puzzle Writing," &c., &c. 

IXSTRUCTIOJ^S. 

Pictures produced by the agency of light are called photographs, whether 
taken on glass or i)aper These are divided into two classes — negatives 
and positives ; negatives being pictures with the lights and shades of the 
object reversed, while positives represent the lights and shades as in 
nature. 

Pictures taken on glass are called positives, which are complete in them- 
selves. The negative process is that pursued when the intention is to pro- 
duce a paper proof. Paper portraits are not obtained like positives by one 
operation in the camera, but a negative is taken from which the copies 
are procured by photographic printing. To take a x)ortrait on glass — 
either a negative or positive — requires five operations. First, giving the 
glass pilate a collodion coating ; second, exciting the glass plate ; third, 
exposure in the camera* fourth, developing the latent image; fifth, fixing 
the picture. 



780 PHOTOGRAPHY MADE EASY, 

APPARATUS. 

A camera is the first requisite. The most convenient form consists of 
two portions of boxes, one sliding witliin the other. 

The double-combination lens is nsed for portraiture. It consists of a 
set of three glasses, mounted in a brass tube, with a rack and pinion ad- 
justment. 

A camera stand is requisite, which should be from four to five feet 
high. A tripod stand, with a screw to fix the camera with, is the best. 

A porcelain bath is required to hold the silver solution for exciting the 
collodionized plate. 

One or two graduated glass measures, to measure the solutions, esti- 
mated by fluid measure. 

A set of scales and weights for weighing the chemicals. 

Two or three porcelain dishes, for holding solutions of silver, toning 
bath, &c. ; &c. 

A printing frame will be required, after taking a negative picture, to 
produce the paper copies. 

A few packets of different-sized glass, a piece of wash-leather, and a 
linen cloth, will c6mi)lete the requisites. 

DARK ROOM. 

It will be necessary for the success of the second, third, and fourth 
operations in producing a collodion picture, that they should be per- 
formed in a dark room. The best and easiest way will be to obtain a 
small room or closet with a window, and to cover the window with several 
sheets of yellow paper, whicli Avill exclude the chemical rays. A table or 
shelf should be fixed under the window, and a pail kept at the side, con- 
taining water for washing the pictures. 

If a glass room cannot be had, the photographer must arrange an apart- 
ment according to his means. In selecting a room, he must bear in mind 
that it should not only have a good side light, but a sky-light, if possible. 

In taking a portrait, the sitter should not be opposite the window, but 
a little behind it — a more even focus is thus secured. 

A proper background is of some importance. A white wall will do 
very well, but something a shade darker will be better. 

In focussing the lens have the stand and camera placed seven or eight ft. 
from the sitter. The better to observe the image, a dark cloth is thrown 
over the camera and head of the operator. The proper attitude of the 
person sitting for the portrait must be left to the taste of the operator 
Allow the sitter time to get seated, and accustomed to the light, before 
removing the cap off the lens. And now, having concluded these pre- 
liminary remarks, we will proceed to take a picture . 

POSITIVE PROCESS. 

Chemicals. — The most important chemical used in photography is col- 
lodion. As it is extremely volatile, it should be kept in a stoppered 
bottle. 

Exciting Bath. — Nitrate of silver, 2 drachms; distilled water, bounces; 
iodized collodion, 6 minims. Filter before using. 

Developing Solution. — Protosulphate of iron, 2 drachms ; acetic acid, 2 
drachms ; methylated alcohol, 2 drachms ; water 10 ounces. 

Fixing Solution. — Cyanide of potassium, 2 drachms ; water, 6 ounces. 
This solution will keep for months without losing its strength. 

MANIPULATION. 

TJie Collodion Coating. — Having selected a piece of glass, entirely free 
from blemishes, and quite clean, hold it as level as possible by the left- 
hand corner, then, in the centre, form a good pool of collodion. Slant the 
glass so that the collodion may cover all portions, taking care that it does 



PHOTOGUAFHY MADE EASY. 781 

not touch the hands. Pour the superfluous quantity back into the bottle, 
ihe glass is now ready for immersion in the silver bath, which is called 

Exciting the Plate, — The manipulation may be conducted in daylight up 
to this point ; but as the immersion of the collodionized plate renders it 
sensitive to light, recourse must be had to a dark room. Having the 
silver solution ready, place the prepared glass on the dipper, and im- 
merse in the solution. When the ]plate has remained in the bath about a 
minute it should be withdrawn, then immersed for half a minute longer, 
then drain the glass plate, place it in the dark slide of the camera, and 
proceed with the third operation — 

Exposure in the Camera. —Assuming that the camera has been prepared, 
and the image properly focussed, remove the ground glass screen, and 
insert the slide containing the plate. Desire the sitter to keep perfectly 
still, and look at some dark object ; then take the cap off the lens and 
allow the plate to be exposed for twenty or thirt}^ seconds, then close the 
shutters of the dark-slide, and return to the dark room to 

Develop the Picture. — Having excluded all white light from the dark 
room, remove the glass plate from the slide. Holding it by the left-haud 
corner, proceed to pour on the developing solution. Begin by pouring 
on at one edge, inclinmg the plate so as to enable the liquid to flow^ uni- 
formly over the surface. The first effect will be the appearance of white 
lights, then the half tones, and, finally, the darker shades. When this 
is obtained, the plate must be t'loroughly washed. It can then be passed 
on to the next and last operat^ou — 

Fixing the P^c^in-e.— Having well washed the picture, the door of the 
dark room may be opened to observe the action of the fixing agent. 
Pour this mixture over the plate until the creamy appearance is dissolved. 
When this is the case, it must be again washed and set on edge to 
dry. As the picture is now finished, it should be varnished with jet 
varnish, which should be poured on the plain side of the glass. In 
mounting the picture, put it into a gilt mat and preserver ; and when 
finished, the lights and shades will be shown to perfection. 

NEGATIVE PROCESS. 

Chemicals. — Negative collodion differs slightly from positive in the 
preparation of the iodized solution. 

Exciting Bath. — Nitrate of silver, 2 drachms; distiUed water, 3 J ounces; 
iodized collodion, 3 minims. 

Developing Solution. — No . 1. Protosulphate of iron, 1 drachm ; acetic 
acid, 2 drachms ; methylated alcohol, 2 drachms ; water, 4 ounces. No. 
2. Pyrogallic acid, 13 grains ; citric acid, 15 grains ; distilled water, 4 
ounces. 

Fixing Solution, — Cyanide of potassium, 2 drachms ; water, 5 ounces. 

MANIPULATION. 

The Collodion Coating is applied in the same manner as for positives, 
and then 

Sensitized, which is accomplished by immersion in the nitrate bath. 
The plate should remain in the bath from two to three minutes. When 
the collodion surface presents a nice even film, drain off the excess of 
silver, and lay the glass plate carefully in the dark slide, taking care not 
to allow any specks of dust or dirt to get near it. It is then ready for 

Exposure. — After exposing the plate for the necessary time, which will 
be double that required for a positive, proceed to 

Develop. — Having removed the dark slides in the dark room, pour the 
developer, No. 1, evenly over the plate. As the picture will appear sud- 
denly, it must be watched. Continue the action of the iron developer 
until there is fear of the dark shadows becommg veiled. When the glass 



782 PHOTOGRAPHY MADE EASY. 

plate has been washed, pour into a measure — which must be perfectly 
clean — sufficient of the developer No. 2 to cover the surface of the plate, 
to this add ten minims of the silver bath. This mixture must be used 
immediately by pouring it over the plate. When sufficiently intense, the 
surface must be again washed. It is now ready to be 

Fixed, using the cyanide solution. This is to be poured over the plate 
in the same manner as the developer, and the surplus rebottled. It 
should now be thoroughly washed to remove all traces of chemicals, 
which, if allowed to remain, would eventually spoil the picture. The nega- 
tive will now require to be 

Varnished. — The most convenient varnish for a tyro to use is amber or 
crystal varnish ; it is simply poured on the plate, and then drained off at 
the lower end. 

PRINTING PROCESS. 

Ghetniccds. — Exciting bath; nitrate of silver, 120 grains; distilled water, 
2 ounces. 

Toning Bath. — Acetate of soda, 30 grains; carbonate of soda, 10 grains; 
chloride of gold, 1 grain ; distilled water, 4 ounces. This solution will keep 
for a considerable length of time, and may be used over and over again 
until the gold is tlioroughly exhausted, when more must be added, if 
again required. 

Fixing Bath. — Hyposulphate of soda, 1 ounce ; distilled water, 10 
ounces. This solution may be made up for a fortnight before using, as 
it is much better for keeping. It must not, however, be used a second 
time, but a fresh one made for every batch of prints. 

MANIPULATION. 

Sensitizing . — Filter the silver solution into a shallow dish, then take a 
piece of albumenized paper, cut to the size, and, holding the two ends, let 
the centre drop until the albumenized face touches the solution; then 
lower the ends, and leave the paper floating. When it lies flat, and 
ceases to curl up, it should be removed, and, when perfectly dry, it 
may be passed on to the next operation. 

Printing the Positive. — Take a i)rinting frame and remove the back 
board; then lay the negative in the rabbits of the frame with the collodion 
side upwards, and cover the face with a sheet of sensitized paper, re- 
place the back board, turn up to the frame, and expose to the light. 
When the desired strength of j)icture is obtained, remove the paper, and 
proceed with the 

Toning Process. — Having removed the prints into a dark corner of the 
room, wash them in several changes of water to remove the nitrate of 
silver. They are now ready for the toning bath, therefore immerse 
them in a porcelain dish, filled with the solution. When the color of 
the prints change *from a brown to a jDurple black, remove them to the 
last operation, the 

Fixing Process. — The pictures are immersed in the hyposulphate solu- 
tion for about five minutes, then washed in running water for at least ten 
minutes. As the fixing solution will greatly reduce the depth of the print, 
it should be over-printed, to allow of the reduction, else the detail of the 
I)icture will be entirely lost. 

Mounting Prints. — Starch is the most suitable adhesive substance. It 
is prepared by mixing a small quantitj^ with sufficient boiling water to 
work into a stiff paste. 

Apply the starch to the back of the picture by means of a brush, then 
carefully lower the prints on to the card, lay a piece of blotting paper 
over it, and rub to expel the air bubbles. When nearly dry, place 
under j)ressure for a few hours. The picture is now finished. 



PHOTOaRAPHY MADE EASY. 783 

CONCLUDING REMARKS. 

In iDurchasing apparatus, it is advisable that the tj-ro should be accoiii- 
panied by one Avho is experienced in such matters ; any mistakes as to the 
quantity and quality of the articles required is thus prevented. 

The camera may be made either square, oblong, or bellows body, ac- 
cording to taste. 'The former is considered the most serviceable and the 
cheapest. 

The lens may be had without a rack and pinion if desired. A better 
focus, however, is obtained by having the rack adjustment ; it is also 
much easier to work, and it Is not hable to shift when the cap is removed. 
Some lenses are provided with diax^hragms or stops, but as these are 
rather expensive, I should advise the young tyro to make his own, which 
he can easily do by cutting different sized holes in several pieces of stiff 
cardboard, and then making inem to fit the interior of the lens tube. 
These diaphragms, it must be borne in mind, are only to be used on cer- 
tain occasions, as, for instance, when the sun is shining, the light of 
course is much too powerful for the open a^Derture of a lens. It is, there- 
fore, requisite that it should have a stop inserted in order to retard the 
rapid action. A diaphragm with an opening of about one inch diameter 
will be sufficiently large for a quarter-plate lens. 

Camera stands are made of various shapes and material ; the one most 
recommended is the plain ash tripod, that being both light and useful, 
and the most portable. 

The sensitizing bath should not measure less than seven by five inches, 
as that is the proper size for quarter plates. 

The graduated measures should hold at least five and ten ounces re- 
spectively. 

The funnel may be either six or eight inches in diameter, with a long, 
narrow neck. 

The toning and fixing dishes should be as large as possible, in order to 
allow the prints plenty'of room, and preventing them adhering to each 
other. 

Chemicals may be purchased in small quantities, but it is not advisable 
to buy collodion in less quantities than five ounces, as it is extremely 
valatile, and soon loses its power of action. 

Nitrate of silver may be bought either in crystals or blocks ; the former 
is preferable, as it can be obtained in smaller quantities than the latter, 
which is only sold in one ounce boxes. 

Hyposulphate of soda, protosulphate of iron, and methylated alcohol are 
exceedingly cheap, as are also most of the other chemicals. 

The tyro must be very careful, when using cyanide of potassium, not 
to allow the least drop to enter any cuts m the ' flesh, for, being a most 
deadly poison, it is likely to cause death, if the part is not immediately 
washed in warm water and the poison thereby removed. As cyanide 
possesses an odor something like peppermint, it is advisable not to place 
it within the reach of children. 

The silver bath should be filtered at least three times before using ; 
this will ensure the removal of every particle of collodion. 

The toning and fixing baths, afte/ being made up, should be allowed to 
stand for at 'least four-and-twenty hours before being used. The longer 
these solutions are kept the better they work. 

If the tyro wishes to become a first-class portrait taker, he must study 
the following rules, and strictly adhere to them : — 

RULES. 

1. Never allow any one but the sitter to be present when taking a por- 
ti'ait. 



784 CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE. 

2. Always make it a rule to have a place for every things and everything 
in its place. 

3. Never open the door of the dark room when exciting or developing 
a plate. 

4. The camera and dark slide should be dusted out every morning pre- 
vious to being used. 

5. Never allow any one to meddle with your apparatus, as it is very 
easily put out of order. 

6. Do not handle your sitter more than you can help, but tell him in 
what position you wish him to stand, and he will pose himself much 
better than you can. 

PHOTOGRAPHIC REQUISITES. 

The following is a correct list of all articles required in photographic 
portraiture : Square mahogany camera, double combination lens, tripod 
stand, screw stand, screw top, porcelain bath and dipper, two graduated 
glass measures, set of scales and weights, a glass or porcelain funnel, one 
deep and two shallow dishes, a tent, printing frame, a packet of quarter-size 
glass, some filtering paper, a wash-leather, and a linen cloth, negative 
and positive collodion, crystalized nitrate of silver, pictosulphate of iron 
glacial acetic acid, methylated alcohol, chloride of gold, hyposulphate 
carbonate, and acetate of soda, cyanide of potassium, distilled water, &c. 
See also page 552. 

CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE. 

For an intelligent apprehension of the meaning of chemical terms we 
will define several relating to sulphur, which, combined with oxygen, 
produces an acid. This acid exists in two states of saturation, iDossessing 
different properties. It is necessary to designate all the saline compo- 
nents of these two acids and to trace sulphur in its various combinations 
with alkalies, earths, and metals. The five following terminations de- 
scribe these five states of the same principle. 1. Sulphuric acid signifies 
sulphur in the greatest degree of saturation with oxygen. 2. Sulphuro?/s 
acid signiifies sulphur combined with a smaller proportion of oxygen. 3. 
Sulphate is the generic name of the salts composed by the sulphurzc acid. 
4. Sulphide is the name of the salts formed by the sulphuroifs acid. • 5. 
Sulphured \s the name of the various combinations of sulphur not acidu- 
lous. 

In union with oxygen, carbon is carbonic acid, combined with gas, it 
forms carbonic acid gas. Oxydized, and composing salts with bases of 
iron, minerals, or alkali, it becomes carbonate of lime, iron, or i^otash. 
In union with oxygen, it forms with iron carburet of iron, &c. Salts are 
discriminatea by two .lames, the one denotes the acid, the other the base. 
For example sulphate of iron is a combination of sulphuric aciid and iron, 
sulphate of soda is a union of sulphu?-ic acid and soda, muriate of soda is 
a compound of muria^/c acid and soda. Salts composed of acids ending 
in ous, have the termination ite mstead of ate. See the following exam- 
ples in sulphur. 



Sulphuric acid, a strong acid. 
Sulhpuric acid, a w eakacid. 
Sulphured of iron, Sulphur and iron. 
P/'oi-oxide of sulphur is the first 

degree. 
Deiff-oxide, the second degree. 



TriY-oxide the third degree. 
Pe/' -oxide many degrees. 
Sulphate is the salt of sulphuric 

acid. 
Sulphide the salt of sulphero?(,s^ acid. 
Bi sulphate the salt of a double 
dose. 

i/?//)o-sulphurous acid, — less oxygen than sulphurous acid (1 tc 2). Hypo 
sulphuric acid — less than sulphuric. 



ON HUNTING AND TRAPPING. 785 




ON MUNTINC; AIVI> TRAE«>PING. 

To Trap the Common Black Bear— Select a suitable spot for the 
trap between logs, trees, or hills, close to their suspected haunts, and 
secure it well with a short, stout chain. Bait the trap with a piece of 
pork, mutton, or beef, and if the bait is scented with honey it will prove 
a powerful attraction ; the bear will push himself forward where there is 
any thing to eat, being dominated more by greed and voracity, than by 
craft and cunning. He is a No. 1. contractor at a job for tailing a fat 
porker from the farmer's pen off to the woods, and will squeeze himself 
into a deadfall or figure 4 trap, intent only on getting at the bait, but is 
decidedly dangerous to attack single-handed with a gun, as he is perfectly 
furious when wounded. On one occasion, a bear emerged from the 
woods and destroyed a sheep belonging to the writer. One of the farm 
hands, a veteran hunter and trapper, took the remains of the sheep to 
the woods and placed them in such a position, near some fallen trees 
that the bear would be compelled to go through a passage way betweeii 
two logs in order to reach the carcass. At right angles with this passage 
waj^, but back from it, he secured a Spencer rifle (loaded with slugs) hfa 
firm position, so as to sweep the passage, and arranged a small cord ex- 
tending across the narrow avenue, with one end fastened to the trigger 
of the rifle, and the other to the timbers opposite its muzzle. The res'ult 
was a loud bang from the rifle in the evening, a lantern hunt in the 
woods at night, and a dead bear shot through the heart behind the fore- 
legs, within a f cav feet of the rifle. The black bear is usually less than G 
ft. in length, domiciles under the snow and in hollow logs during winter 
and produces from 1 to 5 at a birth, generally in January. 

The Grizzly Bear is a huge brute of vast size, sometimes as much as 
8 or 9 ft. in length, and of prodigious strength. He is of massive build, 
,has a thick stout neck, shaggy hair, coarse formidable tusks, and power- 
ful claws of great length ; is altogether an ugly customer and requires 
for his capture the largest size trap that is made. In the Northwestern 
(British) Territory, on sighting the hunter he generally makes for his 
enemy, and has a curious habit when 60 or 70 yards distant of sitting up 
erect on his haunches and taking a survey of the field, as if calculating 
his chances in the coming fray, and will rejoeat the examination at inter^ 
vals of nearly 20 yards as he *^ approaches. The hunter will do well to 
reserve his fire until the bear comes within a few yards' distance, when 
if he suddenly extends his arms the animal will come to a full stop and 
erect himself again. This is the time to take unerring aim at close quar- 
ters and make sure work, for if he fails he will never hunt another bear. 
In the Sierras, the Rocky Mountains, and in California, no animal roam- 
ing his native wilds surpasses the grizzly in savageness and strength 
His weight is upon the average from 1000 to 1200 lbs., and one bite of 
his jaws or one stroke of his paw is certain death, On the Pacific coast 



78 G ON HUNTING AND TRAPPING. 

he is often hunted by mounted Vaqueros, Tvho usually go five in a com- 
pany ; lour use the lasso, which they throw over the hear at opposite 
angles from each other, and while he is thus held tight from four oj^po- 
site directions, it is possible for the fifth man to approach and finish hnn 
with a knife. It is extremely dangerous work, for if one or more of the 
ropes should slip, unless it is immediately secured by another successful 
throw, there is danger of instant death to the nearest man if his horse is 
not smart enough to carry him of£ in safety. The grizzly makes jumps 
of 10 feet, and when he has a chance to charge it requires immense agil- 
it}^ to dodge or escape him. All of the vaqueros have a number of lassos, 
and in case of a slip make prompt action with another throw. In nearly 
every case the grizzly invites attack, he will run from men at an extreme 
distance, but never fails to make a savage charge if he comes within hail- 
ing distance. 

Baits for Trappers' use. — 1. Fish Oil^ is made by mincing eels, bass, 
trout, or other small fish, and allowing the pieces to remain in a loosely 
corked bottle exposed to the rays of the sun for 2 or 3 weeks during the 
heat of summer, until a sort of oil is generated, which owing to its very 
intense odor, is perceived by wild animals at an immense distance and 
forms a most attractive scent. 2. Oil of Anise. 3. Oil of Bhodimn. 4. 
Asscfoetida. 5. Oil of Amher. 6. Oil of sweet fennel. 'The last noted 
articles (five in number) are procured in drug-stores. 7. Muskrat-mnsk, 
a most i:!owerful scent, is an oil obtained from that animal, and is con- 
tained in glandular sacs situated near the anus. 8. Castoreum, called 
Bark-stone by the fur traders, is a fatty substance of an intensel}^ strong 
odor contained in similar sacs in the back parts of the Beaver. It forms 
a more attractive scent for that animal than any other. 9. Otter ?}i?/sA', de- 
rived in a similar way from the otter, is very successful in attracting that 
animal. 10. A mixture composed of equal parts of fish-oil, assafcetida, muslc- 
rat-musk, and oil of anise, is said by old trappers to be the most attractive 
scent obtainable for almost any animal. The odor reaches far and wide, 
forming what a Frenchman would call "one grand stink" of the first 
magnitude. It is used on baits for traps, and for scenting trails leading 
to the traps by sprinkling it in successive drops on the ground. 11. A 
rank codfish drawn along on the earth by means of a string, in a direction 
leading to the traps will also answer this last named purpose \erj well. 
12 Miisk-rat musk and skunk musk mixed. This receipt has been sold 
for $75. 13. Unslaked lime J lb. , salammoniac 3 ozs. , or muriate of ammo- 
nia, 3 ozs. Mix and pulverize, keep in a corked bottle a few days until a 
thorough admixture takes place. For mink, sprinkle on the bait around 
the trap. Keep in a closely stoppered bottle. This receipt has been sold 
for $50. In using these compounds on baits for trapping loxes and other 
sly game, it is often advisable to smear a little en the trap in order to 
overpower the human scent arising from handling them ; it would be a 
better way to wear gloves when handling traps, and employ a slight 
smearing of beeswax or blood to overcome the odor of the iron. 

To protect the hen roost from these depredators, saw out an aperture 
large enough to admit the fox on a level with the ground. Inside the 
roost place a box without a- lid and open at one end. This open end must 
be placed against the aperture in the wall, on the ground, so that the fox 
will pass into it on. his entrance into the roost and the side without the lid 
will be uppermost. Set your trap in the box just opposite the entrance 
to the roost, secure it with a chain and lightly cover with dried leaves, 
grass, or other material adapted to conceal it. Next, place a chicken in- 
side a smaller box and nail slats on one side instead of a cover, and place 
this box with the slatted side downwards, on the top of the first box, im- 
mediately over the trap and exposed to the view of the fox. The temp- 



ON HUNTING AND TRAPPING. 787 

tation \Yill prove too much even for a fox to resist, and he will enter only 
to be caught in the trap. Mink, raccoons, weasels, skunks, &c., may be 
caught in the same manner. Close up every entrance to the roost except 
the one just described. 

In trapping Minlc in the water, the trap should be set in a shallow part, 
not more than one or two inches! deep, with the bait suspended about 18 
inches above it ; this compels the animal to erect itself on its hind legs, or 
leap upwards to get the bait, and thus to tread on the trap and get caught. 
Trails may also be set sunk in their beaten tracks, or at the mouths of 
their holes, and concealed by dried grass, leaves, &c., with excellent 
effect. 

In trapping Wolves or Foxes, use a trap well cleaned with weak lye ; 
after drying, oil or grease it well, and smoke it over burning hair or feath- 
ers. In handling it use clean buckskin gloves to avoid imparting the least 
human odor. Make the bed for the trap about 3^ ft. in diam. so that the 
jaws when set will be on a level with the gromid." Cover with fine dried 
grass, wheat, oat, or buckwheat chaff, secure it well with a chain, level 
all neatl}^ to a natural appearance, and bait with fresh meat or roasted 
cheese. In going and coming, your chances will be increased by rubbing 
fish oil, or some other powerful odor on the soles of your boots, to scent 
the way leading to the trap. Wolves and foxes are easily destroyed by 
mixing a little strychnine with grease and concealing it in pieces of meat 
scattered around in places where they haunt . It destroys animal life in 
a very few minutes after it is taken, but it is injurious to the fur. 

In trapping the Otter, take a large sized steel trap, set it, hang it over 
a lire 2 or 3 hours, then take a stick or board, and get into your boat or 
canoe, go to the place most frequented by them, and place the trap about 
3 inches under water and carefully cover it Avith leaves, light trash or 
grass gathered from the bottom of the stream, and chain it securely. Be 
very careful not to touch the bank above water, if you do, your labor is 
gone for nothing. The otter will leave at once for a quieter home many 
miles distant from the scene. In visiting your trap never go nearer than 
the opposite side of the stream, or go by means of a boat. When caught, 
the otter will point directly for his den ; if the trap is not heavy enough 
to drown him, a weight can be attached to the chain. 

Raccooxs may be caught in a steel trap set on the edge of a swamp, IJ 
ins. below the surface of the water, and secured by a chain to a stake! 
Suspend the bait — a piece of a chicken, fish, or frog — 2 ft. above the pan of 
the trap. The raccoon will leap for it, and when he comes down, up goes 
tlie trap and holds him a prisoner. Another plan is to set the trap on an 
old log in or near the swamp, then get two long poles or old limbs, set 
one on each side of the log over the trap, crossing it like the letter x, so 
that the coon will have to go under them and over the trap. Bait the 
trap if you wish, but the coon is certain to run the old log if he comes in 
the neighborhood. One of the surest ways to catch raccoons is with a 
good cur dog, one that will not give tongue on track, but will bark at the 
tree. 

MusKiiATS may be taken in large numbers by sinkmg an old barrel 
with its top on a level with the ground on the edge of a stream near their 
haunts. Half fill it with water, put in a coux^le of shingles or light strips 
of board to float on the water, on these place small bits of sliced apples, 
potatoes, or carrots, and place some more in the runs of the muskrats, so 
as to lead them towards the barrel. The rats will leap into the barrel 
after their food and cannot get out. A cheaper and more effective con- 
trivance could not be imagined. In using a trap, note a tree or old log 
with recent droppings on it leading from the bank into the stream. On 
this set your trap, say, 2 ins. under water, place a bait on a projecting 



788 ON HUNTING AND TRAPPING. 

stick about 6 or 8 ins. above the pan of the trap, securing the latter with 
a chain sufficiently long to permit access to deep water, but not to go 
ashore. By this means the fur is preserved in good order and the animal 
is safely secured. In winter it is quite common for trappers to take the 
muskrats by approaching quietly on the ice and driving a spear into their 
house. Thej^ must be approached with the greatest caution, as they take 
to the water at the slightest noise. Another way is to make an opening 
in the side of their house, set the trap in their bed, lightly covering it with 
moss, &c. ; allow a sufficient length of chain to permit the animal to leap 
into the water, secure the chain by a fastening outside the house, plaster 
up the aperture with mud, retire, and await results. 

Squirrels may be taken by setting a steel trap on the upper rail of a 
fence where they frequent ; set a pole with an ear of corn fastened to it 
so that the bait may be suspended 6 or 8 ins. over the pan of the trap, 
and in reaching for the bait the squirrel will get caught. 

Badgers may be caught by setting the traps, carefully covered, at the 
mouth of their holes, or in their tracks or resorts about cultivated fields. 
They may also be taken in deadfalls, using a piece of meat for a bait, 
and if the ground is hard frozen during early spring, they may be ex- 
pelled by filling their holes with water. In summer the water would 
soak away through the earth, during hard frost it cannot do so, and the 
animal is compelled to come out of its hole or drown. 

In trapping Beavers, the best place to set the trap is right at the 
entrance to their holes in the banks, a few inches under water. Get a 
small stick, and batter or bruise the thickest end soft, smear it with bait 
No. 8, and stick the small end in the bank so that the baited end will pro- 
ject a few inches above the water right over the pan of the trap ; the 
beaver, in raising himself to get the bait, will get caught. Another way 
is to break an aperture in the dam a few inches below the surface of the 
water, set the trap on the upper side of the break, and the beaver will 
get caught Avhen he comes to investigate and repair the damage. The 
trapper will usually secure his prize by placing his trap a f ev/ inches below 
the surface of the Avater at those places where they make their landings 
by springing from the stream onto the bank. 

The Pine-Marten or American Sable lives in the trees and preys 
on partridges, mice, squirrels, hares, &c. A piece of either of these may 
be used as bait, or the head of a fish, pheasant, or a piece of meat, and 
the trap may be placed in a hollow tree, in any natural or artificial en- 
closure, or in the track of a deer ; in each case let it be well covered with 
light grass, decayed moss, or rotten wood, so as to present a natural ap- 
pearance. 

The Fisher-Marten is attached to low, swampy ground, is partially 
web-footed, and subsists on fish, mice, rabbits, &c. It may be caught in 
the same manner as the last-named animal. Be careful to scent the trap 
and conceal it properly, also attach it to a spring i)ole or twitch-up con- 
trivance, so that when caught it be elevated out of the way of becoming 
a prey to larger animals, and prevented from dismembering itself to get 
clear of the trap. The Pine-Marten and the Fisher both live and breed in 
hollow trees ; they are by no means very cunning or difficult to trap, but 
are absolutely furious when caught. 

The WooDCHUCK, or Ground Hoc/, as it is styled in Canada, constructs 
burrows in the ground, extending 20 or 30 feet, usually entering the slope 
of a hill, at the root of a tree or stump, under a fence, or in crevices be- 
tween rocks. They are very destructive to crops in cultivated fields. 
Sometimes they are drowned or flooded out of their holes by means of 
water, at other times they are shot, but in the great majority of cases 
they are caught by traps set without bait, (although they will take roots, 



ox HUNTING AND TRAPPING. 



789 



corn, or breaa), aud carefully covered with paper, sand, &c., at the mouths 
of their holes. 

Gophers may he caught by making a slight excavation at the mouth 
of their hole and placing a trap so that the pan and jaws will be on a 
level with the surface of the ground and covered as above described. 

HUXTEPvS' AXD TPvAPPERS' TABLE, 

SHOWING TBLE VARIOUS SIZES OF XEWHOUSE TRAPS ADAPTED TO THE 
CAPTURE OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF GAME. 



Kind of Animal. 


Ko. of Trap. 


Bait required. 


Squirrel, 





Grain, nuts, or ear of com. 


Gopher, 


1 


do. do. do. 


Muskrat, 


1 


Carrots, potatoes, apples, &c. 


Woodchuck, 


1 or 11/2 


Roots, fruit, corn, or bread. 


Mink, 


IV2 


Fowl, flesli, or roasted lish. 


Fisher-Marten, 


IV2 


Meat, muskrat or deer flesh, fish. 


Skunk, 


~ 11/^ or 2 


Mice, meat, piece of a fowl. 


Fox, 


2 


Fowl, flesh, fish, toasted cheese. 


Opossum, 


2 or 3 


Nuts, corn, mice, piece of fowl. 


Raccoon, 


2 or 3 


Chicken, fish, or frog. 


Badger, 


3 


Mice, or flesh of any kind. 


Otter, 


3 


Fish, piece of a bird, or otter musk. 


Marten, 


3 


Head of a fish, piece of meat, or fowl. 


Beaver, 


4 


Fresh roots, castoreum on the end of 
a stick. 


Wolf, 


4 


"Waste parts of tame or wild fowl. 


Common Black Bear, 


5 


Pork, beef, ear of corn, honey. 


Grizzly Bear, 


C 


do. do. do. do. 



KOTE. — The numbers 0, 1, and ly^, respectively, are single spring traps ; 
No. is the smallest size ; all the others are double spring traps. No, 6 being 
the largest trap made. The above baits should be scented, where necessary, 
by a proper selection from the preparations previously described. Wildcats, 
foxes, wolves, and all the weasel tribe will take flesh and fish of all kinds, 
with this exception, that foxes, wolves and dogs will not eat their own kind ; 
weasels of every kind will. 

All furs are best in winter, but trapping may be done with profit from 
the first of October to the beginning of April. All fur-bearing animals 
lose the best part of their fur as the warm weather approaches, and 
regain it as the cold weather sets in during the fall, so that from the first 
of May to near the end of September trapping is but labor lost. This 
process is indicated in the case of the muslirat and some other animals, 
bv the color of the inside part of the skin. Towards summer it becomes 
brown and dark, a sign that the best fur is gone. Afterward it grows 
liffht-colored, and in whiter, when the fur is in the best order, it is alto- 
gether white. When the pelt is white it is called prime by the fur dealers. 
The fur is then glossy, thick, and of the richest color and the tails of such 
animals as the mink,^marten, and fisher, are full ^^^ ^^''Tw^.tPr n^.pr 
muskrats are not thoroughly prime till about the middle of ^^^^^er other 
animals are prime about the first of November The skms of ^n mals 
trapped are always valued higher than those shot, as shot not only makes 
holes, but frequently plow along the skm, making furrows as well as 
shaving off the fur. Newhouse gives the followmg rules to trappers as 
the result of much experience : ^i ^ ^i i • ^i^^ ,,^+ 

1. Be careful to visit your traps often enough, so that the skin will not 
have time to g^t tainted. 2. As soon as possible after an animal is dead 
and dry, attend to the skinmng and curing. 3. Scrape off all superfluous 



790 ON HUNTING AND TRAPPING. 

flesh and fat, and be careful not to go so deep as to cut the fibre of tlie 
skin. 4. Never dry a skin by the fire, or in the sun, but in a cool, shady 
place, sheltered from rain. If you use a barn door for a stretcher, as boy's 
sometimes do, nail the skin on the inside of the door. 5. Never use 
"preparations" of any kind in curing vskins, nor even wash them in 
w^ater, but simply stretch and dry them as taken from the animal. 

To Deodokize Skunk Skins, or Scented Clothing.— Hold them 
over a fire of red cedar boughs, and sprinkle with cliloride of lime ; or 
wrap them in green hemlock boughs when they are to be had, and in 24 
hours they will be cleaned. 

For arsenical soap for preserving skins, see page 124. Skulls of animals 
may be rapidly prepared by boiling in water for a few hours ; a little 
potash or lye will facilitate the removal of the flesh. A mixture of equal 
parts of good glycerine and water, to every gallon of which is added 1 oz. 
of the crystals of carbolic acid, constitutes a good preserving liquid for all 
animal substances. The use of i:>ure glycerine, with about ^ pt. alcohol, 
and J oz. carbolic acid, added to each gal., makes an excellent mixture for 
preserving the tissues of soft animals, where it is desired to preserve the 
color as well as the tissues. 

According to M. Devergie, of the Paris School of Practical Anatomy, a 
mixture of 3 pts of glycerine, and one of carbolic acid, injected into dead 
bodies, will i^revent any unpleasant odors emanating from them for sev- 
eral months. Another high authority. Dr. Lowell, of Brooklyn, recom- 
mends as a preservative fluid, the use of zinc chloride. The quantity 
used for a human subject is 5 gals. The apparatus required consists of a 
porcelain lined vessel, which is elevated to such a height that the solu- 
tion is injected into the a'rtery by the simple gravity of the liquid, as it 
descends through glass and rubber tubing. Dr. Lowell writes : " The 

injection may be made by either artery or vein I prefer the brachial 

artery above the elbow as the point for introduction of the glass tube, for 
the primary incision is slighter, and consequently divides smaller and 
fewer veins than when I expose the femoral arter^^ I use the gravity 
method, and introduce about five gallons of the antiseptic fluid. The 
effects are eminently satisfactory. The color of the integument is im- 
proved." 

To Preserve Insects. — After killing the insect with chloroform, paint 
it Avith a solution of carbolic acid in alcohol — 4 grains to the ounce — 
then dry in the sun. This will keep it fresh and beautiful. 

To Trap Hawks or Owls.— Take a pole 20 feet long. Set it a short 
distance from the house or barn, or on the poultry house. Split the top 
so as to admit the base of a common steel trap, which vshould be secured. 
When the trap is set the depredators will be pretty certain to alight on it 
and get caught, as they usually select a lofty perch from which to pounce 
upon their prey. 

The Shooting of Birds. — The wanton shooting of harmless birds, 
merely for sport, is a most heartless and cruel recreation. The plea of 
commercial necessity and self-preservation may be urged in behalf of the 
shooting and trapping of wild animals, but no such excuse can be alleged 
for the extermination of harmless birds. Let them sing in the broad 
vault of heaven to their heart's content, and tenant the fields and their 
forest homes without molestation. A hunter narrates that he once fired 
at a bird which he followed up as it fluttered away. He said, " I saw a 
sight I never will forget. There it was, with its wings broken, and all 
bespattered with blood, at the nest with its young. I felt so bad that I 
vowed never to shoot another bird ! " Again we say, spare the innocents. 

To Select Furs. — A sure test of what dealers call prime fur is the 
length and density of the down next the skin. This can be determined 



ON BOOK-KEEPINGf-, 791 

by blowing n. brisk current of air from the mouth against the set of the 
fur. If the fibres open readily, exposing the skin to the view, reject the 
article; bat if the down is so dense that the breath cannot penetrate it, or 
at most shows but a small portion of the skin, it is all right. 

To Clean Furs. — Strip the furs of their stuffing and binding, place 
them, if possible, in a flat position, and brush them briskly with a stiff 
clothes-brtish. Cut out all moth-eaten portions, and replace by new bits 
of fur to match. Sable, chinchilla, squirrel, fitch, &c., wshonld be treated 
by an application of hot bran (warmed in a pan), well rubbed into the fur 
with the hand. Repeat this two or three times, shake the fur, and give it 
a good brushing,to free it from dust. White furs may be cleaned by lay- 
ing the furs on a table, and rubbing them with bran made moist by warm 
water. Rub until quite dry, then apply dry bran. The wet bran"^ should 
be i)ut on with flannel, the dry with book muslin. In addition to the 
above, light furs should be well rubbed with magnesia, or a piece of book 
muslin, after the bran process. 

ON BOOK-KEEPING. 

In Book-Keeping, he who buys what he does not pay for at the time, is 
said to go in debt for it, and is called a debtor, and he avIio sells the goods 
and gives credit for them is called a creditor. In entering accounts it is 
usual to abridge the terms and write Dr. for Debtor, and Cr. for Creditor. 
In every case thereceiver is always the Debtor, and tlie seller- is always 
the Creditor. In Book-Keeping, the thing received is Dr., the thing de- 
livered is Cr. ; what you owe is Cr., what owes you is Dr. The whole 
system of Book-Keeping rests upon chavf/es and credits ; when you sell 
to your neighbor, it is a charge against him, and you must charge him 
with it on the debit side of the account ; when you receive anything from 
him, it is a credit, and you must credit him with it on the credit side of 
the account. 

The word To, in keeping accounts, denotes that the debtor owes for 
what has been sold to him, and the word By, is an indication that the 
debtor has made a payment by which he has paid a part or the whole of 
the debt charged to him. 

There are two methods of book-keeping. Single and Double Entry ; the 
last is employed in extensive and com]3licated mercantile business, where 
a check is required upon each entry, to prove that it has been properly 
recorded. The first is generally used by persons engaged in ordinary- 
business, as it is more simple and sufficiently correct for such purposes. 
It requires but three books — the Day-Book, Ledger, and Cash-Book ; to 
these may be added, a Bill-Book, in which all notes, received or given, 
are recorded, showing when drawn, by whom, in Avhose favor, length of 
time, when due, amount of note, and anj^ explanatory remarks required ; 
also, a Sales-Book, in which orders for goods or the details of sales are 
entered, and a Receipt-Book, where receipts can be permanently kept. 

DAY-BOOK. 

The Day-book should contain statements of every business transac- 
tion, which gives rise to persons owing us or to our owing them, ])vop- 
erly arranged under the head of debtor or creditor. The accounts should 
be entered in this book at the time they were created, or in the order in 
whicTi they occurred in business. 

The book should be commenced by stating the name of the owner and 
his residence. The day, month, and year, should then be written, and 
repeated at the head of each i^age corresponding with the date of the first 
transaction on the page, the subsequent dates on the page may stand 
above the transaction to which they belong. In making an entry the 
name of the person with whom we deal is written, with Dr. or Cr. at the 
right of the name, to show whether he becomes debtor or creditor by the 



792 ON BOOK-KEEPING. 

transaction. Then a statement should follow of the business done, 
specifying the articles bought or sold, and the price of each. The total 
amount should be added up and entered in the dollar and cent columns. 
The person with whom you deal is debtor for whatever he receives of you, 
and creditor for whatever you receive of him, is the rule for determining 
how an entry must be made. The entries in the Day-book are trans- 
ferred to the Ledger, where all the transactions relating to an individual 
are recorded on a page devoted to his account. The figure at the left of 
an entry indicates the page of the Ledger to w^hich it has been carried. 
If a mistake is made in an account, it should not be corrected by 
altering the original entry, but a new entry made debiting or crediting 
the amount of the error, 'thus, " John Smith, Cr. by [or Dr. to] error in 
account of Oct. 6, $1.50." This will enable a person to swear before a 
court that his book contains his original entries without an alteration. 

LEDGER. 

The Ledger is employed for collecting the scattered accounts of the 
Day-book. The accounts Vhicli relate to the same individual are brought 
together on one page, showing all the debits and credits, thus enabling 
the owner to tell at a glance the state of his account wuth any person. 
The Dr. accounts are placed on the left hand of the page, and the Cr. on 
the right. The Ledger may be ruled according to the example on page 794. 
Every Ledger should have an index, in which all the names it contains 
are alphabetically arranged, with the page of the Ledger on wliich the ac- 
count can be found. 

Posting Accounts. — Transferring accounts from the Day-book to the 
Ledger is called posting. Commence with the first name in the Daj' -book, 
which in our example is M. Marshall ; begin by writing his name in a 
fair hand at the top of the page, with his residence, if different from your 
own, placing Dr. on the left, and Cr. on the right of the name. As he is 
debtor to us we commence at the left hand, writing in the first column the 
year, month, and day, in the second the page of the Day-book on which 
the original entry can be found, in the tlii'rd the name of the article, or 
if several articles are recorded under one date, they may be entered Avith 
the general designation of sundries or merchandise, and in the fourth 
column the total amount of the transaction. Against the account in the 
Day-book mark the page of the Ledger to which it lias been ]:^osted ; a 
mark can also be made to show that it has been transferred to the 
Ledger. Now take the second transaction in the Day-book, and if it is 
another name take a new page in the Ledger, and proceed in the same 
manner as the first. In this way all tlie entries in the Daj'-book are 
posted to each person's account, every week or month as oppoitunity 
maj^ occur. By subtracting one side from the other the balance which is 
due will be found. The specimen page represents three pages of a 
Ledger, to correspond with three persons who have transactions in the 
Day-book. 

Balance Sheet. — This may be made to accomplish a double purpose, 
as it will exhibit the state of ttie owner's accounts, by determining the 
amounts owing him and that he may owe, and also prove that the ac- 
counts have been correctly posted and added. The method is as follows : 
rule a sheet of paper similar to ledger page, for debtor and creditor ; add 
up all the items of credit on a page of the Day-book, and enter the amount 
on the sheet, then add the debits in the same manner, and proceed in this 
way for whatever time it is wished the proof should cover, add up the 
two columns and subtract one total from the other, and the difference 
will be the balance of the Day-book. Turn to the Ledger and obtain the 
balance of each person's account, and place it under its proper head ; add 
these up, and the difference will be the Ledger balance. If the two bal- 
ances agree, it proves the entries have been correctly posted. 



F0K3I OF DAr-BOOK. 



79; 



BOOK-KEEPIITG. 

DAY-BOOK. 
KoBEBT Baker, St. Johx, N. B., October 2, 1877- 



X 1 



X 2 



X 2 

X 1 

X s 

X 1 

X s 

X 2 

X 3 

X 3 

X 2 

X 1 



M. Marshall Dr. 

To 8 yds. of muslin, at 9 cts. a yd § 0.72 

To 4 yds. of cloth, at §3 a yd 12.00 

To 1 scythe 1.10 



James Brown 



Dr. 



To 1 pr. of shoes §1.40 

To 1 lb. of tea 75 



David Moore 
By 1 yoke of oxen , 



Cr. 



James Brown Dr. 

To 14 lbs. nails, at C cts §0.84 

To 5 galls, molasses, at 32 cts 1.60 

To 12 lbs. cheese, at 10 cts 1.20 

Cr. 
By 8 lbs. wool, at 36 cts 



M. Marshall Cr. 

By 1 load of hay §6.00 

By 12 lbs. butter, at 9 cts 1-08 



David Moore 
To Cash 



Dr. 



M. Marshall Dr. 

To 1 stove §14.00 

To 8 yds. cloth, at §3 24.00 

To 1 horse 42.00 



David Moore Dr. 
To 1 set of harness §20.00 



To 1 wason 



64.00 



James Brown Dr. 

To 28 lbs. sugar, at 8 cts §2.24 

To 1 barrel of flour 7.00 

To 3 brooms at 14 cts 42 



David Moore Cr. 

By 20 bushels corn, at 62 cts §12.40 

By Cash 30.00 

By order on Peter Wilkins 21.00 

7 



David Moore 
To check to balance account . 



Dr. 



10 



James Brown 
By Cash to balance account. 



Cr. 



12 



M. Marshall 
By his note at 3 months from date 

34 



Cr. 



§13 

2 
115 



82 

15 

00 

64 

88 

I 
08 

00 

00 

00 

66 



63 40 



50 



80 



84 



44 



12 



40 



75 00 



794 



FORM OF LEDGER. 



Dr. 



BOOK-KEEPING. 

LEDGER. 
M. ^Marshall 



Cr. 



1877. 
Oct. 2 



11 



To Sundries 

'' Sundries 

To Balance. 







1877. 




$13 


82 


Oct. 3 


1 


80 


00 


" 12 


1 


93 


82 


11 


74 







By hay and butter. 

*' note at 3 mos 

" Balance 



$ 7 
75 
11 



93 



Dr. 



James Brown. 



C^. 



1877. 
Oct. 2 


1 
1 
1 


To Sundries 

"• Sundries 

'' Sundries 


9 


15 
64 
66 


1877. 

Oct. 3 

"■ 10 


1 

1 


By wool 


$2 
12 

15 


88 


** 3 


" cash 


57 


'< 5 








15 


45 


44 



Dr. 



Datid Moore. 



Cr. 



1877. 
Oct, S 
.< 4 

*' 7 



To Cash 

'* harness & wagon 
" check to balance 







1877. 




§50 


00 


Oct 2 


1 


84 


00 


'•' 5 


1 


44 


40 






178 


40 



By oxen 

" sundries. 



$115 
63 



178 



40 



Dr. 



Cash-Book. 



Oash. 



Cr. 



1877. 

Oct. 2 
'' 5 
'' 9 
" 5 


To' cash on hand 

Received of M. Marshall 

Order on I. Rose 

Receipts of store 


I15C. 

3C 

21 

106 

307 


30 
JO 
00 
75 

75 

15 

57 


1877, 
Oct. 2 
" 3 

" 9 
*' 9 


Paid rent of store 6 mos. 

" David Moore 

'^ David Moore 

'< expenses in store. 
f^fi'ih on liOLiid 


$75 

50 

44 

8 

130 

$307 


00 
00 
40 
20 
15 






Th 


Oct. 9 
*' 10 


To cash on hand 

Received of J. Brown.. 


$130 
12 





INTEREST TABLES. 



79o 



A complete balance-sheet should be made out once or twice a year, 
when an inventory of stock on hand is taken and added to the debtor bal- 
ances of accounts, and the original capital is added to the credit balances, 
(or balances we owe,) these compared will give the amount of profit or 
loss. It will be remembered that this sheet is an account between our- 
selves and our books. 

All the accounts in the Ledger ought to be balanced twice a year. To 
do this add up each column and find the difference, and make an entry 
of tills balance on the side that is smallest (this should be made with red 
ink to distinguish it from other entries) ; both sides now being equal, 
draw a line under them to show the fact. Kow place the balance on the 
opposite side, so that it will exhibit the true state of the accomit. (See 
M. Marshall's account of the Ledger page. ) 

CASH-BOOK. 

The Cash-book records the payment and receipt of cash. Cash is made 
debtor to the cash on hand and cash received, and credited with what is 
paid out. At the close of each day or week, the cash on hand is counted, 
and the amount entered on the credit side. This should make the delDits 
and credits equal ; the amount of cash on hand is then entered on the 
debtor side. If money is paid to or received from a person who has an 
account with us it is also entered in the Day-book ; the total receipts and 
expenditures are carried to the Day-book as often as the Cash-book is 
balanced. ( See form of Cash-book. ) 

As a help to compute interest we append the following Table to show 

the time required for a given number of dollars to draw an equal number 

of cents at various rates of interest. The rule is to strike off the odd 

cents from the principal and you have the interest at the following rates : 

Interest Interest Interest 

per cent. No. Days. per cent. | No. Days, per cent. No. Days. 



4 

44 

5 

5-20 



90 
80 
72 
70 
GO 



7 

n 

7-30 

8 

9 



52 
48 
50 
45 
40 



10 
10-40 



35 
35 



The next Table shows the various sums of money which draw 1 cent 
Interest per day, calculated at different per cents, s'o that the mmiber of 
cents will alwaj^s be found equivalent to the number of days the money 
has been drawing interest. 
Amount. Per cent. Amount. Per cent. 



$90 
80 
72 
70 
60 



Per cent. 


Amount. 


4 


^52 


4i 


50 


5 


48 


5-20 


45 


6 


40 



7 
7-30 

8 
9 



1 Amount. 


Per cent. 


^36 


10 


35 


10-40 


30 


12 


24 


15 



Valuable Interest Rules, Basis 30 days per month or 360 
DAVS TO THE COMMERCIAL YEAR. Multiply the principal by the re- 
quired number of days, and for 4 per cent, "divide by 9, and x)oint off ; 
for 5 per cent, divide "by 72 ; for 6 per cent, divide by 6, and point off 
three figures from the right ; for eight per cent.- divide by 45 ; for 9 i^er cent 
divide by four, and point off three figures from the right ; for 10 per cent, 
divide by 36 ; for 12 per cent, divide by 3, and point off three figures 
from the right ; for 15 per cent, divide by 24 ; for eighteen per cent, divide by 
2, and point off three figures from the right, for 20 per cent, divide hy 18. 

A new way, called " a rule for reckoning interest on odd days, at any 
rate per cent. , which involves no subdivision w^hatev^er," is as follows: 



796 



INTEREST TABLES, &C. 



Multiply the iDriuciijal by the number of days, and for 6 per cent, divide 
by 60 ; for 7 per cent, by 51 ; for 8 percent., by 45 ; for 9 per cent, by 
40 ; for 10 per cent, by 36, for 6 twice over ; for 12 per cent, by 30. 
For further information refer to interest Tables. 









INTEREST 


TABLE. 


TEN PER CENT. 








TIME. 


$1 


$2 



§3 



$4 



«5 


$t) 


^i 


$<j 


^i) 


^10 


$40 


$50 


$100 


$1000 


4 Days. 





1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


4 


5 


• 11 


1 n 


8 « 








1 


1 


1 


1 


2 


2 


2 


2 


8 


11 


22 


2 22 


12 '< 





1 


1 


1 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


12 


16 


33 


3 33 


16 " 





1 


1 


2 


2 


3 


3 


4 


4 


4 


16 


22 


44 


4 44 


20 " 


1 


1 


2 


2 


3 


3 


4 


4 


5 


6 


24 


28 


56 


5 56 


24 " 


1 


1 


2 


3 


3 


4 


5 


5 


c 


7 


28 


33 


67 


6 67 


28 " 


1 


2 


2 


3 


4 


5 


5 


6 




8 


32 


39 


78 


7 78 


1 MON. 


1 


2 


3 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


8 


32 


42 


83 


8 33 


2 " 


2 


3 


5 


7 


8 


10 


12 


13 


15 


17 


68 


83 


1 67 


16 67 


3 " 


3 


5 


8 


10 


12 


15 


18 


20 


23 


25 


100 


125 


2 50 


25 00 


4 '< 


3 


7 


10 


13 


17 


20 


23 


27 


30 


33 


132 


165 


3 33 


33 33 


6 " 


4 


8 


13 


17 


21 


25 


29 


33 


38 


42 


1 68 


2 08 


4 17 


41 67 


6 " 


5 


10 


15 


20 


25 


30 


35 


40 


45 


50 


2 00 


2 50 


5 00 


50 00 


1 Year. 


10 


20 


30 


40 


50 


60 


70 


80 


9J 


$1 


4 00 


$5 


$10 


$100 



TABLE, SHOWING THE NUMBER OF DAYS FROM ANY DAY IN ONE MONTH 
TO THE SAME DAY IN ANOTHER. 



Eroin 



To 



January . . 
February. 
March . . . . 

April 

May 

June 

July 

Aug 

Sept 

Oct 

Nov 

Dec 



1 




^ 
^ 


ft 




B 






+3 

m 


O 


> 
o 


365 


31 


59 


90 


120 


151 


181 


212 


243 


273 


304 


334 


365 


28 


59 


89 


120 


150 


181 


212 


242 


273 


306 


337 


365 


31 


61 


92 


122 


153 


184 


214 


245 


275 


306 


334 


365 


30 


61 


91 


122 


153 


183 


214 


245 


276 


304 


335 


365 


31 


61 


92 


123 


153 


184 


214 


245 


273 


304 


334 


365 


30 


61 


92 


122 


153 


184 


215 


243 


274 


304 


335 


365 


31 


62 


92 


123 


153 


184 


212 


243 


273 


304 


334 


365 


31 


61 


92 


122 


153 


181 


212 


242 


273 


303 


334 


365 


30 


61 


92 


123 


151 


182 


212 


243 


273 


304 


335 


365 


31 


61 


92 


120 


151 


181 


212 


242 


273 


304 


334 


365 


31 


62] 


90 


121 


151 


182 


212 


243 


274 


304 


335 



334 
303 
275 
244 
214 
183 
153 
122 
91 
61 
.30 
365 

Explanation.— To find the number of days from January 20 to 
Dec. 20, follow the horizontal line opposite January until you reach the 
column headed by December, when you will find 334, reoresentins: the 
required number of days, and so on with the other months. During 
leap year, if February enters into the calculation, add one day to the 
result. 

HOW TO conduct A SUCCESSFUL BUSINESS. 

That short credit and small profits forms the golden rule for success in 
trade may be seen from the following table, exhibiting the amounts re- 
alized for $100 at various percentages during various periods. 





Am't at 


Am't at 




3 pr. ct. 


5 per ct. 


' 3 months, 


$326.20 


$703.99 


6 "- 


180.61 


265.32 


8 " 


155.79 


207.89 


12 *' 


134.39 


162.88 


2 vears, 


115.92 


127.62 


5 " 


106.00 


110.25 



Am't at 


Am't at 


8 pr. ct. 


10 pr. ct. 


$2172.45 


$4525.92 


466.09 


672.75 


317.21 


417.72 


215.89 


259.37 


146.93 


161.05 


116.64 


121.00 



VALUE OF CURRENT COINS. 



797 



CUERENT COINS OF THE PRINCIPAL COMMERCIAL COUNTRIES, WITH THEIR TALUIi IN 
U.S. DOLLARS, CENTS AND MILLS. 



Austria, Gold, Quadruple Ducat, 9 

" " Ducat, 2 
" " Sovereign (for Lombardy),G 

" Silver, Rix Dollar, 

♦* " Florin, 

" " 20Kreutzers, 

" " Lira (for Lombardy) 

Baden, Gold, 5 Gulden, 2 

" Silver, Crown, 1 

*♦ " Gulden, or Florin, 

Bavana, Gold, Ducat, 2 

" Silver, Crown, 1 

" " Florin, 

'* " 6 Kreutzers, 

Belgium, Gold, 20 Franc piece, 8 

*' " 25 Franc piece, 4 

'• Silver, 5 Francs, C 

" " 23^ Francs, 

" " 2 Francs, 

" " 1 Franc, 

Bolivia, Gold, Doubloon, 15 

Silver, Dollar, 1 



.CM. 

12 
27 5 
75 
97 
48 5 
16 



16 
Oi 
07 
39 5 
27 
06 5 
5 

2 


9.3 
4C, 5 
37 
18 5 
58 



83 



X Dollar (debased 18:30). 
Brazil, Gold, Piece of 0,400 Reis, 



Dollar (debased 1830), 



Silver, 1,200 Reis, 

" 800 Reis, 

•♦ " 400 Reis, 

Bremen Silver, 30 Grote, 

Britain, Gold, Sovereign, 4 

Silver, Half Crown, 

. " " Shilling, 

Brunswick Gold, Ten Thaler, 7 

Silver Thaler, 

Central America, Gold, Doubloon, 14 

" " Escudo, 1 

" Silver, Dollar, 

Costa Rica, Gold, Half Doubloon, 1850, 7 

" Silver, New Real, 

Chili, Gold, Doubloon (before 1835), 15 

" " Doubloon (since 1835), 15 

" Silver, Dollar, 1 

" " ^Dollar, 

" " >< Dollar or Real, 

Denmark, Gold, Doub Fred, or 10 Thai. 7 

" Silver, Rigsbank Daler, 

♦' " Specie Daler, 1 

«' .32 Skillings, 

Ecuador, Gold, X Doubloon, 7 

" Silver, 14 Dollar, 

Egypt, Gold, 100 Piasters, 4 

" Silver, 20 Piasters, 

France, Gold, 20 Francs, 3 

" Silver, 5 Francs, 

" " Franc, 

Frankfort, Silver, Florin, 

Greece, Gold, 20 Drachms, 3 

" Silver, Drachm, 

Guiana, Br., Silver, Guilder, 

Han o\er. Gold, 10 Thaler, 7 

" Silver, Thaler (fine silver), 

" Thaler (750 fine), 

Hayti, Silver, Dollar (100 centimes), 

Hesse Cassel, Silver Thaler, 

'* 1 Thaler, 



00 6 

37 5 

18 7 

72 

99 

66 

33 

35 

84 

54 

21 

89 

GS 

96 

67 

67 

62 

05 

57 

m 

01 
22 
11 



52 

04 

17 

60 

18 

97 

96 

85 

93 

18 

39 

45 

16 

26 

89 

69 

68 

25 

07 

11 



Hesse Darmst'adt, Silver, Florin, C 

HindoQstan, Gold, Mohur (£. I. Co.), 7 
" Silver, Rupee, 

MeckleTiberg, Gold, 10 Thaler, 7 

Mexico, Gold, Doubloon, av. 15 

" Silver, Dollar, av, 1 

Naples, Silver, Scudo, 

Netherland, Gold, Ducat, 2 

"10 Guilders, 4 

" Silver, 3 Guilders, I 

" " Guilder, 

" *' Twenty-five cents, 

,S " 2>^ Guilders, 

New Granada, Gold, Doubloon, 21 car. 15 
" " including the silver, 15 

" 9-lOths the stand., 15 
" " including the silver, 15 

" Silver, Dollar, U.S. weight, 1 

" " Dollar, or 10 Reals, 

Norway Silver, Rigsdaler, 1 

Persia, Gold, Somann, 2 

" Silver, Sahib Koran, 

Peru, Gold, Doubloon, Lima, to 1833, 15 
" " " Cuzco, tol833, 15 
" " Cuzco to 1&37, 15 

♦* Silver, Dollar, Lima mint, 1 
" " " Cuzco, 1 

" ^Dol., Cuzco, debased, 
" " X Dol., Arequipa " 

">? Dollar Pasco, 

Poland, Silver, Zloty, 

Portugal, Gold, Half Joe (full weight), 8 

'' " Crown, 5 

" Silver, (Jruzado, 

" " Crown of 1000 Reis, 1 

" Half Crown, 

Prussia, Gold, Double Frederick, 8 

•' Silver, Thaler, average, 

" " i Thaler, average, 

" D'ble Thai. SX Gulden, 1 

Rome, Gold, Ten Scudi, 10 

" Silver, Scudo, 1 

" " Seston (3-10 Scudi), 

Russia, Gold, 5 Roubles, 3 

" Silver, Rouble, 

" " Ten Zloty, 1 

" 30 Copecs, 

Sardinia, Gold, 20 Lire, 3 

Silver, 5 Lire, 

Saxony, Gold, 10 Thaler, 7 

" " Ducat, 2 

" Silver Species Thaler, 

" Thaler (?:iV E. M.) 

Siam, Silver, Tical, 

Spain , Gold (Qr. Doubloon), 3 

" Silver, Pistareen (4 Reals Vella), 

Sweden, Silver, Species Thaler, 1 

" " ^ Daler. 

Turkey, Gold, 100 Piasters, 4 

" " 20 Piasters (new), 

♦' Silver, 20 Piasters, " 

Tuscany, Gold, Sequin, 2 

" Silver, Lepoldone, 1 

" " Florin, 

Wurtemburg, Silver, GnHpu. 18.34, 



C. M. 

39 5 
10 
44 5 
89 
53 
00 7 
94 
26 5 
00 7 

20 

40 
09 
98 2 

61 
66 
31 
36 
02 
93 
05 
23 

21 
55 

62 
53 6 

5 
8 
3 

36 
49 5. 

n 2 

65 
81 

55 2 

12 

56 a 


68 

n 

39 

37 
5. 

30 
96 7 
75 

13 5 

22 
84 5 



94 
26 
96 
iiS 
58 5 
90 5 
19 5 

04 
52 

37 4 
82 
82 
30 

05 
26 2 

38 



Tlie quarter of wheat is equal to the quarter of a ton of 2240 lbs. or 560 lbs. ; 
70 lbs. in weight are an English bushel of wheat, while 60 lbs. of wheat make 
our bushel ; so that the U. S- wheat bushel is just 6-7ths of the English or 
imperial, and a quarter of wheat in England is equal to 9% bushels in the 
United States, though in capacity to only 8V4 bushels. 

The barrel of flour contains 5 Winchester bushels, and weighs, net 196 lbs. 
The barrel of Indian corn contains 3 1-8 bushels. The weight of a gallon of 
molasses is usually 11 lbs. but sometimes 10 or 12. 



798 



STATE AND PROVINCIAL LAWS. 



State and provincial laws regahding- legal and special 
interest, the limit of time in actions for debt, &c., 
together with the largest sums obtainable by legal pro- 
cess before a justice of the peace in various states, ter- 
ritories and provinces. 



States and Territories. 


Hi 


is 

op 


li 


ii. 


III 


Hi 

M Cj « 




5^ S ^ 


Penalty for Usury. 




:a^>^ 


WkH 


<\>^ 


6 


20 


1 


^P< 


ccO P. 




Alabama, 


i^ioo 


10 


3 


8 


8 


Forfeit all Int. 


Arkansas, 


500 


10 


3 


5 


10 


I 


6 


10 


For. prin. and int. 


Arizona, 














10 




None. 


California, 


300 


5 


2 


4 


5 


1 


10 




None. 


Colorado, 


.300 


3 


6 


6 


3 


1 


10 




None. 


Connecticut, 


100 


17 


6 


6 


20 


3 


7 


7 


For. excess of int. 


Dakota Ter., 


100 


20 


6 


6 


20 


2 


7 


12 


Forfeit all int. 


Delaware, 


100 


20 


3 


6 


20 


1 


G 


G 


Forfeit prin. 


Dist. of Columbia. 




12 


3 


3 


12 


1 


6 


10 


Forfeit all int. 


Florida, 


50 


20 


4 


5 


20 


2 


8 




None. 


Georgia, 


100 


20 


4 


6 


7 


1 


rr 


12 


Forfeit all int. 


Idaho Ter., 


100 


5 


2 


4 


5 


2 


10 


24 


Fine andimpris't 


Illinois, 


200 


10 


5 


lO 


20 


1 


6 


10 


Forfeit all int. 


Indiana, 


200 


20 


6 


20 


20 


2 


G 


10 


Forfeit ex. of int. 


Iowa, 


300 


10 


5 


10 


20 


2 


6 


10 


Forfeit all int. 


Kansas, 


300 


15 


3 


5 


5 


1 


8 


12 


For. all int. over 12, 


Kentucky, 


50 


15 


2 


15 


15 


1 


6 


8 


Forfeit all int. 


Louisiana, 


100 


20 


3 


5 


10 


1 


^ 


8 


Forfeit all int. 


Maine, 


20 


20 


6 


20 


20 


2 


G 




None. 


Maryland, 


100 


12 


3 


3 


12 


1 


6 


6 


Forfeit ex. of int. 


Massachusetts, 


300 


20 


6 


20 


20 


2 


G 




None. 


Michigan, 


300 


10 


6 


G 


6 


2 


7 


10 


For. ex. over 7 p. c. 


Minnesota, 


100 


6 


6 


G 


10 


2 


7 


12 


None. 


Mississippi, 


150 


7 


3 


6 


7 


1 


6 


10 


For. excess of int. 


Missouri, 


300 


10 


5 


10 


20 


2 


G 


10 


Forfeit all int. 


Montana Ter., 




10 


5 


10 


10 


2 


10 




None. 


Nebraska, 


100 


10 


4 


5 


5 


1 


10 


12 


Forfeit all int. 


Nevada, 


300 


4 


2 


4 


5 


2 


10 




None. 


New Brunswick 


20 




C 


6 


3 


V2 


G 




None. 


New Hampshire, 


13.33 


20 


6 


G 


20 


2 


G 


G 


For 3t the ex & costs 


New Jersey, 


100 


16 


6 


6 


20 


2 


7 


7 


Forfeit of all int. 


New Mexico, 


100 


10 


6 


10 


10 


1 


G 




None. 


New York, 


200 


20 


6 


6 


20 


2 


7 


7 


For. of contract. 


North Carolina. 


200 


10 


3 


3 


10 


3 


G 


8 


Forfeit of all int. 


Ohio, 


300 


15 


6 


15 


15 


1 


6 


8 


For. ex. over 6 p. c. 


Ontario, Can., 




20 


6 


6 


20 


2 


G 




None. 


Oregon, 


250 


20 


6 


6 


10 


2 


10 


12 


For. prin. and int. 


Pennsylvania, 


100 


20 


6 


6 


20 


1 


6 


G 


Forfeit ex. of int. 


Quebec, Can., 




30 


5 


5 


30 


1.2 


G 




None. 


Rhode Island, 


100 


20 


6 


6 


20 


1 


G 




None. 


South Carolina, 


100 


20 


6 


6 


20 


2 


7 




None. 


Tennessee, 


500 


6 


6 


6 


10 


1 


G 


10 


Forfeit ex. of int. 


Texas. 


100 


5 


2 


4 


10 


1 


8 


12 


(( << (( 


Utah Ter. 


300 


7- 


2 


4 


5 


1 


10 




None. 


Vermont, 


200 


8 


6 


14 


8 


2 


6 


6 


Forfeit ex. of int. 


Virginia, 


50 


20 


5 


5 


10 


1 


6 


6 


Forfeit of all int. 


Wash. Ter.. 


100 


6 


3 


G 


6 


2 


10 




None. 


West Virginia, 


100 


10 


5 


10 


lo 


1 


G 


6 


Forfeit ex. of int. 


Wisconsin, 


300 


20 


6 


O 


20 


2 


7 


10 


Forfeit of all int. 


Wyoming Ter. , 


100 


15 


6 


15 


15 


1 


12 




None. 



SUCCESS IN BUSINESS. 799 

The credit system has bankrupted more people than perhaps alJ other 
causes put together. The most rigid scrutiny should therefore take place 
in every instance where credit is solicited . A good way is to make the 
party sign a statement of his assets, debts, means of payment, &c., and 
grant a limited credit on that basis. If the result proves intentional 
fraud then you have your remedy at law. Cash down is the only abso- 
lutely safe rule. Curtail every possible exi^ense. Let the profits accumu- 
late, hold on to them, and avoid uncertain outside speculations. See 
table of daily savings on page 587, and profit by its suggestions. Attend 
to the details of your business, see that the store is opened in good time, 
goods dusted, floor swept, paper, twine, nails, &c., picked up and 
everything kept in trim order. In establishing a business it is not always 
the best plan to open out in a new locality where rents are low and ex- 
penses light. The result will be in many cases, that before the new local- 
ity acquires the ability to render adequate support to a respectable busi- 
ness (after an unavailing struggle) the funds of the merchant will gradu- 
ally give out, and he will be obliged to close his doors at the very time 
when he should have opened them. If, however, he succeeds, the dealer 
will do well to confine his attention more to the sux^ply of the necessaries 
than the luxuries of life, until a more general demand arises for the lat- 
ter as the neighborhood grows older. 

Taking everything into account, the best locality for business pur]^oses 
is in a city or town in a prominent throughfare where those whose trade 
you desire can most easily find you. A suitable place being secured, 
mount a proper sign board in a prominent manner, and make sure to pre- 
sent an imposing display of your choicest goods in your store whidows. 
This, of itself, is a powerful attraction to passers by, who will frequently 
see just the article they require and call for it at once. This accommoda- 
tion, coupled with civil treatment on your part, will often secure you a 
permanent customer, for people are bound to go where they are well used. 
A notable and most successful method of attracthis: customers and build- 
ing up a lucrative business, is to sell a few of the leading staples at low 
figures, and obtain a fair profit on the rest. The most sagacious and 
far-seeing merchants do this, with the most astonishiug financial results. 
In fact, thousands who are independently rich would now be bankrupt 
but for this system of transacting business. 

The following directions deserve a wide circulatidn : — 

''Enter into a business of which you have a perfect knowledge. In your 
own right, or by the aid of friends on long time, have a cash capital suffi- 
cient to do at least a cash business. Never venture on a credit business 
at the commencement. Buy all your goods or materials for cash; you 
can thus take every advantage of the market, and pick and chose where 
and when you will. Be careful not to overstock yourself. Rise and fall 
with the market on short stocks. Always stick to those whom you prove 
to be strictly just m their transactions, and shun all others ^ven at a 
temporarj^ disadvantage. Never take advantage of a customer's ignor- 
ance, nor equivocate nor misrepresent. Have but one price and n small 
profit, and you will find all the most profitable customers — the cash ones 
— or they will find you. 

" If ever deceived in business transactions, never attempt to save your- 
self by putting the deception upon others ; but submit to the loss, and be 
more cautious in future. According to the character or success of your 
business, set aside a liberal percentage for printing and advertising, and 
do not hesitate. Never let an article, parcel, or package, go out from you 
without a handsomely-printed wrapper, card, or circular, and dispense 
them continually. Keep yourself unceasingly before the public by judi- 
ciously advertising ; and it matters not what business of utility you make 



800 SAFE BUSINESS EULES. 

choice of, for if intelligently and industriously pursued, a fortune will be 
the result. 

"Learn to say ^No' with decision; 'yes' with caution — 'Xo' 
with decision whenever it resists temptation ; ' yes ' with caution wlien 
it implies a promise, A promise once given is a bond inviolable. A man 
is already of consequence in the world when it is known that we can im- 
plicitly rely upon him. Such a one is often preferred to a long list of aj)- 
plicants, for some important change Avhich lifts him at once into station 
and fortune merely because he has this reputation, that when he says he 
will know a thing he knows it, and when he says he will do a thing he will 
do it. Reflect over these maxims ; you will find it easy enough to prac- 
tice them." 

Rest assured industry and economy will be sure to tell in the end. Waste 
not want not go hand in hand. If in early life these habits become con- 
firmed, no doubt can exist as to the ultimate triumph of the merchant in 
attaining a competency. 

Be self-reliant and punctual. As you gain experience in business 
you can form your own judgment and act on it with more safety than j'ou 
could on outside advice, and let no effort be considered too great which re- 
sults in fulfilling your engagements and keeping your word. A good char- 
cter for punctuality is in itself a valuable capital, as it makes one in a large 
measure the master of another's purse. In expressing yourself, be frank, 
speak to the point ; form a habit of thinking vigorously and speaking 
correctly ; say what you mean ; and do what you say. 

In buying goods never take advantage of another's necessities to beat 
him down to a figure which leaves him little or no profit, perhaps a loss, 
because he must have money. There is no manhood in such transactions, 
it may enhance your immediate profits, but will be disastrous to you in 
the end, besides being most unjust to the immediate sufferer. Let all 
your actions in buying and selling conform to the requirements of the 
golden rule. 

Be always alert to the acquisition of knowledge relating to your busi- 
ness, this may be gained by conversation with experienced merchants, by 
the attentive reading of practical books treating on mercantile matters, 
and by taking trade papers, which in these stirring times have attained 
great perfection, embracing as they do an immense range of subjects, 
treating, each in its respective sphere, subjects of immense importance, 
relating to the hardware, grocery, dry goods, drug, and other mercantile 
trades, besides full reports of the markets pertaining to each business, an 
item which in itself no business man can afford to lose sight of. In this 
place the advice of the American Grocer to its subscribers to Coukt, 
Measure, Weigh, aj^d Gauge Everything You Buy, cannot be too 
strongly nrgued upon the notice of business men. Profits will be greatly 
enhanced by taking advantage of the discounts which nearlj^ all business 
men offer for cash payments. Keep your credit good and use it sparingly 
and discreetly, 

A noted merchant amassed an immense fortune by the observance of 
these four simple rules : 1, Obtain the earliest and fullest information 
possible in regard to the matter in! hand. 2. Act rapidly and promptly 
upon it. 3. Keep your intentions and means secret. 4. Secure the heit 
employees you can obtain, and reward them liberally. See pp 590. 

Rothschild's rules were. "1. I combined three profits I made the 
manufacturer my customer, and the one I bought of my customer ; that 
is, I supplied the manufacturer with the raw material and dyes ; on 
each of which I made a profit, and took his manufactured goods, which 
I sold at a profit, and thus combined three profits. 2. Make a bargain at 
once, be an off-handed man. 3. Never have anything to do with an 



SAFE BUSINESS RULES. 801 

unlucky man or place. I have seen many clever men -who had not 
shoes to their feet. I never act with them ; their advice sounds very 
•well, but fate is against them ; they do not get on themselves, bow 
can they do good to me ? 4. Be cautious and bold. It requires a great 
deal of caution and a great deal of boldness to make a great fortune, 
and when you have got it, it requires ten times as much wit to keep it." 

Rules of John McDonough the millionaire of New Orleans. "1. Re- 
member always that labor is one of the conditions of our existence. 2. 
Time is gold ; throw not one minute away but place each one to account. 
3. Do unto all men as you would be done by. 4. Never j)ut off till to- 
morrow what you can do to-day. 5. Never bid another do what you can 
do yourself . 6. Never covet what is not your own. 7. Never think any 
matter so trivial as not to deserve notice. 8. Never give out that which 
does not first come in. 9. Never spend but to produce. 10. Let the 
greatest order regulate all the actions of your life. 11. Study in your 
course of life to do the greatest amount of good. 12. Deprive yourself of 
nothing necessary to your comfort, but live in an honorable' simplicity 
and frugality. Labor then, to the last moment of your existence." 

Render yourself familiar with your business and books, and do not be 
unduly ankious to extend your trade, remembering that a small business 
on cash capital yields better profits than a large business conducted on 
credit ; also remember that the goods on your shelves are much better 
than having them charged up in bad debts. If it happens that you run 
an account with a doubtful customer, prudence requires that j^ou should 
close the account at once and use every possible means to collect it with- 
out delay. It frequently happens in cases of this kind that prompt action 
will result in the recovery of the whole debt, when a very slight delay 
will entail a total loss. Every populous commuuity is iufe.sted by such 
a vast number of incorrigible rascals who never intend to pay their debts, 
that dealers are justified in rejecting every application for credit where 
the financial ability of the applicant" is in the shghtest degree doubtful. 

Avoid selfishness, niggardliness and parsimoniousness in the use of 
money or means. True nobility of character always finds its greatest pleas- 
ure in assisting and uplifting humanity. Viewed in this light it requires 
but slight exertion to solve the riddle propounded by old Mr. Honest in 
the Pilgrim : — 

" There was a man, though some did count him mad, 
The more he threw away the more he had." 

The world presents many notable instances of a generous policy, It is 
safe to say that Peter Cooper, by his generous consecration of $2,000,000 
to the up-building of the Cooper Institute, not to mention his other bene- 
factions, has conferred more substantial benefits on humanity than whole 
dynasties of tyrants who misgovern empires, and render themselves a 
terror to peaceable nations. 

In mercantile matters courage is indispenable, slackness is absolute 
ruin. It requires courage to tell a man you will not credit him, courage 
to insist on prompt payments from customers, courage to speak your 
mind candidly at all times, courage to deny yourself the possession of 
many things you want. It requires courage to refuse to conform to the 
absurd demands of fashion, to show respect for real worth even if it 
appears in humble garb, and to discountenance unprincipled rascality^ in 
fine clothes. It requires courage to act justly without fear or favor, to live 
within your means, to pay your debts, to collect your accounts, to with- 
stand ridicule while acting righteously ; in one word, if you lack courage 
never go into business at all. 

In mercantile circles the commercial traveller occupies a most import- 
ant position and in many cases proves himself a most valuable auxiliary 

34^ 



802 ON MARKING GOODS. 

to the mercliant. To become a successful traveller it requireis prolonged 
service on the road, a vast amount of shrewdness, and a profound knowl- 
edge of human nature. He must possess a clear head, a good temper, a 
read3% easy, and natural aptitude for making profitable bargains, with 
a good gift for mental, off-hand calculations in all possible emergencies. 

In a work treating of commercial travellers in France, we find the 
following description of one of them : " With his customers, as every 
where else, he is polite and obliging ; he kisses the baby, pats the spaniel, 
pays a compliment to the young lady behind the counter, and offers a 
pinch of snuff to the master of the shop. He inquires respecting the 
state of the vintage, foretells the result of the season, speaks at some 
length on the state of the grain market, obligingly inquires after ma- 
dame's health, and invites her husband to call and see him in Paris 

* We'll dine at the Rocher,' laughs the traveller, adding, in a lower key, 

* and discuss a bottle of A 1, eh ? ' Briefly, he obtains an order, and 
often a very extensive one." 

In marking goods it is usual with merchants to make use of a private 
mark, phrase, or ke^^-word to designate the cost and selling price of their 
goods, the object being to conceal these points from all except their own 
salesmen. The following words and phrases present a choice from Avhich 
to make a selection. 

GAS FIXTURE. FISH TACKLE. BROWN SUGAR. 

BLACK HORSE. CASH PROFIT. NOW BE SHARP. 

MISFORTUNE. SO FRIENDLY. ELUCIDATOR. 

IMPORTANCE. GAINFUL JOB. OF INDUSTRY. 

It will be noticed that each word or phrase contains ten letters, no 
two alike, the object being to use letters instead of figures in marking the 
goods. For instance, take the phrase 

GASFIXTURE. 
123 4567890 

In marking the cost and selling price on a ticket, we assume that tlie 
cost is $3.25 and the selling price ^4.37; this would be represented by the 
dumb letters s a i—fst. The cost price is generally i:)laced uppermost on 

the tag, the selling jprice below it, thus ^. An extra letter, styled 

a repeater, is used to obviate the repetition of a letter or figure as well as 
to i^revent the disclosure of the private mark, for instance instead of writ- 
ing 366 by the key- word, which would be s a X, use as a repeater the 
letter o, and make it read sx o. Fractions may be written thus : 456 §=/ 1 x 
-. For further information on marking goods see page 210. 

In advertising, let your announcements be short, sjncy, attractive, and 
prominently displayed ; study brevity, using as few words as possible to 
express your meaning. A long, diffuse advertisement kills its object, 
people will not read it. Let an advertisement be truthful, free from 
senseless bombast, circulate them widely, and when your new customers 
come in, fulfil to the letter, the promises made in your announcements ; 
you will thus obtain their confidence, retain their custom and their efforts 
to obtain more customers for you. Remember, judicious advertising 
always pays ; but it requires judgment to advertise aright. Select the 
channels which circulate most widely among the class of customers you 
desire to reach, and advertise persistently and liberally. Every dollar 
expended will bring tenfold profits. In advertising on printed cards or 
circulars, it is an important object to connect them Avith some matter 
valuable to the receiver, such as a calendar, a railwaj^ time table, an ele- 
gant picture, or any other matter that will be preserved for its inherent 
value. Lithographed circulars, in imitation of the handwriting, sent 
direct to parties, are a first class advertising media. Never quit adver- 



BUSINESS FORMS. 803 

tising until you quit business. The most successful merchants in New 
York are the ones which advertise largely, and consider their outlay in 
this manner just as necessary as the payment of their rent or clerk hire. 

Next to prominence in announcing your business is civility, iDoliteness, 
and honest treatment of customers. These elements of character, Avhicli 
can never be ignored without serious detriment to any one engaged in pub- 
lic business, cost nothing, and will often enable the small dealer to outstrip 
his rich rival. A cheerful, civil, and polite manner is all-powerful in 
obtaining and retaining customers, and a grand mistake is often made by 
men on the road to fortune, in forgetting or neglecting to exercise this 
cheap and pleasant means of its ultimate attainment. 

In opening an account with a bank provide yourself with a proper in- 
troduction. Never draw a clieck for a larger sum tlian the amount at 
your credit, and do not send your check to a remote person with the ex- 
pectation of depositing funds to meet it before it gets back ; the telegraph 
may explode that bubble. Never exchange checks with any one, or give 
a check under the stipulation that it is not to be used until a given time 
Never take a distant check from a neighbor to pass it free through your 
bank, giving him your check for it. Never give your check to a stranger; 
it is liable to be raised, and i:)assed, thus entailing a heavj^ loss on the 
bank. In sending a check to a distance, with the name and residence of 
the payee, thus ; John Ramsden & Co., of Buffalo, N. Y. This will give 
a clue to the bank when it is presented for payment In presenting an ac- 
commodation note for discount, tell your bank the real nature of the paper. 
It is much better to act in this candid, unreserved manner than otherwise. 
Never consider your bank arbitrary if it declines to discount an accommo- 
dation note ; in any event never wrangle or contend with it, but act 
squarely with them by settling in full, and then go elsewhere if discourte- 
ously treated. If you wish to get a customer's note discounted to obtain 
funds to take up a prior note by the same customer, inform your bank 
fully about it. Don't waste arguments to induce your bank to discount 
paper which it has already declined, it may have the best of reasons for 
such action. In your dealings with bank officers never exhibit asperity of 
temper, but study politeness, civility, candor and courtesy under all cir- 
cumstances. 

COMMERCIAL AND LEGAL FORMS. 

No. 1. Negotiable Note. 
|400 Montreal Jan. 1, 18—. 

Three months after date, I promise to pay Oliver Cromwell, or order, 
Four Hundred Dollars, for value received. 
2^ote. John Howakd. 

For an interest-bearing note, add " with interest" after "value re- 
ceived." 

No. 2. Joint Note. 

$480 j%% St. John, N.B., Jan. 4, 18—. 

Six months after date we jointly, but not severally, promise to pay 
Thomas Bruce, or order, Four Hundred and Thirty t^tP^t Dollars, for value 
received, with interest. '^ohn Spencer, 

David Thomson. 
^o.^. Note payable at a Bank. 

$1000 N'ew York, Jan. 11, 18—. 

Three months after date, I promise to pay to the order of Hiram 
Brown, the Sum of One Thousand Dollars, value received, at Park Na- 
tional Bank, New York. 

Peter Pringle. 



804 BUSINESS FORMS. 

No. 4. Note payable by Instalments. 

$100 Toronto, Feb. 10, 18— 

For value received, I promise to pay to John Fleming, or order, One 
Hundred Dollars, in the way and manner following, to wit : Fifty Dollars 
in three months from date, and Fifty Dollars in four months, with interest 
on the several sums as they become due. 

xVlex. Armstroxg. 
Xo. 5. Note not Negotiable. 
$600 Syracuse, K Y. , July, 15, 18— 

Three months after date, for value received, I promise to"imy Thomas 
Bonner, Five Hundred Dollars. 

AViLLiAM T. Bell. 

No. 6. Note on Demand. 

$300 Hamilton, March l-l, 18—. 

On demand I promise to pay John Rose, or order, Three Hundred 
Dollars, value received, with interest. 

William Wallace. 

No. 7. Note payable in Merchandise. 
$700 Fredericton, N.B., June 1, 18—. 

For value received, .on or before the first day of November next, I 
promise to pay to A. Gibson, or Order, Seven Hundred Dollars in good 
merchantable Spruce Logs, at his Sawmill near this city, at the market 
value on the maturity of this note. 

John Streamdkiver. 

No. 8. Due Bill f 07' money. 

London, Ont, June 20, 18—. 
$140 TQo Due to John Baxter, or order, on demand. One Hundred and 
forty /o"o Dollars, value received. 

J. B. Perkins. 

No, 9. Due Bill payable in Goods. 
$200 Chicago, 111., July 14, 18—. 

Due on demand, to R. Wyllie, Two Hundred Dollars, in merchandise 
from our store. 

T. M. Hunter & Co. 

No. 10. Check on a Bank . 
Xo. 16. New York, July 20. 18- 

NiNTH National Bank. 

Pay to Bradford & Parker or order. Three Thousand tuV Dollars. 

$3,000 G.BURNHAM. 

!^o. 11. Form of a Bank Draft. 

$6 300 Bank of the Metropolis No. 197. 

' New York, Aug. 5, 18—. 

Pay to the order T. M. Banker Six Thousand and Three Hundred 

Dollars. t% t ^ -a 

Duplicate unpaid. 

G. A. COPELAND. Cashier. 
To Eliot Nat. Bank, Boston. 



BUSINESS FORMS, SOo 

No. 12. Sight Draft. 

S600 New York, Aug. 10, IS- . 

At Sight, pay to the order of R. Pitman & Co., Six Hundred dollars, 
value received, and charge the same to our account. 

George Root & Co, 
To JA3IES Allison, Chicago. 

No. 13. Time Draft. 

S200 Rochester, N.Y., Aug. 11, 18—. 

Thirty days alter date, pay to the Order of John Hall, Two Hundred 
and "^ifty Dollars, value received, and charge to our account, 

T Banning & Co. 

No. 14 Set of Foreign Bills of Exchange 

Exchange for £5,000 New York, Aug. 10, 18—. 

Ten days after sight of this First of Exchange (our Second and Third 
nnpaid), pay to the Order of David Perry, Five Thousand Pounds Sterling, 
value received, and charge the same without further advice, to, 

Joseph Seligman & Co, 
To Baring Brothers. 

No. 220 London, Eng. 

Exchange for £5,000 New York, Aug. 10, 18—. 

Ten days after Sight of this Second of Exchange (First and Third un- 
paid), pay to the order of David Perry, Five Thousand Pounds Sterling, 
value received, and charge the same without further advice, to 

Joseph Seligman & Co. 
To Baring Brothers. 

No. 220. London, Eng. 

Exchange for £5,000 New York. Aug. 10, 18—. 

Ten days after Sight of this Third of Exchange (First and Second un- 
paid), pay to the order of David Perry, Five Thousand Pounds Sterling, 
value received, and charge the same without further advice, to 

Joseph Seligman & Co. 
To Baring Brothers 
No 220. London, Eng. 

No- 15. Form of a Protest. 

$2,000 New York, Aug. 15, 1877. 

Please to take notice, that a Promissory Note for Two Thousand Dollars, 
made by Robert Brown, May 12, 1877, aiid endorsed by you, having been 
duly presented and payment thereof demanded, which was refused, is 
therefore protested for non-payment, and that the holders look to you for 
pavment, interest, costs, and damages. 

To"^U. Lookout I . L. Ketchiitvi. 

Notary Public 

No. IG. Receipt for Money on Account. 

Received, New York, March 23, 1878, of Thomas Paywell, Seventy-five 
dollars on account. 
$75 R. Thankful, 



806 BUSINESS rOKl s. 

No. 17. Receipt in Fall. 

Frederictou, N. B., March 12, 18—. 
Received of John Murray, One Hundred Dollars, in full of all demands 
to date. 
^100. Henry Blackburn. 

No. 18. Receipt for Money advanced on a Contract. 

^1,000 Woodstock, Ont., May 1, 18-. 

Received of A. Campbell, One Thousand Dollars in advance, on a con- 
tract to build for him a Frame house on Dundas street. 

R. Tlrnbull. 

No. 19. Receipt for Rent. 

S200 Gait, Ont., June 1, 18.— 

Received of A. Thomson, Two Hundred Dollars in full for one year's 
rent for dwelling on Water Street. 

Charles Wilson. 

No 20, Receipt for a Note. 

^400 New York, June 2, 18—. 

Received of Hiram Edson, his note for Four Hundred Dollars at three 
months, in full of account. 

Thomas Harrison. 

No. 21. Order for Money. 

Baltimore, June 5, 18 — . 
Mr. Robert Hill, 
Please pay Thomas Jamison, or Bearer, Fifty dollars on my account. 

David Hillman. 

No. 22. Order for Merchandise. 

Mr. R. T. Bonner. 

Please deliver to the bearer, Joseph Fallett, such goods as he may de- 
sire from your store to the amount of Sixty-five dollars, and charge the 
same to my account. 

John Gardiner 

No. 23. Letter of Credit. 

I Toronto, October 5, 18—. 
Gentlemen : — Allow me to introduce to your firm the Bearer, Mr. J. 
S. Harper ; should he make a selection from your stock to the amount of 
One Thousand Dollars, I v/ill be answerable for that sum in case of his 
non-payment. 

Yours, truly, 

RUFUS Barlott 
To Lord & Taylor, New York, 

No. 24. Landlord' s Agreement. 

This certifies, that I have let and rented, this first day of June, 1878, 
unto Robert Walker, my house and lot No. 150, Dundas street, London, 
Ont., and its appurtenances ; he to have the free and uninterrupted oc- 
cupation thereof for one year from this date, at the yearly rental of One 



BUSINESS FORMS. 807 

Thousand Dollars, to be paid monthly hi advance ; rent to cease if de- 
stroyed by fire, or otherwise made untenantable. 

Jas. Kingman. 

No. 25. Tenant's agreement 

This certifies that I have hired and taken from Joseph Kingman, his 
house and lot No. 150, Dundas street, London, Ont., with appurtenances 
thereto belonging, for one year, to commence this day at a yearly rental 
of One Thousand Dollars,"^ to be paid monthljMU advance, unless said 
house becomes untenantable from fire or other causes, in which case 
rent ceases ; and I further agree to give and yield said premises one year 
from this first day of June, 1878, in as good condition as now, ordinary 
wear and damage*^by the elements excepted. 

Given under my hand this day= 



Robert Walker. 



No 26. Notice to Quit 



To A. B. Palmer. 

Sir : — Please observe that the term of one year, for which tlie house 
and land, situated at 47 Pearl street, and now occupied by you, Avere 
rented to you, expired on the first day of June, 1878, and as I desire to 
repossess said premises, you are hereby requested and required to vacate 
the same. 

Yours truly, 

T. H. Carter. 

No. 27. Tenant's Notice of leaving. 

Bear Sir: The premises I now occupy as your tenant, at No. 56, Main 
street, I shall vacate on the first day of May, 1878. You will please take 
notice accordingly . 

Dated this 26th day of March, 1878. 

William Gilbert. . 
To John Lawrence, Esq. 

No. 28. Common Form of Bond. 

Know all Men by these presents, that I, David Wilson, of Fredericton, 
York County, Province of New Brunswick, am held and firmly bound unto 
John Scott of the place aforesaid, in the sum of six hundred dollars, to be 
paid to the said John Scott, his heirs or assigns ; for which payment to be 
well and truly made, I bind myself, my heirs and assigns, by these pres- 
ents. 

Sealed with my seal, and dated this first day of August, one thousand 
eight hundred and seventy-eight. 

The condition of this obligation is such, that if I, David Wilson, my 
heirs, assigns, or executors, shall promptly pay to the said John Scott, his 
heirs or assigns, the sum of six hundred dollars in three equal annual in- 
stalments from the date hereof, viith annual interest, then the above 
obligation to be void ; otherwise to be in full force and virtue. 



DAVID AVILSON, (L.S). 
Sealed and delivered 
Presence of 

Adam Clark. 



n 



808 BUSINESS FORMS. 

No. 29. Form of Bill of Sale. 

Know all men by these Presents, that I, Peter Denman, of tiie city of 
Boston, in the County of Middlesex, and State of Massachusetts, of the 
lirst part, for and in consideration of the sum of six hundred dollars, 
lawful money of the United States, to me in hand paid, at or before the 
ensealing and delivery of these presents, b}^ Robert Ensign of the same 
place, of the second imrt, the receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged, 
have bargained and sold, and by these presents do grant and convey, unto 
the said party of the second part, his executors, administrators, and 
assigns, one six year old dark-bay horse Jijieen hands high, one black 
horse, one doxible harness, one carriage, two ^coics and five pigs, to have 
AND TO HOLD the sam9 unto the said party of the second part, his heirs, 
administrators and assigns for ever. 

Audi do for myself, my heirs, executors, and administrators, covenant 
and agree, to and with the said party of tlie second part, to warrant and 
defend the sale of the said goods and chattels hereby sold unto the said 
party of the second part, his executors, administrators, and assigns, 
against all and every person and persons whatsoever. 

In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and seal, this 
sixth day of April one thousand eight hundred and seventy-eight. 

PETER DENMAN, (L.S). 
Sealed and delivered in presence of 
Peter Wilson, 

J. GODDAKD. 

No. 30. Chattel Mortgage. 

This indenture, made this fifteenth day of April, one thousand eight 
hundred and seventy-eight, between David Allan of the town of Gcerph, 
County of Wellington, Province of Ontario, party of the first part, and 
Alfred Baker of the same town, county and ProvincCj party of the second 
part. 

WITNESSETH, that the said party of the first part, for, and in consid- 
eration of the sum of six hundred dollars in hand paid, the receipt of 
wliich is hereby acknowledged, does hereby grant, sell, convey and con- 
firm unto the said party of the second part, his heirs and assigns forever, 
all and singular, the following described goods and chattels, to wit : 

1 Weber piano, 4 black wain at bedsteads, 1 stove, 2 mahogany 
bureaus, 2 sofas, 1 dozen chairs, etc., now in possession of said Allan, in 

his dwelling at No. street, Guelph. To have and to hold 

all and singular the goods and chattels above bargained and sold, or in- 
tended so to be, unto the said party of the second i)art, his executors, 
administrators and assigns forever. And the said party of the first part, 
for himself, his heirs, assigns, and administrators, iijl and singular the 
goods and chattels above bargained and sold unto the said party of the 
first part, and against all and every i)erson whomsoever shall, and will, 
warrant and forever defend 

Upon condition, that if the said party of the first part shall and do 
well and truly pay unto the said party of the second part, his executors, 
administrators, or assigns, the sum of six hundred dollars lawful money of 
this Province, with interest thereon, one year from this date, thence these 
presents shall be void. And tho said party of the first part, for liimself, 
ins executors, and assigns, doth covenant and agree to and with the said 
party of tlie secon?! part, his executors, administrators and assigns, that 
in case default shall be made in the payment of tho paid sum above 



CUSINESS FOKMS. 809 

mentioned, then it shall and may be lawful for, and I, the said party of 
the first part, do hereby authorize and empower, the said party of the 
second part, his executors, administrators, and assigns, with the aid and 
assistance of any person or persons, to enter my dwelling-house, or sucl; 
other place or places as the said goods and chattels arc or may be placed, 
and take and convey away the said goods and chattels, and to sell or 
dispose of the same for the best price they can obtain, and, out of the pro^ 
ceeds thereof, to retain and pay the said sum above mentioned, and all 
charges touching the same, rendering the overplus (if any) unto me, or to 
my executors, administrators or assigns. 

And, until default be made in the payment of the said sum of 
money, I am to remain and continue in the quiet possession of the said 
goods and chattels, and in the full and free enjoyment of the same. 

In witness whereof, I, the said party of the first part, have here- 
unto set my hand and seal the day and year first above written. 

Signed, sealed and deliv- 1 

"^'(lK<?rERrsU i DAVID ALLAK,(L.S.) 

Thomas Neilson. J 
Note. — The law, both in Canada and the United States, requires that 
all chattel mortgages should be filed in the Clerk's, Register's, or Re- 
corder's office of the town, city, or county where the mortgagor resides, 
and the property is, when mortgaged. Unless the same Is renewed at 
or before the close of the year, its virtue expires, and every creditor will 
have the same right to the property as the mortgagee. 

No. 31. Claim to hejiled bij Lien Creditor's in Clerk's Office. 

Henry Wilson, of Buffalo, in the County of Erie, and State of New 
York, lumber merchant, files his claim for five hundred and sixty dollars 
against a certain house and lot of ground, belonging to John Rodgers, 
situated on the south side of Clinton street, No. 27, in the plan of said 
city, containing in front on Clinton street, forty feet, and in depth one 
hundred feet, bounded on the north by the said Clinton street, on the 
west by ground of John Smith, on the east ground of Thomas Nelson, 
and on the south by ground of Thomas Carter, for that sum due him for 
lumber and other materials furnished by him, in erecting the aforesaid 
house in October, 1877. 

HENRY WILSON. 
November 4, 1877. 

Note.— The above form is applicable for any claim whatever that may 
be due to lumber merchants, brick-makers, carpenters, painters, masons, 
plumbers, or others engaged in furnishing materials or labor in erecting 
buildings. 

No. 32. Form of Judgment-Note, 

For value received I promise to pay to Henry Jordan of Lockport, or 
Order, four hundred dollars, with interest, on the first day of June next ; 
and I hereby nominate, constitute, and appoint, any attorney-at-law of 
this State, my true and lawful attorney, irrevocable, for me and in my 
name to appear in any court of record of this State, at any time after the 
above promissory note becomes due, and to waive all process and service 
thereof, and to confess judgment in favor of the holder hereof for the 
sum that may be due and owing hereon, with interest and costs, waiving 



810 BUSINESS FORMS 

all errors, etc., with stay of execution until the first day of April next. 

Witness my hand and seal at Lockport, N. Y., this first daj^ of Decem- 
ber, in the year one thousand eight hundred and seventy-seven. 

Signed, sealed, and deliv-] 

ered '""I'^^^^^f^^^^^^ [ THOMAS WEBSTER, (L.S.) 

Robert Kerr. J 

Note. — The above note enables the holder, in several States, to enter 
up judgment thereon without suit, if not paid Avhen due. 

No. 33. Form of Note for Indiana. 
$200. Richmond, Ind., April 1, 18 — . 

On demand, for value received, 1 promise to pay Charles Marsh, or 
Order, two hundred dollars, with interest, payable without any relief 
whatever from valHation or appraisement. 

ROBERT MILLER. 

No. 34. Form of Note of Pennsylvania. 
$500. PH1I.ADELPHIA, Pa. , April 8, 18—. 

Three months after date, I promise to pay to the order of Thomas 
Maxwell, five hundred dollars, without defalcation, for value received. 

ALEXANDER REID. 

No. 35. Form of a Bill of Lading for Timber, Ac. 
Shipped, in good order and condition, by Robert Godfrey & Co., on 
board the good ship " Dominie Sampson," whereof P M. Marshall is 
master for this present voyage, now lying in the port of St. John, N. B., 
and bound for Liverpool, England. To say :— 

66,760 feet Mer. Spruce, all under deck. 
100 M. Spruce laths, all under deck. 
90 M. ft. Mer. Pine, all on deck, 
being marked and numbered in the margin ; and are to be delivered, in 
like good order and condition, at the aforesaid port of Liverpool (the 
danger of the seas and fire always excepted), unto Thomas Adams & 
Co. , or to assigns, he or they ijaying freight for the said timber at the 
rate of ten dollars per M. feet, and one dollar per M. for laths, without 
primage and average accustomed. 

Jnivitness whereof, the master of the said vessel hath affirmed to three 
bills of lading, all of this tenor and date ; one of which being accom- 
plished, the others to stand void. 



P. M. MARSHALL. 
June the 5th, A.D. m 



Dated at St. John, N. B., ( 
' ~ MS. \ 



No. 36. Form of a SurvcT/ Bill of Lumber, &c. 
Surveyed from Alex. Gibson of Nashwaak, New Brunswick, to 
Schooner "Inflexible" Captain Duncan. To say :— 

43,600 ft. 2x8, from 12 ft. long up (Mch. ) Spruce. 
37,300 " No. 1 Pine boards. 
19,400 " 10 X 12 Mer. Pine timber. 
24,500 " Hemlock boards (Mch). 
159 M. No. 1 Pine Shingles. 
Nashwaak, N. B., ( DAVID MORRISON, 

June 5, Anno Domini 1878. C Surveyor 



nusiNi:ss forms. 811 

No. 37. Form of Agreement and Warrant for the Sale of Horse. 

This agreement, made this eighth day of April, one thousand eight 
hundred and seventy-eight, 'between Robert Pringle of the village of 
Stanley, county of York and Province of New Brunswick, of the first 
part, and David Brown of said place, of the second part, 

WITNESSETH, that the said Robert Pringle hereby agrees to sell to the 
said David Brown his dark-hay horse, with a white star in the forehead, 
and black mane and tail, and to warrant the said horse to be well broken, 
to be kind and gentle, both under the saddle and in single and double 
harness, to be sound in every respect and free from vice, for the sum of 
one hundred dollars, to be paid by the said David Brown, on the seveitth 
day of June next. 

In consideration whereof, the said David Brown agrees to purchase 
the said horse, and to pay therefor to the said Robert Pringle the sum of 
le hundred dollars on the seventh day of June next. 

In tvitness whereof, &c. (as in No. 29). 

No. 38. Agreement to Cultivate Land on Shares 

This agreement, &c. (as in No. 30). 

WITNESSETH, that the said Robert Pringle agrees with the said David 
Brown, that he will properly plough, harrov/, till, fit, and prepare fo 
sowing, all that certain field of ground belonging to the said Brown, 
which field lies, etc. {hei'e insert description of field) containing about 
ten acres, and to sow the same with good fall wheat, finding one-half the 
seed wheat necessary therefor, on or before the fifteenth day of 
September next : and that he will, at the proper time, cut, harvest, 
and thresh, the said wheat, and Avinnow and clean the same, and 
deliver the one-half part of the said wheat to the said David Brown, 
at his barn, on his premises, in the village of Stanley, aforesaid, 
near his dwelling house, within ten days after the same shall have been 
cleaned ; and will carefully stack the one-half of the straw on the prem- 
ises of the said David Brown, near to his barn aforesaid. 

And the said David Brown, in consideration of the foregoing agree- 
ment, promises and agrees, to and wdth the said Pringle, that "he may 
enter in upon said field for the purpose of tilling and sowing the same, 
and of harvesting the crop ; and free ingress and egress have and enjoy 
for the purpose aforesaid ; and that he will furnish to the said Pringle 
one-half of the seed wheat necessary to sow the same, on or before the 
fifteenth day of September next, and permit the said Pringle to thrash 
and clean the wheat upon the premises of the said David Brown. 

In witness whereof, &c. (as in No. 29), both parties will sign. 

No. 39. Lease of a Farm. 

This Indenture, made this first daj^ of March, one thousand eight 
hundred and seventy-eight, between Peter Marshall, of the township of 
Dumfries, coimty of Waterloo, and Province of Ontario, of the first part, 
and Robert Walker of the said township and county of the second part. 

WITNESSETH, that the said Peter Marshall, for, and in consideration 
of the yearly rents and covenants hereinafter mentioned, and reserved on 
the part and behalf of the said Peter Marshall, his heirs, executors and 
administrators, to be paid, kept, and performed, hath demised, set, and 
to farm let, and by these presents doth demise, set, and to farm let, unto 
the said Robert Walker, his heirs and assign?, all that certain ]^ioce, 



812 BUSINESS FORMS. 

parcel or tract oi lana situate, lyiug and being in the township of Dum- 
fries aforesaid, known as lot No. {here describe land) now in the posses- 
sion of , containing one hundred acres, together with all and sin- 
gular the buildings and improvements, to have and to hold the same 
unto the said Robert Walker, his heirs, executors and assigns, from the 

day of next, for, and during the term of five years, thence 

next ensuing, and fully to be complete, and ended, yielding and paying 
for the same, unto the said Peter Marshall, his heirs and assigns, the 

yearly rent, or sum dollars, on the first day of in each and 

every year, during the term aforesaid, and at the ex})iration of said 
term, or sooner if determined upon, he the said Robert Walker, his heirs 
or assigns, shall and will quietly and peaceably surrender and yield up 
the said demised premises, with the appurtenances, unto the said Peter 
Marshall, his heirs and assigns, in as good order and repair, as the same 
now are, reasonable w^ear, tear, and casualties, which may happen by 
fire, or otherwise, only excepted. 

In witness whereof we have, etc. (as in No. 29). 

No. 40. Warranty Deed bij Husband and Wife, ivith Covenants. 

This Indentuke, made this eighteenth day of June, in the year of 
our Lord one thousand eight hundred and seventj'-eight, between John 
Wilson, of Newton, county of Sussex, State of New'^Jersey, and Charlotte, 
his wife, of the first part, and Peter Cunningham of the same place, of 
the second part. 

WITNESSETH, that the said party of the first part, for and in consider- 
ation of the sum of two thousand dollars in hand, well and truly paid 
by the said party of the second part, the receii^t whereof is hereby ac- 
knowledged, have granted, bargained, and sold, and by these presents do 
grant, bargain, and sell, unto the said party of the second part, his heirs 
and assigns, all the following described lot, piece, parcel or tract of Idnd 
situated in the town of Newton, county of Sussex, and State of New 
Jersej^, to wit: {Here describe the projyerty.) 

Together with all and singular the hereditaments and appurtenances 
thereunto belonging or in any wise appertaining, and the reversion and 
reversions, remainder and remainders, rents, issues, and profits thereof ; 
arid all the estate, right, title, interest, claim and demand whatsoever, of 
the said party of the first part, either in law or equity, of, in, and to, the 
above-bargained premises, with the hereditaments and appurtenances: 
To HAVE AND TO HOLD the said premises above bargained and described, 
with the appurtenances, unto the said party of the second part, his heirs 
and assigns, for ever. And the said John Wilson, and Charlotte Wilson, 
his wife, parties of the first part, hereby expressly waive, release, and 
relinquish unto the said i^arty of the first part, his heirs, executors, ad- 
ministrators and assigns, all right, title, claim, benefit, and interest what- 
ever, in, and to the above-described premises, and each and every pai-t 
thereof, which is given by or results from, all laws of this State i)ertain- 
ing to the exemption of homesteads. 

And tiie said John Wilson and Charlotte Wilson, his wife, party of the 
first part, for themselves and their heirs, executors, and administrators, 
do covenant, grant, bargain, and agree, to and with the said party of the 
second part, his heirs and assigns, that at the time of the ensealing and 
delivery of these j)resents they were well seized of the premises above 
conveyed, as of a good, sure, perfect, absolute and indefeasible estate of 
inheritance, in law and in fee simple, and have good right, full power, 
and lawful authority to grant, bargain, sell, and convey the same, in man- 
ner and form aforesaid, and that" the same are free and clear from all 
former and other grants, bargains, sales, liens, taxes, judgments, assess- 



BUSINESS FORMS. 813 

ments, and incumbrances of what kind or nature soever: and the above- 
bargained premises in the quiet and peaceable possession of the said partv 
of the second part, his heirs and assigns, against all and every or persons 
lawfully claiming or to claim the whole or any part thereof the said 
party of the first part shall and will warmnt and forever defen'd 

In testimony whereof, the said parties of the first part have hereunto 
set their hands and seals the day and year first above written. 

JOHN WILSON, (L.S.) 

^. , , , ,1V. CHARLOTTE WILSON, (L.S.) 

Signed, sealed and deliv- ^ 
ered in presence of I 

Henry Nelson. i 

Robert Reid. j 

No. 41. Acknowledgment of Deed. 
Sussex County, N. J. 

On the eighteenth day of June, one thousand eight hundred and 
seventy-eight, personally appeared before me John Wilson, and Charlotte 
his wife, whom I know to be the persons described in, and who executed 
the within instrument, and who severally acknowledged that they execu- 
ted the same: the said Charlotte being by me examined separate and apart 
from her husband, aclaiowledged that she executed the same freely and 
without fear or compulsion from him. " ' 

PHILIP HUNTER, J. P. 

Minute of Record. 

Recorded in the Clerk's office of 
the County of Sussex, in Liber 
45, p. 81, of Mortgages, 18tli 
June, 1878, at 30 rainutes past 
2 p.m. 

Robert Watt^^ Register. 

No. 42. Mortgage of Land to secure Payment of Money. 

This Indenture, made the tenth day of April, one thousand eight 
hundred and seventj'-eight, between John Hunter, of Dorset, county of 
Bennington, State of Vermont, merchant, and Margaret, his Avife, of "the 
first part, and William West, of the same place, agent, of the second 
part: Whereas, the said John Hunter is justly indebted to the said party 
of the second part, in the sum of five thousand dollars, lawful money of 
the United States, secured to be paid by his certain bond or obligation, 
bearing even date with these presents, in the penal sum of ten thou- 
sand dollars, lawful money as aforesaid, conditioned for the payment of 
the first-mentioned sum of five thousand dollars, as by the said*^ bond or 
obligation, and the condition thereof, reference being thereunto had, may 
more fully appear. Now this Indenture Witnesseth, that the said 
parties of the first part, for tlie better securing of the said sum of money 
mentioned in tlie condition of the said bond or obligation, with interest 
thereon, according to the true intent and meaning thereof, and also for and 
in consideration of the sum of one dollar to me in hand paid by the said party 
of the second part, a,t, or before the ensealing and deliverj^ of these ]:)res- 
ents, the receipt whereof is liereby acknowledged, have granted, bargained, 
sold, aliened, released, conveyed, and confirmed, and by these presents 
do grant, bargain, sell, alien, release, convey, and confirm, unto the said 
party of the second part, and to his heirs and assigns for ever, all that 



814 BUSINESS FORMS. 

certain piece, parcel, or lot of land, situate, lying, and being: {Here describe 
premises. ) To have and to hold the same, together with all and singular 
the tenements, hereditaments, and appurtenances thereunto belonging, 
or in any wise appertaining, and the reversion and reversions, remainder 
and remainders, rents, issues and profits thereof ; And also, all the estate, 
right, title, interest, dower, property, possession, claim, and demand 
whatsoever, as well in law as in equity, of the said parties of the first 
part, of, in, and to the same, and every part and parcel thereof, with the 
appurtenances. To have and to hold the above granted and described 
premises, with the appurtenances, unto the said party of the second part, 
his heirs and assigns, to his and their proper use, benefit, and behoof for- 
ever. Provided always, and these presents are upon this express con- 
dition, that if the said party of the first part, his heirs, executors and 
assigns, shall well and truly pay or cause to be paid unto the said party 
of the second part, his executors, administrators or assigns, the said sum 
of money mentioned in the condition of the said bond or obligation, and 
the interest thereon, at the time, and in the manner mentioned in the 
said condition, according to the true intent and meaning thereof, that 
these presents and the estate hereby granted shall cease, determine, and 
become null and void. And the said John Hunter, for himself, his heirs, 
executors, and administrators, doth covenant and agree to pay unto the 
said party of the second part, his executors, administrators, or assigns, 
the said sum of money and interest, as mentioned above and expressed in 
the said condition of the said bond. And if default shall be made in the 
payment of the said sum of money above mentioned, or the interest that 
may grow due thereon, or of any part thereof, that then, and from 
thenceforth, it shall be lawful for the said party of the second part, his 
executors, administrators and assigns, to enter into and upon all and 
singular the premises hereby granted, or intended so to be, and to sell 
and dispose of the same, and all benefit and equity of redemption of the 
said party of the first part, his heirs, executors, administrators, or assigns, 
therein, at public auction, according to the act in such case made "and 
provided : And as tlie attorney of the said party of the first part, for that 
purpose b}^ these presents duly authorized, constituted, and appointed, 
to make and deliver to the purchaser or purchasers thereof, a good and 
sufficient deed or deeds of conveyance, in the law for the same in fee 
simple, and, out of the money arising from such sale, to retain the 
principal and interest which shall then be due on the said bond or obliga- 
tion, together with the costs and charges of advertisement and sale of 
the premises, rendering the overplus of the purchase money (if any there 
shall be) unto the said "John Hunter, party of the first x)art, his heirs, ex- 
ecutors, administrators, or assigns, which sale so to be made shall for- 
ever be a perpetual bar, both in law and in equity, against the said party 
of the first part, his heirs and assigns, and all other persons claiming or to 
claim the premises, or any part thereof, by, from, or under, him, them, 
or either of them. 

In witness whereof, the parties of the first part have hereunto set 
their hands and seals the day and year first above written. 

JOHN HUNTER, (L.S.) 

MARGARET HUNTER, (L.S.) 

Signed, sealed, and delivered 1 

in presence of ! 

Thomas Bates, [ 

William Bell. J 



BUSINESS FORMS. • 81o 

No. 43. Form of Satisfaction Piece* 

I, William West, of Dorset, Beimington County, Yermont, do hereby 
certify that a certain mortgage, bearing date the tenth day of April, one 
tiioLisand eight hundred and sevent\^-eight, made and executed by John 
Hunter, and Margaret, his wife, of the same place, and recorded in the 
office of the Clerk of tlie county of Bennington, in Liber 45, p. 76, of 
Mortgages, on 10th day of April, 1878, is paid. Dated 1st May, 1878. 

WILLIAM WEST, (L.S.) 
BenningtooS^ County, Yermont, SS. : 

On the first day of May, 1878, before me came William West, to me 
personally known to be the individual described in, and who executed 
the above certificate, and acknowledged that he executed the same. 

JOHN HAMPDEN, J. P. 

No. 44. Assignment of Mortgage. 

Know all men by these Presents, that I, William West, of Dor- 
set, county of Bennington, State of Yermont, agent, of the first part, for 
and in consideration of the sum of five thousand dollars, lawful money 
of the United States, to me in hand paid by John Howard, of the same 
place, farmer, of the second part, at or before the ensealing and delivery 
of these presents, thfe receipt w^hereof is herebj^ acknowledged, have 
granted, bargained, sold, assigned, transferred, and set over, and by 
these presents do grant, bargain, sell, assign, transfer, and set over, unto 
the said party of the second part, his heirs and assigns, a certain inden- 
ture of mortgage, bearing date the 10th day of April, one thousand eight 
hundred and seventy-eight, made by John Hunter, and Margaret, his 
wife, and recorded in the office of the Register of the county of Benning- 
ton, State of Yermont, in Liber 36, of Mortgages, p. 50, together with 
the bond or obligation thereto belonging, and the money due, and to be- 
come due thereon, with the interest. To have and to hold the same 
unto the said party of the second part, his heirs, administrators and 
assigns for ever, subject only to the proviso in the said Indenture of 
Mortgage mentioned. And I do hereby make, constitute, and appoint 
tlie said party of the second part, my true and lawful attorney irrevocable, 
in my name or otherwise, but at his own proper costs and charges, to have, 
use and take, all lawful ways and means for the recovery of the said 
money, and interest, and, in*^ case of payment, to discharge the same as 
fully as I might or could do if these presents were not made. 

In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and seal, the 
first day of May, one thousand eight hundred and seventy-eight. 

WILLIAM WEST, (L.S.) 
In presence of 

Duncan Fokbes, 
John Reid, 

Note. — Deeds, mortgages, and assignments of mortgages should be 
put on record in the Register's office without delay after being executed. 
The foregoing forms (as well as the following) are suitable for either 
the United States or Canada. 



.,} 



No. 45. Form of Will for JReal and Personal Property. 

I, Joseph Knight, of the city of Toronto, county of York, and Province 
of Ontario, grocer, realizing tlie uncertainty of life, and being of feeble 



316 BUSINESS FORMS. 

health, but of sound mind, memory, and judgment, do make and declare 
this to be my last will and testament in manner and form following, to 
wit: 

Firsts I give, clemise, and bequeath unto my eldest son, Robert Knight, 
the sum of four thousand dollars, now on deposit in the Bank of Mon- 
treal, together with my grocery store at ISTo. street, with all the 

tenements and improvements thereto belonging: to have and to hold 
unto my said son, his heirs and assigns forever. 

Second^ I give and bequeath unto my beloved wife, Charlotte, abso- 
lutely, the house in which I now reside, at No. street, together 

with all the furniture therein, including piano, organ, linen, china, the 
plate, Avearing apparel, etc. , together with ten thousand dollars in Bank 
stock and Railway bonds, now lodged in my safe; the same to be in lieu 
of her dower at common law. 

Thirds I give and bequeath to my invalid mother, Ellen Knight, the 
income and rents from my farm in Scarboro during the term of her natu- 
ral life. Said farm to revert to my sous and daughters in equal propor- 
tion upon the demise of my said mother. 

Fourth^ I give and bequeath imto my youngest son, Joseph Knight, 

three thousand dollars, also my tenement house on street, with all 

the improvements thereto belonging; to have and to hold unto my said 
son, his heirs and assigns forever. 

Fifth, I give and bequeath the sum of one thousand dollars to my 
executors, to be equally divided between them, in full, for all services in 
the matter of the execution of this my last will and testament. 

Sixth, I direct that my debts and funeral expenses be paid from moneys 
now on deposit to my credit in Savings Bank of Toronto, the bal- 
ance of such money, together with all the rest and residue of ray estate, 
to my three daughters, Mary, Ellen, and Isabella, to be equally divided 
between them for their use forever. 

I hereby nominate and appoint David Waterson, Robert Ford, and 
James Thomson, the executors of this my last will and testament,. and re- 
voke all other and former wills made and executed by me. 

In witness whereof I have hereunto set my hand and seal this tenth 
day (jf April, one thousand eight hundred and seventy-eight. 

JOSEPH KNIGHT, (L.S.) 
Signed, sealed, published, ] 
declared and acknowl- 
edged, by the above- 
named testator, to be his 
, last will and testament, 
' in our presence, and we 
each, at his request, and 
in his presence, and in 
the presence of each 
other, subscribe our 
names as witnesses. 
Alexander Adam, 75 

King St., Toronto. 
Thomas Robson, 214 

Yonge St. , Torl5nto. 
Adam Clark,95 i^delaide 
St., Toronto. 



BUSINESS FORMS. 817 

XoTE. — The provisions of a will should, in every case, he so clearly 
defined that there can he no mistake about the meaning. Any i^erson of 
proper age, and sound judgment may convey property by will. All lega- 
tees are debarred by law from witnessing wills in which, they are inter- 
ested; their signature would nullify the whole instrument, and no person 
can serve as executor if he be under 21 years of age, a lunatic, convict, 
imbecile, or an alien at the time of proving the will. The father may ap- 
point his wife, sou, brother, or any other relative as executor, and each 
in their turn may do likewise, as confidence may exist. An addition to 
the will, called a codicil, designed to modify, add to, or change previous 
bequests, may be executed at anytime, but in every case it must be ren- 
dered as definite and jprecise as the will itself, witnessing included. 

No. 46. A fjr cement for the Sale and Purchase of Land . 

This agreement, made and executed the first day of May, one 
thousand eight hundred and seventy-eight, between Charles Giles, of 
Kingston, Ulster county, State of New York, farmer, of the first part, 
and Thomas Kingman, of the city of New York, milkman, of the second 
part. 

WITNESSETH, that the said party of the first part, for and in consider- 
ation of the sum of three thousand dollars (to him promised to be paid), 
of which the sum of five hundred dollars is now paid, the receipt of 
which is hereby acknowledged, and the remaining twenty-five hundred 
dollars is hereby agreed to be paid at the time the deed hereinafter men- 
tioned is given, hath contracted and agreed to sell to the said party of the 
second part, all that certain piece, x^arcel, or tract of land situate in the 
town of Kingston, county of Ulster, and State of New York, aforesaid, 
known and described on the map made by Thomas Adams, surveyor, and 
filed in the Clerk's office of the said county. October 5, 1830, [by tlie 
number (47) forty-seven,] and bounded and described as follows : {Here 
describe property). And the said party of the first part agrees to execute 
and deliver to the said partv of the second part, a warranty deed, with 
full covenants, for the said described lands : Provided, and upon condi- 
tion nevertheless, that the said party of the second part, his heirs and 
assigns, pay to the said partv of the first part, his heirs or assigns, for the 
said land, the sum of three thousand dollars, lawful money of the United 
States, in the way and manner following, to wit: 

{Here specify the amount and dates of payments.) 

Ai^B the said party of the second part, for himself, his heirs, execu- 
tors, and administrators, doth covenant and agree, to and with the said 
party of the first part, his heirs and assigns, that the said party of the 
second part will pay the said several sums as they become due, without 
any deduction for taxes or assessments whatever : And it is further agreed 
between the parties to these presents, that, if default be made m f ulfilhng 
this agreement, or anv part thereof, on the part of the said party of the 
second part, then, and in such case, the said party of the first part, his 
heirs and assigns, shall be at liberty to consider this cancelled, and the 
money already paid forfeited, and to dispose of the said land to any other 
person in the same manner as if this contract had never been made. 

In witness tvhereof, we have hereunto set our hands and seals the 
day and year first above written. ^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^_^_^ 

Signed, sealed, and deliv- ) THOMA S KINGMAN, ( L. S. ^ 

ered in i)resence of 
Stephen H am i ltox. 



::} 



818 BUSINESS FORMS. 

No. 47. Poicer of Attorney, General Form. 

Know all men by these presents, that I, Robert Grant, of Brook- 
lyn, in the county of Kings, and State of New York, merchant, have 
made, constituted and appointed, and by these presents do make, consti- 
tute and appoint, Thomas Bannerman, of the city of Hamilton, in the 
county of Wentworth, and province of Ontario, a true and lawful attor- 
ney for me, and in my name, place and stead, and in my behalf, to (here 
insert the duties to be performed), hereby giving* and granting nnto my 
said attorney full power and authority in the premises to use all lawful 
means in my name and for my sole benefit, for the purposes aforesaid. 
And generally to do and perform all and every act and thing whatsoever, 
requisite and necessary to be done in and about the premises, as fully to 
all intents and purposes as I might or could do if personally present, with 
full power of substitution and revocation, hereby ratifying and confirm- 
ing all that my said attorney, or his substitute, shall lawfully do, or cause 
to be done, by virtue hereof. 

In avitness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and seal this first 
day of Maj^, one thousand eight hundred and seventy-eight. 

ROBERT GRANT, (L.S.) 
Signed and sealed in presence of ] 
David Scott. ( 

Note. — In cases where the attorney is empowered to sell land and 
grant deeds, the power of attorney must be placed on record in tlie 
Coraity Register's office. 

No. 48. Agreement for Building a House. 

Articles of Agreement, made the first day of June, one thousand 
eight hundred and seventy-eight, between John Hall, of Lockport, in the 
county of Niagara, and State of New York, of the first j)art, and George 
Hunter of the said town, county and State, of the second part. 

WITNESSETH, that the said John Hall, party of the first part, for con- 
siderations hereinafter noted, contracts, bargains, and agrees with the 
said George Hunter, party of the second part, his heirs, assigns, and ad- 
ministrators, that he the said Hall, will within four months, next follow- 
ing this date, in a good and workmanlike manner, and according to his 
best skill, well and substantially erect and finish a three-story brick 

dwelling house on lot No. street, which said house is to be of 

the following dimensions, with brick, stone, lumber, and other materials, 
as described in the plans and specifications hereunto annexed. 
{Here describe buildings, material, 2)lan, &c., in full. 

In consideration of which, the said George Hunter does, for himself 
and legal representatives, promise to pay to the said John Hall, his heirs, 
executors, and assigns, the sum of six thousand dollars, in the way and 
manner following, to wit: One thousand dollars at tlie beginning of said 
work, one thousand dollars on the first day of August next, one thou- 
sand dollars on the first day of September next, and the remaining three 
thousand dollars on the completion of the building. 

It is also agreed that the said John Hall, or his legal representatives, 
shall furnish, at his or their expense, all brick, stone, lime, lumber, doors, 
blinds, glazed sash, window frames, nails, paint, and other materials re- 
quired for the building and finishing of said house. 

It is further stipulated that in order to be entitled to said payments, 
the said John Hall, or his legal representatives, shall, according to the 
architect's appraisement, have expended, in labor and material, the 
value of said payments, on the house, at time of payment. 



BUSINESS FORMS. 819 

And for the true and faithful i)erformance of all and every of the 
covenants and agreements above mentioned, the parties to these presents 
covenant and agree, each with the other, that the sum of one thousand 
dollars, as fixed, settled, and liquidated damages, shall be paid to the 
other by the failing party within one month from the time of so failing. 

In witness WHEREoiF we have hereunto set our hands the year and 
day first above written. \ 

JOHN HALL, 
GEORGE HUNTER. 

Note. — Agreements should be executed in dui)licate so tliat each party 
may hold a copy. If erasures or interlineations are made in agreements, 
contracts, deeds, mortgages, etc., the fact should be stated on the i^aper 
that they were so done before the parties signed it. Amounts and dates 
should always be written out, and not expressed in figures. Fraud viti- 
ates every contract into which it enters. See legal brevities on page 
587. 

No. 49. Assignment of a Patent-Bight. 

Whereas I, David Ritchie, of the city of Newark, in the county of 
Essex, and State of New Jersey, engineer, did obtain letters-patent of 
the United States for improvements in steam-engine governors, whicli 
letters-patent bear date the first day of April, one thousand eight hun- 
dred and seventy-eight ; and whereas Peter Jackson, of the city of To- 
ronto, in the county of York, and Province of Ontario, is desirous of pur- 
chasing from me all the right, title, and interest, which I have in and to 
said invention, in consequence of the grant of letters-patent therefor : 

Now THIS Indenture witnesseth, that for and in consideration of 
the sum of one th6usand dollars, lawful money of the United States, to 
me in hand paid, the receipt of which is herebj^ acknowledged, I have 
assigned, sold, and set over, and do hereby assign, sell, and set over unto 
the said Peter Jackson, all the right, title and interest which I have in the 
said invention, as secured to me in the said letters-patent (for, to, and in 
the several provinces of the Dominion of Canada, and in no other place, 
or places. ) 

The same to be held and enjoyed by the said Peter Jackson, for his 
own use and behoof, and for the use and behoof of his legal representa- 
tives, to the full end of the term for wliich the said letters-patent are or 
may be granted, as fully and entirely as the same would have been held 
and enjoyed by me had this assignment and sale not been made. 

In testimony whereof, I have hereunto set my liand and seal this 
first day of May, one thousand eight hundred and seventy-eight. 

DAVID RITCHIE, (L.S.) 
Signed, sealed, and deliv- 1 
ered in presence of 

Robert Logan, 
John A. Bruce. 

No. 50. Form of Affidavit, 
State of Vermont, ) ^_ ',^ 
County of Rutland, p^ ^^^^• 

Robert Dawson, of the town of Whitehall, in the county aforesaid, 
being duly sworn, says {here state the facts), and further says not. 
Sworn to this fifth day of 1 ROBERT DAWSON. 

October, A.D., 1877, before | 
me. \ 

John Wallace, I 
Commissioner of Deeds. J 



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